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International Business Answers Q1. What are the various entry methods for International Business?

Export Exporting is the most traditional way of entering into International Business. Export can be done in two ways: 1. Direct Export Products are sold directly to buyers in target markets either through local sales representatives or distributors. Sales representatives promote their companys products and do not take title to the merchandise. Distributors take ownership of the goods (and the accompanying risk) and usually on-sell through wholesalers and retailers to endusers.eg. basket robbins initially used to export ice cream to russisa but later open outlet with Russian partner. Finally it started its icecream plant in Moscow. Advantages of Direct Exports: A. Give a higher return on your investment than selling through an agent or distributor B. Allows the exporting company to set lower prices and be more competitive C. Gives the company a close contact with its customers Disadvantages of Direct Exports: A. The company may not have the services of a foreign intermediary, so it may need more time to become familiar with the market B. The customers or clients may take longer to get to know the company and its products, and such familiarity is often important when doing business internationally 2. Indirect Export - Products are sold through intermediaries such as agents and trading companies. Agents may represent one or more indirect exporters in return for commission on sales. Himalaya publishing house sell their products to various exporters to india which in turn export this books to various foreign country Foreign direct Investment. IT can be without alliance or with strategic alliance. Without example Baskin Robbins. With example Xerox of USA and fuji of japan collaborated to explore new market.

FDI are investments made to acquire a lasting interest by a resident entity in one economy in an enterprise resident in another economy. FDI has come to play a major role in the internationalization of business. This has happened due to changes in technologies, improved trade and investment policies of governments, regulatory environment in terms of liberalization and easing of restrictions on foreign investments and acquisitions, and deregulation and privatization of many industries. Advantages: A. It can provide a firm with new markets and marketing channels, cheaper production facilities, access to new technologies, capital process, products, organizational technologies and management skills. B. FDI can provide a strong impetus to economic development of the host country. This is all the more true when large MNCs enter developing nations through FDI. C. FDI allows companies to avoid foreign government pressure for local production. D. It allows making the move from domestic export sales to a locally based national sales office. E. Capability to increase total production capacity. Depending on the industry sector and type of business, a foreign direct investment may be an attractive and viable option. With rapid globalization of many industries and vertical integration rapidly taking place on a global level, at a minimum a firm needs to keep abreast of global trends in their industry. From a competitive standpoint, it is important to be aware of whether a companys competitors are expanding into a foreign market and how they are doing that. Often, it becomes imperative to follow the expansion of key clients overseas if an active business relationship is to be maintained. Eg.air asia investing as fdi in india upto 49% in airline industry. New market access is also another major reason to invest in a foreign country. At some stage, export of product or service reaches a critical mass of amount and cost where foreign production or location begins to be more cost effective. Any decision on investing is thus a combination of a number of key factors including: A. Assessment of internal resources B. Competitiveness C. Market Analysis D. Market expectations

Licensing Licensing is a legal agreement between the owner of intellectual property such as a copyright, patent or trademark and someone who wants to use that IP. The licensee pays rent to the licensor for the use of an idea/product/process that is otherwise protected by IP law. Like a lease on a building, the license is for a specific period of time. The licensee uses that idea/product/process to sell products or services and earns money.eg. pepsi-cola license to Heineken of Netherlands with exclusive rights of production and selling of pepsi-cola in Netherlands. Eg.ranbaxy labgot an exclusive license from K S Biomedix ltd, to sell pharma products for treatment of brain cancer. Eg. When you purchase Microsoft office you pay them license fee and dont purchase it. LICENSOR leases the right to use the ip uses the ip to produce products for sale in his country LISCENSEE LICENSOR receives royalty pay royalty LISCENSEE

Advantages: A. Licensing appeals to prospective global players because it does not require large capital investment not detailed involvement with foreign customers. By generating royalty income, licensing provides an opportunity to exploit research and development already conducted. After initial costs, the licensor can reap benefits until the end of license contract period. B. It reduces the risk of expropriation because the licensee is a local company that can provide leverage against government action. C. Helps avoid host country regulations that are more prevalent in equity ventures. D. Provides a way of testing foreign markets without significant resources. E. Can be used as a preemption major in new market before the entry of competition. Limitations: Limited form of market entry which does not guarantee a basis for expansion. Licensor may create more competition in exchange of royalty.

Determination of royalty. Determining rights, privileges and constraints.

Franchising Franchising involves granting of rights by a parent company to another (franchisee) to do business in a prescribed manner. This right can take the form of selling the franchisers products, using its name, production and marketing techniques or using its general business approach.eg.KFC,reebok, nike, nIIT, MAriott, It allows provides a network of interdependent business relationships that allows a number of people to share: A. Brand identification B. Successful method of doing business C. Proven marketing and distribution system Franchise agreement typically requires the payment of a fee upfront and then a percentage on sales. In return, the franchiser provides assistance and at times may require the purchase of goods or supplies to ensure the same quality of goods or services worldwide. Franchising is adaptable to international arena and requires minor modification for the local market. It can be beneficial to both groups. Franchiser has a new stream of income and the franchisee gets time proven concept/product which can be quickly bought to the market. Major Forms of Franchising: manufacturer-retailer system (e.g. car dealership) toyota manufacturer-wholesaler system (e.g. soft-drink companies). service firm retailer system (fast-food, hotel) e,g, McDonalds, Burger King advantage: 1. franchiser-low investment and low risks. 2. Info about host market. 3. More lessons learned from experience. 4. Franchisee needs less capital and less risk as its proven product.

5. No risks of product failure. Disadvantages: 1. Difficult to control the international franchisee. 2. Franchising agent may reduce opportunity for both franchisor and franchisee. 3. Maintaining product quality and assurance. 4. Problem of leakage of trade secrets.

Joint Ventures A joint venture is an agreement involving two or more organizations that arrange to produce a product or service through a collectively owned enterprise. It has been one of the most popular way of entering a new market. Typically, it is a 50-50 joint venture in which each of the party holds 50% ownership stake and contributes a team of managers to share operating control. At times, this stake can be a majority one so as to ensure tighter control.eg.sony-ericsson betwn sony coorp (japan) and Swedish co. ericsson.various environmental factors like social, economical, technological, and political encourage the formation of j.v. it requires strength in terms of required capital, latest technology required human talent. Advantages: A. Domestic company brings in the knowledge of the domestic market. B. The risk is divided between joint-venture partners. C. Normally, foreign partner has an option to sell its stake in the venture to another entity. D. Provide Large capital funds. E. Suitable for major projects. F. Makes large project feasible. G. Synergy provided. Limitations: Limited control over business approach for foreign entity. Profits have to be shared. o e.g. Danone-Brittania, Hero Honda, Maruti Suzuki potential for conflict.

Decision making slow.

Wholly Owned Subsidiaries In a wholly owned subsidiary, the company owns 100% of the equity. Establishing a wholly owned subsidiary in a foreign market can be done in 2 ways: 1. Set up of new operation 2. Acquisition of established firm. WOS allows a foreign firm complete control and freedom to execute its business strategy in the foreign country. This freedom is accompanied by a greater risk due to lack of knowledge of the market. Acquisition of an established company can reduce this risk to an extent.

Q2.

Influence

of

PEST

Factors

on

International

Business.

Pest

political tax policy govt support labour law envt policy traiff and duty structure. political stability.

Economical economical system. int rate. exchange rate. income level and spending.

social age distributin family sytem. culture aspects. carrer attitudes.

Technological R&d Technology transfer.

Any business is affected by its external environment. The major macroeconomic factors in the external environment that affect the business are political, environmental, social and technological. A. Political Environment The political environment of a country greatly influences the business operating in those countries or business trading with those countries. The success and growth of international business depends on the stable, collaborative, conducive and secure political system in the country.

The following factors affect the political environment in a country. 1. Tax Policy: The tax policy of a country affects the profitability of the business there. The Corporate Taxation laws affect the profitability directly. The direct taxation laws also affect the business because it influences consumer spending. The structure of indirect taxation in a country like its excise duty structure, customs and sales tax greatly affects the input costs of a business. For e.g. Countries like UAE have very low direct taxation levels inducing great spending and hence trading and marketing based business are successful. But due to very high indirect taxation levels the manufacturing business is not very successful. 2. Government support: One of the most important political factor is the Government support to international businesses. Business can be successful only if the local government provides support in terms o infrastructure, license clearing if required, transparent policy and quick dispute resolution mechanism. Also the nature of the political system i.e. democracy, communism etc. in the country influences the Government support. For e.g. the RBI has provided single window clearance for FDI and hence has greatly increased the FDI levels in our country. 3. Labor Laws: the labor laws in a country affect the viability of a business in that country. The pension laws also play a critical role especially in cross border acquisitions. Many businesses had to be withdrawn or closed because of the labor unrest in the country. For e.g.: Withdrawal of Premier Automobiles due to union strikes in our country. The problems faced by doctors and nurses in UK due to the restrictive laws in that country. 4. Environmental policy: The countries environmental policy (under the Kyoto Protocol or otherwise) affects many business like chemicals, refineries and heavy engineering. 5. Tariffs and duty structure: The level of duties and tariffs that are imposed by the country influence its imports and exports greatly. Some countries follow a protectionist policy to the domestic industry by raising import barriers For e.g. India in the pre liberalization era, Russia. 6. Political stability and political milieu: Political stability greatly affects the longevity of the businesses in a country. Political risk assessment should be done to determine the country risk on the basis of following parameters : a. Confiscation: the nationalization of businesses without compensation. For e.g. India during the nationalist wave during Indira Gandhis tenure.

b. Nationalization: Resource nationalization is a major risk for businesses involving local resources like oil, minerals etc. For e.g. the resource nationalization in Columbia. c. Instability risk: The possibility of military takeovers or huge government changes. For e.g. the coups in Thailand or in Fiji has affected the profits of businesses there by as much as 60% due to work stoppage and property destruction. d. Domestication: The global company relinquishing control in favor of domestic investors. For e.g. Barclays bank in South Africa B. Economic factors The economic factors in a country greatly influence the business in that country. The following factors are important in the macroeconomic environment. 1. Economic system: the economic system in a country i.e. capitalism/ communism/ mixed economy (India) is important for deciding the nature of the businesses. The nature of the system decides the allocation of resources. Due to globalization there is a gradual shift toward market forces to allocate resources even in the communist countries like China. 2. Interest rates: The interest rates in the country affect the cost of capital (if raised locally) and the operational costs. Interest rates also determine the confidence of the Government in the economy and consumer spending. 3. Exchange rates: The exchange rates affect international trade and capital inflows in the country. 4. Income levels and spending pattern: Though it is more of a demographic parameter has is very important bearing on the sell side of all international businesses. For e.g. In a country like India, with rising aspirer population there is a market opportunity for products like IPod (considered luxury items till now) C. Social factors Businesses are driven by people both as human capital and as consumers. It is necessary for an international businessman to understand the social and cultural aspects of the country they operate in. The following are the important social factors. 1. Age distribution: the age distribution of the population is important to consider the consumption patterns in the markets. Age distribution also determines the mindset of the market and helps segmentation of the market accordingly. It also has a bearing on the employee quality. A young population also determines a workforce. 2. Family system: the family system has a bearing on the decision makers in consumption. For e.g. in Islamic countries women have a less say in making consumption decisions. In

emerging economies like India children are gaining important role in consumption. This helps in positioning of products. 3. Cultural aspects: The cultural aspects influence the way the business is conducted in countries. In Japan there is a different way in which contracts are signed and executed. In Russia being a communist oriented mindset the business is conducted in a closed manner. Italians have a seemingly lazy way of doing business and hence it is very difficult to conduct business in the pacy US way. 4. Career attitudes: the career attitude of the workforce is important social aspect. D. Technological Factors Technology has a very important role to play in determining the success of international businesses because technology has made international business possible. The following are the technological factors that influence the business. 1. R&D: the support that the Government gives to R&D encourages setting up R&D business levels. Also the ease of a qualified local workforce influence business. For e.g. the semiconductor industry in Taiwan 2. Technology transfer: The ease of technology transfer influences the business climate. The environment where the technology transfer is not viable gradually loses out on business from emerging countries that seek technology transfers. For e.g. in the early 40s countries like Czechoslovakia (the Czech Republic) was a very technologically advanced country but had very low business interest due to the less chances of technology transfers. For e.g. GE withdrew operations from a JV as there as they could not access local expertise)

0Q3. Trade Theories

1. Classical Country-Based Theories 1.1. Mercantilism (pre-16th century) This theory takes an us-versus-them view of trade; other countrys gain is our countrys loss. Specifies that country should export>import and receive the value of surplus in form of gold from those countries which experience trade deficits. Neo-mercantilism views persist today.caz the decay of gold standard reduced the validity of this theory. A nations wealth depends on accumulated treasure. Theory says you should have a trade surplus.

Maximize exports through subsidies. Minimize imports through tariffs and quotas. Eg. Colonial powers like British used to trade with their colonies like India, Sri Lanka etc. by importing the raw materials form and exporting the finished goods to colonies. This allowed colonial powers to enjoy surplus and forced the colonies to experience trade deficits. 1.2. Free Trade supporting theories This theory shows that specialization of production and free flow of goods grow all trading partners economies 1.2.1. Absolute Cost Advantage (Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, 1776)

Mercantilism weakens a country in the long run and enriches only a few segments; it robs individuals of the ability to trade freely. Adam Smith claimed market forces, not government controls, should determine the direction, volume and composition of international trade. Under free (unregulated) trade each nation should specialize in producing those goods it could produce most efficiently. This theory states that a country is capable of producing more of a good with the same input than another country. Hence, a country should specialize in and export products for which it has absolute advantage; import others.

A country has absolute advantage - either natural or acquired when it is more productive than another country in producing a particular product. Trade between countries is, therefore, beneficial.

Assume that there are just two countries in the world, the India and Japan. Pretend also that they produce only two goods, shoes and shirts. The resources of both countries can be used to produce either shoes or shirts. Both countries make both products, spending half of their working hours on each. But India makes more shoes than shirts, and Japan makes more shirts than shoes. TABLE A Shoes India Japan Total 100 80 180 Shirts 75 100 175

What will happen when each country specializes and spends all its working hours making one product? It will make twice as much of that product and none of the other, as shown in Table B. TABLE B Shoes India Japan Total 200 0 200 Shirts 0 200 200

The world now has both more shoes and more shirts. India can trade 100 units of shoes for 100 units of shirts, and both countries will benefit. In this example, India could make more shoes than Japan with the same resources. It has an absolute advantage at shoemaking. Japan, on the other hand, had an absolute advantage at shirt making. Assumptions:

Perfect competition and no transportation costs in a world of two countries and two products The only element of cost of production is labour. Only 2 commodities are traded. Free trade exists between the countries. 1.2.2. Comparative cost Advantage (David Ricardo, Principals of Political Economy, 1817) Also known as Opportunity Cost Theory

David Ricardo, in his theory of comparative costs, suggested that countries will specialize and trade in goods and services in which they have a comparative advantage. A country has a comparative advantage in the production of a good or service that it produces at a lower opportunity cost than its trading partners. The theory of comparative costs argues that, put simply, it is better for a country that is inefficient at producing a good to specialize in the production of that good it is least inefficient at, compared with producing other goods.

Now suppose one country has an absolute advantage in both products. Table C shows what production might be like if India had an absolute advantage at making both shoes and shirts. TABLE C

India Shoes 100

CHina 80

Shirt

80

75

In this case, the India can produce more of each good with the same set of resources than China can. The India could produce either 200 units of shoes or 160 units of shirts. China could produce either 160 units of shoes or 150 units of shirts. If the India produces only shoes, it gives up 80 units of shirts to gain 100 units of shoes. If China produces only shoes, it gives up 75 units of shirts to gain 80 units of shoes. For India, the opportunity cost of producing shirts is higher and the opportunity cost of producing shoes is lower; vice-versa for China. Hence, India has a comparative advantage in shoemaking and China has a comparative advantage in shirt making. For India:100/80=1.2 China=80/100=0.8 comparative advantage. India 1 shirt =1.25 shoes. Japan 1 shirt =1.067 shoes. 1 shirt=1.1585 shoes 1 shirt=1.1585 shoes 80/75=1.067 75/80=0.9375

Table D shows what happens when each country specializes in the product in which it has a

Japan offers 1 shirt for 1.1585 shoes, This offer is beneficial to India as the price of 1 shirt is 1.25 shoes in india. This offer is advantageous to japan.

Summary

Country should specialize in the production of those goods in which it is relatively more productive, even if it has absolute advantage in all goods it produces. This extends free trade argument. Efficiency of resource utilization leads to more productivity.

1.3. Free Trade refined 1.3.1. Factor-proportions (Heckscher-Ohlin, 1919)

Eli Heckscher and Bertil Ohlin developed the theory of relative factor endowments, now often referred to as the Heckscher-Ohlin theory. The theory states that the pattern

of international trade depends on differences in factor endowments not on differences in productivity.

Relative endowments of the factors of production (land, labour, and capital) determine a country's comparative advantage. Countries have comparative advantage in those goods for which the required factors of production are relatively abundant. This is because the prices of goods are ultimately determined by the prices of their inputs.

Goods that require inputs that are locally abundant will be cheaper to produce than those goods that require inputs that are locally scarce.

For example, 1. USA is rich in capital sources and india is rich in labour. South Arabia is rich in oil. India has advantage in textile a country where capital and land are abundant but labour is scarce will have comparative advantage in goods that require lots of capital and land, but little labour - grains, for example. Since capital and land are abundant, their prices will be low. Those low prices will ensure that the price of the grain that they are used to produce will also be low - and thus attractive for both local consumption and export. Labor intensive goods on the other hand will be very expensive to produce since labor is scarce and its price is high. Therefore, the country is better off importing those goods. Summary

Factor endowments vary among countries Products differ according to the types of factors that they need as inputs A country has a comparative advantage in producing products that intensively use factors of production (resources) it has in abundance

Assumptions

A given technology was universally available. Relative factor endowments are different in each country Tastes and preferences are identical in both countries A given product was either labor- or capital-intensive The theory ignored transportation costs.

1.3.2. Product Life Cycle (Ray Vernon, 1966)

As products mature, both location of sales and optimal production changes Affects the direction and flow of imports and exports Globalization and integration of the economy makes this theory less valid

Classic Theory Limitations: All the classical theories are based on the following assumptions that no longer hold true

Simple world (two countries, two products) No transportation costs No price differences in resources Resources immobile across countries Constant returns to scale Each country has a fixed stock of resources & no efficiency gains in resource use from trade Full employment

2. Modern Trade Theory In industries with high fixed costs:

Specialization increases output, and the ability to enhance economies of scale increases Learning effects are high. These are cost savings that come from learning by doing

New Trade Theory-Applications Typically, requires industries with high, fixed costs o o o World demand will support few competitors Competitors may emerge because of First-mover advantage Role of the government becomes significant

Economies of scale may preclude new entrants Some argue that it generates government intervention and strategic trade policy The theory attempts to analyze the reasons for a nations success in a particular industry

Theory of National Competitive Advantage

Porter studied 100 industries in 10 nations Postulated determinants of competitive advantage of a nation were based on four major attributes Factor endowments Demand conditions Related and supporting industries Firm strategy, structure and rivalry

Factor endowments: A nations position in factors of production such as skilled labor or infrastructure necessary to compete in a given industry Basic factor endowments Advanced factor endowments Basic Factor Endowments Basic factors: Factors present in a country Natural resources Climate Geographic location Demographics

While basic factors can provide an initial advantage they must be supported by advanced factors to maintain success

Advanced Factor Endowments Advanced factors: The result of investment by people, companies, and government are more likely to lead to competitive advantage If a country has no basic factors, it must invest in advanced factors

Communications Skilled labor Research Technology Education

Porters Theory-Predictions Porters theory should predict the pattern of international trade that we observe in the real world. Countries should be exporting products from those industries where all four components of the diamond are favorable, while importing in those areas where the components are not favorable 3. Other Theories: 3.1. The productivity theory by H. Myind

It is criticized that the comparative cost theories are not applicable to developing countries. Hence, H. Myint proposed productivity theory and the vent for surplus theory. The productivity theory points toward indirect and direct benefits. This theory emphasizes that the process of specialization involves adapting and reshaping the production structure of a trading country to meet the export demands.

Countries increase productivity in order to utilize the gains of exports. This theory encourages the developing countries to go for cash crops, increase productivity by enhancing the efficiency of human resources, adapting latest technology etc.

Limitations:

Labor productivity did not increase after certain level Increase in working hours Increase in proportion of gainfully employed labour in proportion to disguised unemployed labour

3.2. The vent for surplus theory

International trade absorbs the output of unemployed factors. If the countries produce more than the domestic requirements, they have to export the surplus to other countries. Otherwise, a part of the productive labour of the country must cease and the value of its annual Produce diminishes.

In the absence of foreign trade, they would be surplus productive capacity in the country. This surplus productive capacity is taken by another country and in turn gives the benefit under international trade.

Appropriateness of this Theory for Developing Countries:

According to this theory, the factors of production of developing countries are fully utilized. The unemployed labour of the developing countries is profitably employed when the vent for surplus is exported.

3.3. Mills theory of reciprocal demand

Comparative cost advantage theories do not explain the ratios at which commodities are exchanged for one another. J.S. Mill introduced the concept of reciprocal demand to explain the determinations of the equilibrium terms of trade.

Reciprocal demand indicates a countrys demand for one commodity in terms of the other commodity; it is prepared to give up in exchange. It determines the terms of trade and relative share of each country.

Equilibrium: Quality of a product exported by country A = Quality of another product exported by country B Assumptions:

Existence of two countries Trade in only two goods both the goods are produced under the law of constant returns Absence of transportation Costs. Existence of perfect competition Existence of full employment

Q4. Ten reasons why FDI happens 1. Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) as defined in the BOP Manual, are investments made to acquire a lasting interest by a resident entity in one economy in an enterprise resident in another economy. The purpose of the investor is to have a significant influence, an effective voice in the management of the enterprise. The definition of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) which considers as direct investment enterprise an incorporated or unincorporated enterprise in which a direct investor who is resident in

another economy owns ten percent or more of the ordinary shares or voting power (for incorporated enterprise) or the equivalent (for an unincorporated enterprise). 2. It provides a firm with new markets and marketing channels, cheaper production facilities, access to new technology, products, skills and financing. For a host country or the foreign firm which receives the investment, it can provide a source of new technologies, capital, processes, products, organizational technologies and management skills, and as such can provide a strong impetus to economic development. 3. FDI inflows are considered as channels of entrepreneurship, technology, management skills, and of resources that are scarce in developing countries. Hence, they could help their host countries in their industrialization. 4. For small and medium sized companies, FDI represents an opportunity to become more actively involved in international business activities. In the past 15 years, the classic definition of FDI as noted above has changed considerably, over 2/3 of direct foreign investment is still made in the form of fixtures, machinery, equipment and buildings. 5. FDI is viewed as a basis for going global. FDI allows companies to accomplish following tasks: Avoiding foreign government pressure for local production Circumventing trade barriers, hidden and otherwise Making the move from domestic export sales to a locally-based national sales office Capability to increase total production capacity. Opportunities for co-production, joint ventures with local partners, joint marketing arrangements, licensing, etc 6. Foreign direct investment is viewed as a way of increasing the efficiency with which the world's scarce resources are used. A recent and specific example is the perceived role of FDI in efforts to stimulate economic growth in many of the world's poorest countries. Partly this is because of the expected continued decline in the role of development assistance (on which these countries have traditionally relied heavily), and the resulting search for alternative sources of foreign capital. 7. FDI enables the firm owns assets to be profitably exploited on a comparatively large scale, including intellectual property (such as technology and brand names), organizational and managerial skills, and marketing networks. And it is more profitable for the production utilizing these assets to take place in different countries than to produce in and export from the home country exclusively.

8. FDI may result in a greater diffusion of know-how than other ways of serving the market. While imports of high-technology products, as well as the purchase or licensing of foreign technology, are important channels for the international diffusion of technology, FDI provides more scope for spillovers. For example, the technology and productivity of local firms may improve as foreign firms enter the market and demonstrate new technologies, and new modes of organization and distribution, provide technical assistance to their local suppliers and customers, and train workers and managers who may later be employed by local firms. 9. FDI increases employment in host country. Inflows of FDI also increase the amount of capital in the host country. Even with skill levels and technology constant, this will either raise labor productivity and wages, allow more people to be employed at the same level of wages, or result in some combination of the two. 10. Proponents of foreign investment point out that the exchange of investment flows benefits both the home country (the country from which the investment originates) and the host country (the destination of the investment). Opponents of FDI note that multinational conglomerates are able to wield great power over smaller and weaker economies and can drive out much local competition. The truth might lie somewhere in between but they surely become reasons for companies to invest in foreign markets. Q5. WTO Rounds wrt India The WTO came into being on January 1, 1995, and is the successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which was created in 1948. India was one of the 76 countries that signed the accession to the WTO and is one of the founder members of the WTO. Trade implications of signing the WTO for India: The implications of signing the WTO agreement for Indian trade have been mixed. India has benefited in the areas of garment exports, agricultural products exports and in market access to foreign markets in automobiles and electronics. India has a disadvantage mainly in areas of TRIPs, drug prices, patents in agriculture, TIS ( trade in services ) and TRIMS especially in biomedical areas, AoA export subsidies etc. Benefits: 1. Garment exports: The Multi Fiber Arrangement (MFA) that required Indian garment exporters to have quotas for exporting to developed countries was phased out in 2005. The

readymade garment exports from India has reached Rs 800 crores in 2007 and expected to reach Rs 1000 crores in 2008. This is thrice the exports in 2004-05. 2. Market access: as a signatory to the WTO India automatically gets the MFN ( most favored nation ) status. This gives India access to markets in Europe and US in sectors like automobiles and engineering. India also benefits from the clauses related to trade without discrimination and benefit from capital good exports. 3. Anti Dumping measures: India suffered from persistent dumping by Romanian and Russian steel majors in the areas of steel casings, pipes affecting Indian domestic industry greatly. Also India suffered from dumping by Chinese steel industry. The anti dumping provisions and countervailing duties lend security to Indias domestic industries. 4. The Agreement on Agriculture: the AoA stipulates that the developed countries will reduce tariffs on agriculture imports (up to 35%) thus helping Indias agriculture exports. It also promises reduction of domestic subsidies in the developed countries helping exports from India. 5. Competitive advantage: India has competitive advantage in the areas of merchandise trade. India can utilize its competitive advantage in processing, beverages, gems and jeweler compared to the traditional centers in Europe like Amsterdam or Manchester etc increasing its trade with both the Euro region and the US. Disadvantages: 1. TRIPS: the Indian Patent Act is not compatible with the TRIPS agreement under the WTO. The Indian Patent Act allows only process patents in areas of foods, chemicals and medicines. Under the TRIPS the IPA will have to modify to allow product patents also. Also products developed outside India can claim international patents applicable to India. This will hurt our agriculture foods. E.g. the Alphanso mango and the Basmati strand controversy. 2. Drug prices: the granting of the product patents in India will hurt the Indian generic drugs industry and benefit the foreign pharma companies that own the formulation patents. This will lead to increase in drug prices in India. (This resulted in regulatory intervention in the recent budget in life saving drugs) e.g. the Pfizer controversy 3. Genetics: Indian seed and genetic research organizations are Government funded and will not be able to compete with the MNCs like Montessanto etc that have economies of scale. This will increase seed prices for Indian farmers and also lend our genetic resources to the MNCs

4. Services: the opening up of the banking sector in 2009 will affect Indian banks due to the foreign banks with huge balance sheets. 5. TRIMS: the Trade Related Investment Measures resulted in problems in trade in investment issues like transit charges, formalities etc. together called as Singapore issues. Indian companies would have to lose in the differential charges that are applied. These issues were dropped in the Chachun ministerial conferences. 6. Anti dumping: the anti dumping rules were imposed on Indian linen in EU. Similarly Indian textiles faced anti dumping regulations in US. There is no mechanism to resolve anti dumping duties issues. Indias stand in the Doha round and the following ministerial conferences: 1. Doha round: The Doha Development Round commenced at Doha, Qatar in November 2001 and is still continuing. Its objective is to lower trade barriers around the world, permitting free trade between countries of varying prosperity. As of 2008, talks have stalled over a divide between the developed nations led by the European Union, the United States and Japan and the major developing countries (represented by the G20 developing nations), led and represented mainly by India, Brazil, China and South Africa. Issues: Singapore issues: the issues related to the trade facilitation and differential charges in investment vehicles affected Indian investment and venture companies. This affected the Indian services. Agricultural subsidies: the EU, US and Japan support domestic agriculture by subsides. This was opposed by countries like India and Brazil. 2. Cancun conference 2003 : The objective of this conference was to forge the agreement discussed in Doha. Issues: market access to foreign markets. This agreement on market access for the developing countries in capital and industrial goods increased strength of G20 countries. India benefited greatly in the capital goods export. The Singapore issues were resolved that resulted in removing the undue advantage for countries like US and Japan in investment arena. This also benefited the Indian financial sector internationally. 3. Geneva 2004: In Geneva conference the developed nations reduced subsidiaries on manufactured goods. This resulted in Indian small manufacturers like steel forging, casting to export largely and benefit from the construction boom in US. 4. Paris 2005: France reduced subsidies on farm products. However US and Japan did not relent.

Hong Kong 2006 and Potsdam 2007 talks failed in resolving the farm subsidies. So the recent rounds are in a stalemate situation from Indias point of view. Q6. Discuss NAFTA/ EU/ ASEAN/ SAARC/ MERCUSOR Mercosur Mercosur is a regional trade agreement among Argentina, Brazil ,Paraguay & Uruguay founded in 1991 by the Treaty of Asuncin, which was later amended and updated by the 1994 Treaty of Ouro Preto. Its purpose is to promote free trade and the fluid movement of goods, people, and currency. Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru currently have associate member status. Venezuela signed a membership agreement on 17 June 2006, but before becoming a full member its entry has to be ratified by the Paraguayan and the Brazilian parliaments. The bloc comprises a population of more than 263 million people, and the combined Gross Domestic Product of the full-member nations is in excess of US$2.78 trillion a year (Purchasing power parity, PPP) according to International Monetary Fund (IMF) numbers, making Mercosur the fifth largest economy in the World. Objectives of MERCOSUR Free transit of production goods, services and factors between the member states with inter alia, the elimination of customs rights and lifting of nontariff restrictions on the transit of goods or any other measures with similar effects; Fixing of a common external tariff (TEC) and adopting of a common trade policy with regard to nonmember states or groups of states, and the coordination of positions in regional and international commercial and economic meetings; Coordination of macroeconomic and sectorial policies of member states relating to foreign trade, agriculture, industry, taxes, monetary system, exchange and capital, services, customs, transport and communications, and any others they may agree on, in order to ensure free competition between member states; and The commitment by the member states to make the necessary adjustments to their laws in pertinent areas to allow for the strengthening of the integration process. The Asuncion Treaty is based on the doctrine of the reciprocal rights and obligations of the member states. MERCOSUR initially targeted free-trade zones, then customs unification and, finally, a common market, where in addition to customs unification the free movement of manpower and capital across the member nations' international frontiers is possible, and depends on equal rights and duties being granted to all signatory countries. During the transition period, as a result of the chronological differences in actual implementation of trade liberalization by the member states,

the rights and obligations of each party will initially be equivalent but not necessarily equal. In addition to the reciprocity doctrine, the Asuncion Treaty also contains provisions regarding the most-favored nation concept, according to which the member nations undertake to automatically extend--after actual formation of the common market--to the other Treaty signatories any advantage, favor, entitlement, immunity or privilege granted to a product originating from or intended for countries that are not party to ALADI. SAARC The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is an economic and political organization of eight countries in Southern Asia. It was established on December 8, 1985 by India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Maldives and Bhutan. In April 2007, at the Association's 14th summit, Afghanistan became its eighth member.Sheelkant Sharma is the current secretary & Mahinda Rajapaksa is the current chairman of SAARC which is headquartered at Kathmandu. Objectives of SAARC:

to promote the welfare of the peoples of South Asia and to improve their quality of life; to accelerate economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region and to provide all individuals the opportunity to live in dignity and to realize their full potential;

to promote and strengthen collective self-reliance among the countries of South Asia; to contribute to mutual trust, understanding and appreciation of one another's problems; to promote active collaboration and mutual assistance in the economic, social, cultural, technical and scientific fields; to strengthen cooperation with other developing countries; to strengthen cooperation among themselves in international forums on matters of common interest; and to cooperate with international and regional organizations with similar aims and purposes.

Free Trade Agreement Over the years, the SAARC members have expressed their unwillingness on signing a free trade agreement. Though India has several trade pacts with Maldives, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka, similar trade agreements with Pakistan and Bangladesh have been stalled due to political and economic concerns on both sides. India has been constructing a barrier across its borders with

Bangladesh and Pakistan. In 1993, SAARC countries signed an agreement to gradually lower tariffs within the region, in Dhaka. Eleven years later, at the 12th SAARC Summit at Islamabad, SAARC countries devised the South Asia Free Trade Agreement which created a framework for the establishment of a free trade area covering 1.4 billion people. This agreement went into force on January 1, 2006. Under this agreement, SAARC members will bring their duties down to 20 per cent by 2007. The last summit (15th) was held in Colombo where four major agreements - the SAARC development fund, the establishment of a SAARC standard organization, the SAARC convention on mutual legal assistance in criminal matters, and the protocol on Afghanistan's admission to the South Asia Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) were adopted with emphasis on region-wide food security. NAFTA The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is a trilateral trade bloc in North America created by the governments of the United States, Canada, and Mexico. In terms of combined purchasing power parity GDP of its members, as of 2007 the trade bloc is the largest in the world and second largest by nominal GDP comparison. It also is one of the most powerful, widereaching treaties in the world. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) has two supplements, the North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC) and the North American Agreement on Labor Cooperation (NAALC). Implementation of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) began on January 1, 1994. This agreement will remove most barriers to trade and investment among the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Under the NAFTA, all non-tariff barriers to agricultural trade between the United States and Mexico were eliminated. In addition, many tariffs were eliminated immediately, with others being phased out over periods of 5 to 15 years. This allowed for an orderly adjustment to free trade with Mexico, with full implementation beginning January 1, 2008. The agricultural provisions of the U.S.-Canada Free Trade Agreement, in effect since 1989, were incorporated into the NAFTA. Under these provisions, all tariffs affecting agricultural trade between the United States and Canada, with a few exceptions for items covered by tariff-rate quotas, were removed by January 1, 1998.

Mexico and Canada reached a separate bilateral NAFTA agreement on market access for agricultural products. The Mexican-Canadian agreement eliminated most tariffs either immediately or over 5, 10, or 15 years. U.S. trade with Mexico and Canada has grown more rapidly than total U.S. trade since 1994. The automotive, textile, and apparel industries have experienced the most significant changes in trade flows, which may also have affected employment levels in these industries. The five major U.S. industries that have high volumes of trade with Mexico and Canada are automotive industry, chemicals and allied products, computer equipment, textiles and apparel, and microelectronics. The effects of NAFTA, both positive and negative, have been quantified by several economists. Some argue that NAFTA has been positive for Mexico, which has seen its poverty rates fall and real income rise (in the form of lower prices, especially food), even after accounting for the 19941995 economic crisis. Others argue that NAFTA has been beneficial to business owners and elites in all three countries, but has had negative impacts on farmers in Mexico who saw food prices fall based on cheap imports from U.S. agribusiness, and negative impacts on U.S. workers in manufacturing and assembly industries who lost jobs. Critics also argue that NAFTA has contributed to the rising levels of inequality in both the U.S. and Mexico. EU The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of 27 member states, located primarily in Europe. The EU generates an estimated 30% share of the world's nominal gross domestic product (US$16.8 trillion in 2007). Thus EU presents an enormous export and investor market that is both mature and sophisticated. The EU has developed a single market through a standardised system of laws which apply in all member states, guaranteeing the freedom of movement of people, goods, services and capital. It maintains a common trade policy. Fifteen member states have adopted a common currency, the euro. Objectives of the EU: Its principal goal is to promote and expand cooperation among members states in economics, trade, social issues, foreign policies, security, defense, and judicial matters. Another major goal of the EU is to implement the Economic and Monetary Union, which introduced a single currency, the Euro for the EU members. The single market refers to the creation of a fully integrated market within the EU, which allows for free movement of goods, services and factors of production. The EU, in conjunction with

Member States, has a number of policies designed to assist the functioning of the market. Some of the policies are given below: Competition Policy: The main competition lied in energy and transport sector. The union designed this strategy to prevent price fixing, collusion (secret agreement), and abuse of monopoly. Free movement of goods: A custom union covering all trade in goods was established and a common customs tariff was adopted with respect to countries outside the union. Services: Any member nation has a right to provide services in other Member States. Free movement of persons: Any citizen of EU member state can live work in any other EU member state Capital: There are no restrictions on the movement of capital and on payments with the EU and between member states and third countries. Trade between the European Union and India India was one of the first Asian nations to accord recognition to the European Community in 1962. The EU is Indias largest trading partner and biggest source of FDI. It is a majo r contributor of developmental aid and an important source of technology. Over the years, EU India trade has grown from 4.4 bn to 28.4 bn US$. Top items of trade between India and EU Indias exports to EU Textile and clothing Leather and leather products Gemstones and jewelery Agriculture products Chemical products % 35 25 12 10 9 Indias Imports from EU Gemstones and jewellery Power generating equipment Chemical products Office machinery Transport equipment % 31 28 15 10 6

India is EUs 17th largest supplier and 20th largest destination for exports. Tariff and non-tariffs have been reduced, but compared to International standards they are still high. Under the Bilateral trade between India and EU, it accounts for 26% of Indias exports and 25% of its imports. The European Union (EU) and India agreed on September 29,2008 at the EU-India summit in Marseille, France's largest commercial port, to expand their cooperation in the fields of nuclear energy and environmental protection and deepen their strategic partnership.

Trade between India and the 27-nation EU has more than doubled from 25.6 billion euros ($36.7 billion) in 2000 to 55.6 billion euros last year, with further expansion to be seen.

ASEAN The Association of Southeast Asian Nations or ASEAN was established on 8 August 1967 in Bangkok by the five original Member Countries, namely, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. Brunei Darussalam joined on 8 January 1984, Vietnam on 28 July 1995, Laos and Myanmar on 23 July 1997, and Cambodia on 30 April 1999. OBJECTIVES The ASEAN Declaration states that the aims and purposes of the Association are: (i) (ii) To accelerate the economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region through joint endeavors. To promote regional peace and stability through abiding respect for justice and the rule of law in the relationship among countries in the region and adherence to the principles of the United Nations Charter. (iii) To maintain close cooperation with the existing international and regional organizations with similar aims. WORKING OF ASEAN The member countries of ASEAN have Preferential Trading Arrangements (PTA), which reduces tariffs on products traded among member countries. In 1992, ASEAN developed a Common Effective Preferential Tariffs (CEPT) plan to reduce tariffs systematically for manufactured and processed products. The members have also established a series of co-operative efforts to encourage joint participation in industrial, agricultural and technical development projects and to increase foreign investments in their economies. These efforts include an ASEAN finance corporation, the ASEAN Industrial Joint Ventures Programme (AJIV) etc. ASEAN nations have introduced some programmes for greater diversification in their economies. India and ASEAN India is interested in maintaining close economic relations with the members of ASEAN, as these countries are closer to India. The ASEAN countries are offering co-operation to India in the field of trade, investment, science and technology and training of personnel. Also, Indias trade with ASEAN countries is satisfactory in recent years.

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