Manual 1 - Introduction To Irrigation

Table of Contents
Irrigation Water Management: Training Manual No. 1 - Introduction to Irrigation
Table of Contents Provisional edition FAO - FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS a manual prepared jointly by C. Brouwer International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement and A. Goffeau M. Heibloem FAO Land and Water Development Division The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Applications for such permission, with a statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction, should be addressed to the Director, Publications Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy. FAO 1985
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Table of Contents
This electronic document has been scanned using optical character recognition (OCR) software and careful manual recorrection. Even if the quality of digitalisation is high, the FAO declines all responsibility for any discrepancies that may exist between the present document and its original printed version.
Table of Contents
PREFACE CHAPTER 1 - BASIC TERMS AND CALCULATIONS 1.1 Introduction to surface area 1.1.1 Triangles 1.1.2 Squares and Rectangles 1.1.3 Rhombuses and Parallelograms 1.1.4 Trapeziums 1.1.5 Circles 1.1.6 Metric Conversions 1.2 Surface areas of canal cross-sections and farms 1.2.1 Determination of the surface areas of canal cross-sections 1.2.2 Determination of the surface area of a farm 1.3 Introduction to volume 1.3.1 Units of volume 1.3.2 Volume of water on a field 1.4 Introduction to flow-rate 1.4.1 Definition 1.4.2 Calculation and Units 1.5 Introduction to percentage and per mil 1.5.1 Percentage 1.5.2 Per mil 1.6 Introduction to graphs 1.6.1 Example 1 1.6.2 Example 2
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1.7 Test your knowledge 1.7.1 Questions 1.7.2 Answers CHAPTER 2 - SOIL AND WATER 2.1 The soil 2.1.1 Soil composition 2.1.2 Soil profile 2.1.3 Soil texture 2.1.4 Soil structure 2.2 Entry of water into the soil 2.2.1 The infiltration process 2.2.2 Infiltration rate 2.2.3 Factors influencing the infiltration rate 2.3 Soil moisture conditions 2.3.1 Soil moisture content 2.3.2 Saturation 2.3.3 Field capacity 2.3.4 Permanent wilting point 2.4 Available water content 2.5 Groundwater table 2.5.1 Depth of the groundwater table 2.5.2 Perched groundwater table 2.5.3 Capillary rise 2.6 Soil erosion by water 2.6.1 Sheet erosion 2.6.2 Gully erosion CHAPTER 3 - ELEMENTS OF TOPOGRAPHY 3.1 Slopes 3.1.1 Definition 3.1.2 Method of expressing slopes 3.1.3 Cross slopes 3.2 Elevation of a point
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3.2.1 Definition 3.2.2 Bench mark and mean sea level 3.3 Contour lines 3.4 Maps 3.4.1 Description of a map 3.4.2 Interpretation of contour lines on a map 3.4.3 Mistakes in the contour lines 3.4.4 Scale of a map CHAPTER 4 - RAINFALL AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION 4.1 Rainfall 4.1.1 Amount of rainfall 4.1.2 Rainfall intensity 4.1.3 Rainfall Distribution 4.1.4 Effective Rainfall 4.2 Evapotranspiration 4.2.1 Evaporation 4.2.2 Transpiration 4.2.3 Evapotranspiration 4.2.4 Factors influencing crop evapotranspiration CHAPTER 5 - IRRIGATION SYSTEM 5.1 Main intake structure and pumping station 5.1.1 Main intake structure 5.1.2 Pumping station 5.2 Conveyance and distribution system 5.2.1 Open canals 5.2.2 Canal structures 5.3 Field application systems 5.3.1 Surface irrigation 5.3.2 Sprinkler irrigation 5.3.3 Drip irrigation 5.4 Drainage system CHAPTER 6 - DRAINAGE
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6.1 Need for drainage 6.2 Different types of drainage 6.2.1 Surface drainage 6.2.2 Subsurface drainage CHAPTER 7 - SALTY SOILS 7.1 Salinization 7.2 Salinity 7.2.1 Water salinity 7.2.2 Soil salinity 7.3 Crops and saline soils 7.4 Sodicity 7.5 Improvement of saline and sodic soils 7.5.1 Improvement of saline soils 7.5.2 Improvement of sodic soils 7.6 Prevention of salinization 7.6.1 Irrigation water quality 7.6.2 Irrigation management and drainage
PREFACE
PREFACE
This is one in a series of training manuals on subjects related to irrigation that will be issued in 1985 and 1986. The papers are intended for use by field assistants in agricultural extension services and irrigation technicians at the village and district levels who want to increase their ability to deal with farm-level irrigation issues. The papers contain material that is intended to provide support for irrigation training courses and to facilitate their conduct. Thus, taken together, they do not present a complete course in themselves, but instructors may find it helpful to use those papers or sections that are relevant to the specific irrigation conditions under discussion. The material may also be useful to individual students who want to review a particular subject without a teacher. Following an introductory discussion of various aspects of irrigation in the first paper, subsequent subjects discussed will be: - topographic surveying - crop water needs - irrigation scheduling - irrigation methods - irrigation system design - land grading and levelling - canals and structures - drainage - salinity - irrigation management At this stage, all the papers will be marked as draft because experience with the preparation of irrigation training material for use at the village level is limited. After a trial period of a few years, when there has been time to evaluate the information and the use of methods outlined in the draft papers, a definitive version can then be issued. For further information and any comments you may wish to make please write to: The International Support Programme for Irrigation Water Management Land and Water Development Division FAO Via delle Terme di Caracalla 00100 Rome Italy ABOUT THIS PAPER
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PREFACE
Introduction to Irrigation is the first in a series of training manuals on irrigation. As the title suggests, the manual contains an introductory discussion of irrigation topics that will be dealt with in greater detail in the subsequent elements of the series: it brings together explanatory notes on concepts, terms, methods and calculations that are basic to the discussion of the subject matter. In doing so this manual may serve as an easy reference in the study of irrigation.
CHAPTER 1 - BASIC TERMS AND CALCULATIONS

1.1 Introduction to surface area 1.2 Surface areas of canal cross-sections and farms 1.3 Introduction to volume 1.4 Introduction to flow-rate 1.5 Introduction to percentage and per mil 1.6 Introduction to graphs 1.7 Test your knowledge
1.1 Introduction to surface area

1.1.1 Triangles 1.1.2 Squares and Rectangles 1.1.3 Rhombuses and Parallelograms 1.1.4 Trapeziums 1.1.5 Circles 1.1.6 Metric Conversions It is important to be able to measure and calculate surface areas. It might be necessary to calculate, for example, the surface area of the cross-section of a canal or the surface area of a farm. This Section will discuss the calculation of some of the most common surface areas: the triangle, the square, the rectangle, the rhombus, the parallelogram, the trapezium and the circle (see Fig. 1a). Fig. 1a. The most common surface areas
The height (h) of a triangle, a rhombus, a parallelogram or a trapezium, is the distance from a top corner to the opposite side called base (b). The height is always perpendicular to the base; in other words, the height makes a "right angle" with the base. An example of a right angle is the corner of this page. In the case of a square or a rectangle, the expression length (1) is commonly used instead of base and width (w) instead of height. In the case of a circle the expression diametre (d) is used (see Fig. 1b). Fig. 1b. The height (h), base (b), width (w), length (1) and diametre (d) of the most common surface areas
1.1.1 Triangles
The surface area or surface (A) of a triangle is calculated by the formula: A (triangle) = 0.5 x base x height = 0.5 x b x h ..... (1) Triangles can have many shapes (see Fig. 2) but the same formula is used for all of them. Fig. 2. Some examples of triangles
EXAMPLE Calculate the surface area of the triangles no. 1, no. 1a and no. 2 Triangles no. 1 and no. 1a: Triangle no. 2: Given base = 3 cm height = 2 cm base = 3 cm height = 2 cm Formula: Answer A = 0.5 x base x height = 0.5 x 3 cm x 2 cm = 3 cm2 A = 0.5 x 3 cm x 2 cm = 3 cm2
It can be seen that triangles no. 1, no. 1a and no. 2 have the same surface; the shapes of the triangles are different, but the base and the height are in all three cases the same, so the surface is the same. The surface of these triangles is expressed in square centimetres (written as cm2). Surface areas can also be expressed in square decimetres (dm2),
square metres (m2), etc... QUESTION Calculate the surface areas of the triangles nos. 3, 4, 5 and 6. Triangle no. 3: Triangle no. 4: Triangle no. 5: Triangle no. 6: Given base = 3 cm height = 2 cm base = 4 cm height = 1 cm base = 2 cm height = 3 cm base = 4 cm height = 3 cm Formula: Answer A = 0.5 x base x height = 0.5 x 3 cm x 2 cm = 3 cm2 A = 0.5 x 4 cm x 1 cm = 2 cm2 A = 0.5 x 2 cm x 3 cm = 3 cm2 A = 0.5 x 4 cm x 3 cm = 6 cm2
1.1.2 Squares and Rectangles

The surface area or surface (A) of a square or a rectangle is calculated by the formula: A (square or rectangle) = length x width = l x w ..... (2) In a square the lengths of all four sides are equal and all four angles are right angles. In a rectangle, the lengths of the opposite sides are equal and all four angles are right angles. Fig. 3. A square and a rectangle
Note that in a square the length and width are equal and that in a rectangle the length and width are not equal (see Fig. 3). QUESTION Calculate the surface areas of the rectangle and of the square (see Fig. 3). Square: Rectangle: Given length = 2 cm width = 2 cm length = 5 cm width = 3 cm Formula: Formula: Answer A = length x width = 2 cm x 2 cm = 4 cm2 A = length x width = 5 cm x 3 cm = 15 cm2
Related to irrigation, you will often come across the expression hectare (ha), which is a surface area unit. By definition, 1 hectare equals 10 000 m2. For example, a field with a length of 100 m and a width of 100 m2 (see Fig. 4) has a surface area of 100 m x 100 m = 10 000 m2 = 1 ha. Fig. 4. One hectare equals 10 000 m2
1.1.3 Rhombuses and Parallelograms

The surface area or surface (A) of a rhombus or a parallelogram is calculated by the formula: A (rhombus or parallelogram) = base x height = b x h ..... (3) In a rhombus the lengths of all four sides are equal; none of the angles are right angles; opposite sides run parallel. In a parallelogram the lengths of the opposite sides are equal; none of the angles are right angles; opposite sides run parallel (see Fig. 5). Fig. 5. A rhombus and a parallelogram
QUESTION Calculate the surface areas of the rhombus and the parallelogram (see Fig. 5). Rhombus: Parallelogram: Given base = 3 cm height = 2 cm base = 3.5 cm height = 3 cm Formula: Formula: Answer A = base x height = 3 cm x 2 cm = 6 cm2 A = base x height = 3.5 cm x 3 cm = 10.5 cm2
1.1.4 Trapeziums
The surface area or surface (A) of a trapezium is calculated by the formula: A (trapezium) = 0.5 (base + top) x height = 0.5 (b + a) x h ..... (4) The top (a) is the side opposite and parallel to the base (b). In a trapezium only the base and the top run parallel. Some examples are shown in Fig. 6: Fig. 6. Some examples of trapeziums
EXAMPLE Calculate the surface area of trapezium no. 1. Trapezium no. 1: Given base = 4 cm top = 2 cm height = 2 cm Formula: Answer A = 0.5 x (base x top) x height = 0.5 x (4 cm + 2 cm) x 2 cm = 0.5 x 6 cm x 2 cm = 6 cm2
QUESTION Calculate the surface areas trapeziums nos. 2, 3 and 4. Trapezium no. 2: Given base = 5 cm top = 1 cm height = 2 cm Formula: Answer A = 0.5 x (base + top) x height = 0.5 x (5 cm + 1 cm) x 2 cm = 0.5 x 6 cm x 2 cm = 6 cm2
Trapezium no. 3:
Trapezium no. 4:
base = 3 cm top = 1 cm height = 1 cm base = 2 cm top = 4 cm height = 2 cm
A = 0.5 x (3 cm + 1 cm) x 2 cm = 0.5 x 4 cm x 2 cm = 4 cm2 A = 0.5 x (2 cm + 4 cm) x 2 cm = 0.5 x 6 cm x 2 cm = 6 cm2
Note that the surface areas of the trapeziums 1 and 4 are equal. Number 4 is the same as number 1 but upside down. Another method to calculate the surface area of a trapezium is to divide the trapezium into a rectangle and two triangles, to measure their sides and to determine separately the surface areas of the rectangle and the two triangles (see Fig. 7). Fig. 7. Splitting a trapezium into one rectangle and two triangles. Note that A = A1 + A2 + A3 = 1 + 6 + 2 = 9 cm2
1.1.5 Circles
The surface area or surface (A) of a circle is calculated by the formula: A (circle) = 1/4 ( x d x d) = 1/4 ( x d2) = 1/4 (3.14 x d2) ..... (5) whereby d is the diameter of the circle and (a Greek letter, pronounced Pi) a constant ( = 3.14). A diameter (d) is a straight line which divides the circle in two equal parts. Fig. 8. A circle
EXAMPLE Given Circle: d = 4.5 cm Formula: Answer A = 1/4 ( x d) = 1/4 (3.14 x d x d) = 1/4 (3.14 x 4.5 cm x 4.5 cm) = 15.9 cm2
QUESTION Calculate the surface area of a circle with a diameter of 3 m. Given Circle: d = 3 m Formula: Answer A = 1/4 ( x d) = 1/4 (3.14 x d x d) = 1/4 (3.14 x 3 m x 3 m) = 7.07 m2
1.1.6 Metric Conversions

i. Units of length The basic unit of length in the metric system is the metre (m). One metre can be divided into 10 decimetres (dm), 100 centimetres (cm) or 1000 millimetres (mm); 100 m equals to 1 hectometre (hm); while 1000 m is 1 kilometre (km). 1 m = 10 dm = 100 cm = 1000 mm 0.1 m = 1 dm = 10 cm = 100 mm 0.01 m = 0.1 dm = 1 cm = 10 mm 0.001 m = 0.01 dm = 0.1 cm = 1 mm 1 km = 10 hm = 1000 m 0.1 km = 1 hm = 100 m 0.01 km = 0.1 hm = 10 m 0.001 km = 0.01 hm = 1 m ii. Units of surface The basic unit of area in the metric system is the square metre (m), which is obtained by multiplying a length of 1 metre by a width of 1 metre (see Fig. 9). Fig. 9. A square metre
1 m2 = 100 dm2 = 10 000 cm2 = 1 000 000 mm2 0.01 m2 = 1 dm2 = 100 cm2 = 10 000 mm2 0.0001 m2 = 0.01 dm2 = 1 cm2 = 100 mm2 0.000001 m2 = 0.0001 dm2 = 0.01 cm2 = 1 mm2 1 km2 = 100 ha2 = 1 000 000 m2 0.01 km2 = 1 ha2 = 10 000 m2 0.000001 km2 = 0.0001 ha2 = 1 m2 NOTE: 1 ha = 100 m x 100 m = 10 000 m2
1.2 Surface areas of canal cross-sections and farms

1.2.1 Determination of the surface areas of canal cross-sections 1.2.2 Determination of the surface area of a farm This Section explains how to apply the surface area formulas to two common practical problems that will often be met in the field.
1.2.1 Determination of the surface areas of canal cross-sections

The most common shape of a canal cross-section is a trapezium or, more truly, an "up-side-down" trapezium (see Fig. 10). Fig. 10. Canal cross-section The area (A B C D), hatched on the above drawing, is called the canal cross-section and has a trapezium shape (compare with trapezium no. 4). Thus, the formula to calculate its surface is similar to the formula used to calculate the surface area of a trapezium (formula 4): Surface area of the canal cross-section = 0.5 (base + top line) x canal depth = 0.5 (b + a) x h ..... (6) whereby: base (b) = bottom width of the canal top line (a) = top width of the canal canal depth (h) = height of the canal (from the bottom of the canal to the top of the embankment) Suppose that the canal contains water, as shown in Fig. 11. Fig. 11. Wetted cross-section of a canal
The area (A B C D), hatched on the above drawing, is called the wetted canal cross-section or wetted cross-section. It also has a trapezium shape and the formula to calculate its surface area is: Surface area of the wetted canal cross-section = 0.5 (base + top line) x water depth = 0.5 (b + a1) x h1 ..... (7) whereby: base (b) = bottom width of the canal top line (a1) = top width of the water level water depth (h1) = the height or depth of the water in the canal (from the bottom of the canal to the water level). EXAMPLE Calculate the surface area of the cross-section and the wetted cross-section, of the canal shown in Fig. 12 below. Fig. 12. Dimensions of the cross-section Given Canal cross-section: base (b) = 1.25 m top line (a) = 3.75 m canal depth (h) = 1.25 m Canal wetted cross-section: base (b) = 1.25 m top line (a1) = 3.25 m water depth (h1) = 1.00 m Answer Formula: A = 0.5 x (b + a) x h = 0.5 x (1.25 m + 3.75 m) x 1.25 m = 3.125 m2 A = 0.5 x (b + a1) x h = 0.5 x (1.25 m + 3.25 m) x 1.00 m = 2.25 m2
Formula:
1.2.2 Determination of the surface area of a farm

It may be necessary to determine the surface area of a farmer's field. For example, when calculating how much irrigation water should be given to a certain field, the size of the field must be known. When the shape of the field is regular and has, for example, a rectangular shape, it should not be too difficult to calculate the surface area once the length of the field (that is the base of its regular shape) and the width of the field have been measured (see Fig. 13). Fig. 13. Field of regular shape
EXAMPLE Given Length of the field = 50 m Width of the field = 30 m QUESTION What is the area of the same field, expressed in hectares? Formula: Answer A = length x width (formula 2) = 50 m x 30 m = 1500 m2
ANSWER Section 1.1.2 explained that a hectare is equal to 10 000 m. Thus, the formula to calculate a surface area in hectares is: ..... (8)
In this case: area of the field in More often, however, the field shape is not regular, as shown in Fig. 14a. Fig. 14a. Field of irregular shape
In this case, the field should be divided in several regular areas (square, rectangle, triangle, etc.), as has been done in Fig. 14b. Fig. 14b. Division of irregular field into regular areas
Surface area of the square: As = length x width = 30 m x 30 m = 900 m2 Surface area of the rectangle: Ar = length x width = 50 m x 15 m = 750 m2 Surface area of the triangle: At = 0.5 x base x height = 0.5 x 20 m x 30 m = 300 m2 Total surface area of the field: A = As + Ar + At = 900 m2 + 750 m2 + 300 m2 = 1950 m2
1.3 Introduction to volume

1.3.1 Units of volume 1.3.2 Volume of water on a field A volume (V) is the content of a body or object. Take for example a block (Fig 15). A block has a certain length (l), width (w) and height (h). With these three data, the volume of the block can be calculated using the formula: V (block) = length x width x height = l x w x h ..... (9) Fig. 15. A block
EXAMPLE Calculate the volume of the above block. Given length = 4 cm width = 3 cm height = 2 cm Formula: Answer V = length x width x height = 4 cm x 3 cm x 2 cm = 24 cm3
The volume of this block is expressed in cubic centimetres (written as cm). Volumes can also be expressed in cubic decimetres (dm3), cubic metres (m3), etc. QUESTION Calculate the volume in m3 of a block with a length of 4 m, a width of 50 cm and a height of 200 mm. Given All data must be converted in metres (m) length = 4 m width = 50 cm = 0.50 m height = 200 mm = 0.20 m QUESTION Calculate the volume of the same block, this time in cubic centimetres (cm3) Given All data must be converted in centimetres (cm) length = 4 m = 400 cm width = 50 cm height = 200 mm = 20 cm Answer Formula: V = length x width x height = 400 cm x 50 cm x 20 cm = 400 000 cm3 Answer Formula: V = length x width x height = 4 m x 0.50 m x 0.20 m = 0.40 m3
Of course, the result is the same: 0.4 m3 = 400 000 cm3
1.3.1 Units of volume

The basic unit of volume in the metric system is the cubic metre (m3) which is obtained by multiplying a length of 1 metre, by a width of 1 metre and a height of 1 metre (see Fig. 16). Fig. 16. One cubic metre
1 m3 = 1.000 dm3 = 1 000 000 cm3 = 1 000 000 000 mm3 0.001 m3 = 1 dm3 = 1 000 cm3 = 1 000 000 mm3 0.000001 m3 = 0.001 dm3 = 1 cm3 = 1 000 mm3 0.000000001 m3 = 0.000001 dm3 = 0.001 cm3 = 1 mm3 NOTE 1 dm3 = 1 litre and 1 m3 = 1000 litres
1.3.2 Volume of water on a field

Suppose a one-litre bottle is filled with water. The volume of the water is thus 1 litre or 1 dm3. When the bottle of water is emptied on a table, the water will spread out over the table and form a thin water layer. The amount of water on the table is the same as the amount of water that was in the bottle; being 1 litre. The volume of water remains the same; only the shape of the "water body" changes (see Fig. 17). Fig. 17. One litre of water spread over a table
A similar process happens if you spread irrigation water from a storage reservoir over a farmer's field. QUESTION Suppose there is a reservoir, filled with water, with a length of 5 m, a width of 10 m and a depth of 2 m. All the water from the reservoir is spread over a field of 1 hectare. Calculate the water depth (which is the thickness of the water layer) on the field, see Fig. 18. Fig. 18. A volume of 100 m3 of water spread over an area of one hectare The formula to use is: ..... (10)
As the first step, the volume of water must be calculated. It is the volume of the filled reservoir, calculated with formula (9): Volume (V) = length x width x height = 5 m x 10 m x 2 m = 100 m3 As the second step, the thickness of the water layer is calculated using formula (10): Given Surface of the field = 10 000 m2 Volume of water = 100 m3 Answer Formula:
d = 0.01 m d = 10 mm QUESTION A water layer 1 mm thick is spread over a field of 1 ha. Calculate the volume of the water (in m3), with the help of Fig. 19. Fig. 19. One millimetre water depth on a field of one hectare
The formula to use is: Volume of water (V) = Surface of the field (A) x Water depth (d) ..... (11) Given Formula: Volume (m) Surface of the field = 10 000 m2 Water depth = 1 mm =1/1 000 = 0.001 m Answer = surface of the field (m) x water depth (m) V = 10 000 m2 x 0.001 m V = 10 m3 or 10 000 litres
1.4 Introduction to flow-rate

1.4.1 Definition 1.4.2 Calculation and Units
1.4.1 Definition
The flow-rate of a river, or of a canal, is the volume of water discharged through this river, or this canal, during a given period of time. Related to irrigation, the volume of water is usually expressed in litres (l) or cubic metres (m3) and the time in seconds (s) or hours (h). The flow-rate is also called discharge-rate.
1.4.2 Calculation and Units

The water running out of a tap fills a one litre bottle in one second. Thus the flow rate (Q) is one litre per second (1 l/s) (see Fig. 20). Fig. 20. A flow-rate of one litre per second
QUESTION The water supplied by a pump fills a drum of 200 litres in 20 seconds. What is the flow rate of this pump? The formula used is: ..... (12a) Given Volume of water: 200 l Time: 20 s Answer Formula:
The unit "litre per second" is commonly used for small flows, e.g. a tap or a small ditch. For larger flows, e.g. a river or a main canal, the unit "cubic metre per second" (m3/s) is more conveniently used. QUESTION A river discharges 100 m3 of water to the sea every 2 seconds. What is the flow-rate of this river expressed in m3/s? The formula used is: ..... (12b) Given Volume of water: 100 m3 Time: 2 s Answer Formula:
The discharge rate of a pump is often expressed in m3 per hour (m3/h) or in litres per minute (l/min). ..... (12c)
..... (12d)
NOTE: Formula 12a, 12b, 12c and 12d are the same; only the units change
1.5 Introduction to percentage and per mil

1.5.1 Percentage 1.5.2 Per mil In relation to agriculture, the words percentage and per mil will be met regularly. For instance "60 percent of the total area is irrigated during the dry season". In this Section the meaning of the words "percentage" and "per mil" will be discussed.
1.5.1 Percentage
The word "percentage" means literally "per hundred"; in other words one percent is the one hundredth part of the total. You can either write percent, or %, or 1/100, or 0.01. Some examples are: 5 percent = 5% =5/100 = 0.05 20 percent = 20% = 20/100= 0.20 25 percent = 25% = 25/100 = 0.25 50 percent = 50% = 50/100 =0.50 100 percent = 100% = 100/100 = 1 150 percent = 150% = 150/100 = 1.5 QUESTION How many oranges are 1% of a total of 300 oranges? (see Fig. 21) Fig. 21. Three oranges are 1% of 300 oranges
ANSWER 1% of 300 oranges = 1/100 x 300 = 3 oranges QUESTIONS 6% of 100 cows 15% of 28 hectares 80% of 90 irrigation projects 150% of a monthly salary of $100 0.5% of 194.5 litres ANSWERS 6/100 x 100 = 6 cows 15/100 x 28 = 4.2 ha 80/100 x 90 = 72 projects 150/100 x 100 = 1.5 x 100 = $150 0.5/100 x 194.5 = 0.005 x 194.5 = 0.9725 litres
1.5.2 Per mil

The word "per mil" means literally "per thousand"; in other words one per mil is one thousandth part of the total. You can either write: per mil, or , or 1/1000, or 0.001. Some examples are: 5 per mil = 5 =5/1000= 0.005 50 per mil = 50 = 50/1000 = 0.050 95 per mil = 95 = 95/1000 = 0.095
QUESTION How many oranges are 4 of 1000 oranges? (see Fig. 22) Fig. 22. Four oranges are 4 of 1000 oranges
ANSWER 4 of 1000 oranges = 4/1000 x 1000 = 4 oranges NOTE 10 = 1% because 10 = 10/1000 = 1/10 = 1% QUESTIONS ANSWERS 3 of 3 000 oranges 3/1000 x 3 000 = 9 oranges 35 of 10 000 ha 35/1000 x 10 000 = 350 ha 2 0.5 of 750 km 0.5/1000 x 750 =0.375 km2
1.6 Introduction to graphs

1.6.1 Example 1 1.6.2 Example 2 A graph is a drawing in which the relationship between two (or more) items of information (e.g. time and plant growth) is shown in a symbolic way. To this end, two lines are drawn at a right angle. The horizontal one is called the x axis and the vertical one is called the y axis. Where the x axis and the y axis intersect is the "0" (zero) point (see Fig. 23). The plotting of the information on the graph is discussed in the following examples. Fig. 23. A graph
1.6.1 Example 1
Suppose it is necessary to make a graph of the growth rate of a maize plant. Each week the height of the plant is measured. One week after planting the seed, the plant measures 2 cm in height, two weeks after planting it measures 5 cm and 3 weeks after planting the height is 10 cm, as illustrated in Fig. 24a. Fig. 24a. Measuring the growth rate of a maize plant These results can be plotted on a graph. The time (in weeks) will be indicated on the x axis; 2 cm on the axis represents 1 week. The plant height (in centimetres) will be indicated on the y axis; 1 cm on the axis represents 1 cm of plant height. After 1 week the height is 2 cm; this is indicated on the graph with A; after 2 weeks the height is 5 cm, see B, and after 3 weeks the height is 10 cm, see C, as shown in Fig. 24b. At planting (Time = 0) the height was zero, see D. Now connect the crosses (see Fig. 24c) with a straight line. The line indicates the growth rate of the plant; this is the height increase over time. Fig. 24b. Growth rate of a maize plant
It can be seen from the graph that the plant is growing faster and faster (during the first week 2 cm and during the third week 5 cm); the line from B to C is steeper than the line from D to A. From the graph can be read what the height of the plant was after, say 2 1/2 weeks; see the dotted line (Fig. 24c). Locate on the horizontal axis 2 1/2 weeks and follow the dotted line upwards until the dotted line crosses the graph. From this crossing follow the dotted line to the left until the vertical axis is reached. Now take the reading: 7.5 cm, which means that the plant had a height of 7.5 cm after 2 1/2 weeks. This height has not been measured in reality, but with the graph the height can be determined anyway. QUESTION What was the height of the plant after 1 1/2 weeks? ANSWER The height of the plant after 1 1/2 weeks was 3.5 cm (see Fig. 24c).
Fig. 24c. Graph of the growth rate of a maize plant
1.6.2 Example 2
Another example to illustrate how a graph should be made is the variation of the temperature over one full day (24 hours). Suppose the outside temperature (always in the shade) is measured, with a thermometer, every two hours, starting at midnight and ending the following midnight. Suppose the following results are found: Time (hr) Temperature (C) 0 16 2 13 4 6 6 8
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
13 19 24 28 2 27 22 19 16
On the x axis indicate the time in hours, whereby 1 cm on the graph is 2 hours. On the y axis indicate the temperature in degrees Celsius (C), whereby 1 cm on the graph is 5C. Now indicate (with crosses) the values from the table (above) on the graph paper and connect the crosses with straight dotted lines (see Fig. 25a). Fig. 25a. Graph showing temperature over 24 hours; mistake 16 hour reading At this stage, if you look attentively at the graph, you will note that there is a very abrupt change in its shape around the sixteenth hour. The outside temperature seems to have fallen from 28C to 2C in two hours time! That does not make sense, and the reading of the thermometer at the sixteenth hour must have been wrong. This cross cannot be taken in consideration for the graph and should be rejected. The only dotted line we can accept is the straight one in between the reading at the fourteenth hour and the reading at the eighteenth hour (see Fig. 25b). Fig. 25b. Graph showing temperature over 24 hours; estimated correction of mistake In reality the temperature will change more gradually than indicated by the dotted line; that is why a smooth curve is made (continuous line). The smooth curve represents the most realistic approximation of the temperature over 24 hours (see Fig. 25c). Fig. 25c. Graph showing temperature over 24 hours; smooth curve From the graph it can be seen that the minimum or lowest temperature was reached around 4 o'clock in the morning and was about 6C. The highest temperature was reached at 4 o'clock in the afternoon and was approximately 29C. QUESTION What was the temperature at 7, 15 and 23 hours? (Always use the smooth curve to take the readings). ANSWER (see Fig. 25c) Temperature at 7 hours: 10C Temperature at 15 hours: 29C Temperature at 23 hours: 17C
1.7 Test your knowledge

1.7.1 Questions 1.7.2 Answers
1.7.1 Questions
1) Calculate the surface areas of the following triangles: a. height = 6 cm, base = 12 cm = = = A = .....cm2 b. height = 22 cm, base = 48 cm = = = A = .....cm2 c. height = 16 cm, base = 24 cm = = = A = .....cm2 d. height = 0.8 m, base = 0.3 m = = = A = .....m2 2) Calculate the surface areas of the following trapeziums: a. height = 12 cm, base = 52 cm, top = 16 cm = = = A = .....cm2 b. height = 20 cm, base = 108 dm, top = 16 cm = = = A = .....cm2 c. height = 0.3 m, base = 1.8 m, top = 1.5 m = = = A = .....m2 3) Calculate the cross-section of the canal when given: height = 1 m
top width = 2.6 m bottom width = 1.2 m 4) Calculate the wetted cross-section when in addition to 3) is given that the water height is 0.8 m and the top width of the water surface is 2.32 m. 5) A rectangular field has a length of 120 m and a width of 85 m. What is the area of the field in hectares? 6) a. 25% of 1820 metres = .....metres b. 13% of 971 cm = .....cm c. 83% of 8000 apples = .....apples d. 7 of 18 060 metres = .....metres e. 13% of 26 hectares = .....hectares f. 1.5 of 28 000 metres = .....metres 7) Calculate the volume of the following blocks, when given: a. length = 75 cm, width = 3 m, height = 6 cm = = = V = .....m3 b. length = 0.5 cm, width = 1 dm, height = 20 cm = = = V = .....m3 c. length = 15 cm, width = 2 dm, height = 0.5 m = = = V = .....litres 8) Calculate the volume of water (in m3) on a field, when given: the length = 150 m, the width = 56 m and the water layer = 70 mm. 9) Calculate the minimum depth of a reservoir, which has: a length of 15 m and a width of 10 m and which has to provide 50 mm water for a field of 175 m long and 95 m wide. 10) Make a graph of the monthly rainfall over a period of 1 year, when given: Month Rain (mm/month) Jan. 42 Feb. 65 Mar. 140 Apr. 120 May 76 June 24 July 6 Aug. 0 Sept. 0 Oct. 10 Nov. 17 Dec. 27
1.7.2 Answers
1) a. A = 0.5 x b x h = 0.5 x 6 cm x 12 cm = 36 cm2 b. A = 0.5 x 22 cm x 48 cm = 528 cm2 c. A = 0.5 x 16 cm x 24 cm = 192 cm2 d. A = 0.5 x 0.8 m x 0.3 m = 0.12 m2 2) a. A = 0.5 x (b + a) x h = 0.5 x (52 cm + 16 cm) x 12 cm = 408 cm2 b. A = 0.5 x (108 cm + 16 cm) x 20 cm = 1240 cm2 c. A = 0.5 x (1.8 m + 1.5 m) x 0.3 m = 0.495 m2 3) A = 0.5 x (b + a) x h = 0.5 x (1.2 m + 2.6 m) x 1 m = 1.9 m2 4) A = 0.5 x (b + a1) x h1 - 0.5 x (1.2 m + 2.32 m) x 0.8 m = 1.408 m2 5) Area of the field in square metres = l (m) x w (m) = 120 m x 85 m = 10 200 m2
6) a. 1820 m x 25/100 = 455 m b. 971 cm x 13/100 = 126.23 cm c. 8000 apples x 83/100 = 6640 apples d. 18 060 m x 7/1000 = 126.42 m e. 26 ha x 13/100= 3.38 ha f. 28 000 m x 1.5/1000 = 42 m 7) a. V = l x w x h = 0.75 m x 3 m x 0.06 m = 0.135 m3 b. V = 0.005 m x 0.10 m x 0.20 m = 0.0001 m3 c. V = 1.5 dm x 2 dm x 5 dm = 15 dm3 = 15 litres 8) V = l x w x h = 150 m x 56 m x 0.070 m = 588 m3 9) Volume of water required on a field: V = length of field (m) x width of field (m) x thickness of water layer (m) = 175 m x 95 m x 0.050 m = 831.25 m3 Volume of the reservoir: V = 831.25 m3 = length of reservoir (m) x width of reservoir (m) x depth of reservoir (m)
Graph of monthly rainfall over a period of one year
CHAPTER 2 - SOIL AND WATER

2.1 The soil 2.2 Entry of water into the soil 2.3 Soil moisture conditions 2.4 Available water content 2.5 Groundwater table 2.6 Soil erosion by water
2.1 The soil

2.1.1 Soil composition 2.1.2 Soil profile 2.1.3 Soil texture 2.1.4 Soil structure
2.1.1 Soil composition

When dry soil is crushed in the hand, it can be seen that it is composed of all kinds of particles of different sizes. Most of these particles originate from the degradation of rocks; they are called mineral particles. Some originate from residues of plants or animals (rotting leaves, pieces of bone, etc.), these are called organic particles (or organic matter). The soil particles seem to touch each other, but in reality have spaces in between. These spaces are called pores. When the soil is "dry", the pores are mainly filled with air. After irrigation or rainfall, the pores are mainly filled with water. Living material is found in the soil. It can be live roots as well as beetles, worms, larvae etc. They help to aerate the soil and thus create favourable growing conditions for the plant roots (Fig. 26). Fig. 26. The composition of the soil
2.1.2 Soil profile

If a pit is dug in the soil, at least 1 m deep, various layers, different in colour and composition can be seen. These layers are called horizons. This succession of horizons is called the profile of the soil (Fig. 27). Fig. 27. The soil profile
A very general and simplified soil profile can be described as follows: a. The plough layer (20 to 30 cm thick): is rich in organic matter and contains many live roots. This layer is subject to land preparation (e.g. ploughing, harrowing etc.) and often has a dark colour (brown to black). b. The deep plough layer: contains much less organic matter and live roots. This layer is hardly affected by normal land preparation activities. The colour is lighter, often grey, and sometimes mottled with yellowish or reddish spots. c. The subsoil layer: hardly any organic matter or live roots are to be found. This layer is not very important for plant growth as only a few roots will reach it. d. The parent rock layer: consists of rock, from the degradation of which the soil was formed. This rock is sometimes called parent material. The depth of the different layers varies widely: some layers may be missing altogether.
2.1.3 Soil texture

The mineral particles of the soil differ widely in size and can be classified as follows: Name of the particles gravel sand silt clay Size limits in mm larger than 1 1 to 0.5 0.5 to 0.002 less than 0.002 Distinguisable with naked eye obviously easily barely impossible
The amount of sand, silt and clay present in the soil determines the soil texture. In coarse textured soils: sand is predominant (sandy soils). In medium textured soils: silt is predominant (loamy soils). In fine textured soils: clay is predominant (clayey soils). In the field, soil texture can be determined by rubbing the soil between the fingers (see Fig. 28). Farmers often talk of light soil and heavy soil. A coarse-textured soil is light because it is easy to work, while a fine-textured soil is heavy because it is hard to work. Expression used by the farmer light medium heavy Expression used in literature sandy coarse loamy medium clayey fine
The texture of a soil is permanent, the farmer is unable to modify or change it. Fig. 28a. Coarse textured soil is gritty. Individual particules are loose and fall apart in the hand, even when moist. Fig. 28b. Medium textured soil feels very soft (like flour) when dry. It can be easily be pressed when wet and then feels silky. Fig. 28c. Fine textured soil sticks to the fingers when wet and can form a ball when pressed.
2.1.4 Soil structure

Soil structure refers to the grouping of soil particles (sand, silt, clay, organic matter and fertilizers) into porous compounds. These are called aggregates. Soil structure also refers to the arrangement of these aggregates separated by pores and cracks (Fig. 29). The basic types of aggregate arrangements are shown in Fig. 30, granular, blocky, prismatic, and massive structure. Fig. 29. The soil structure
When present in the topsoil, a massive structure blocks the entrance of water; seed germination is difficult due to poor aeration. On the other hand, if the topsoil is granular, the water enters easily and the seed germination is better. In a prismatic structure, movement of the water in the soil is predominantly vertical and therefore the supply of water to the plant roots is usually poor. Unlike texture, soil structure is not permanent. By means of cultivation practices (ploughing, ridging, etc.), the farmer tries to obtain a granular topsoil structure for his fields. Fig. 30. Some examples of soil structures GRANULAR BLOCKY
PRISMATIC
MASSIVE
2.2 Entry of water into the soil

2.2.1 The infiltration process 2.2.2 Infiltration rate 2.2.3 Factors influencing the infiltration rate
2.2.1 The infiltration process

When rain or irrigation water is supplied to a field, it seeps into the soil. This process is called infiltration. Infiltration can be visualized by pouring water into a glass filled with dry powdered soil, slightly tamped. The water seeps into the soil; the colour of the soil becomes darker as it is wetted (see Fig. 31). Fig. 31. Infiltration of water into the soil
2.2.2 Infiltration rate

Repeat the previous test, this time with two glasses. One is filled with dry sand and the other is filled with dry clay (see Fig. 32a and b). The infiltration of water into the sand is faster than into the clay. The sand is said to have a higher infiltration rate. Fig. 32a. The same amount of water is supplied to each glass
Fig. 32b. After one hour the water has infiltrated in the sand, while some water is still ponding on the clay
The infiltration rate of a soil is the velocity at which water can seep into it. It is commonly measured by the depth (in mm) of the water layer that the soil can absorb in an hour. An infiltration rate of 15 mm/hour means that a water layer of 15 mm on the surface of the soil, will take one hour to infiltrate (see fig. 33). Fig. 33. Soil with an infiltration rate of 15 mm/hour
A range of values for infiltration rates is given below: Low infiltration rate less than 15 mm/hour medium infiltration rate 15 to 50 mm/hour high infiltration rate more than 50 mm/hour
2.2.3 Factors influencing the infiltration rate

The infiltration rate of a soil depends on factors that are constant, such as the soil texture. It also depends on factors that vary, such as the soil moisture content. i. Soil Texture Coarse textured soils have mainly large particles in between which there are large pores. On the other hand, fine textured soils have mainly small particles in between which there are small pores (see Fig. 34). Fig. 34. Infiltration rate and soil texture
In coarse soils, the rain or irrigation water enters and moves more easily into larger pores; it takes less time for the water to infiltrate into the soil. In other words, infiltration rate is higher for coarse textured soils than for fine textured soils. ii. The soil moisture content The water infiltrates faster (higher infiltration rate) when the soil is dry, than when it is wet (see Fig. 35). As a consequence, when irrigation water is applied to a field, the water at first infiltrates easily, but as the soil becomes wet, the infiltration rate decreases. Fig. 35. Infiltration rate and soil moisture content
iii. The soil structure Generally speaking, water infiltrates quickly (high infiltration rate) into granular soils but very slowly (low infiltration rate) into massive and compact soils. Because the farmer can influence the soil structure (by means of cultural practices), he can also change the infiltration rate of his soil.
2.3 Soil moisture conditions

2.3.1 Soil moisture content 2.3.2 Saturation 2.3.3 Field capacity 2.3.4 Permanent wilting point
2.3.1 Soil moisture content

The soil moisture content indicates the amount of water present in the soil. It is commonly expressed as the amount of water (in mm of water depth) present in a depth of one metre of soil. For example: when an amount of water (in mm of water depth) of 150 mm is present in a depth of one metre of soil, the soil moisture content is 150 mm/m (see Fig. 36). Fig. 36. A soil moisture content of 150 mm/m
The soil moisture content can also be expressed in percent of volume. In the example above, 1 m3 of soil (e.g. with a depth of 1 m, and a surface area of 1 m2) contains 0.150 m3 of water (e.g. with a depth of 150 mm = 0.150 m and a surface area of 1 m2). This results in a soil moisture content in volume percent of:
Thus, a moisture content of 100 mm/m corresponds to a moisture content of 10 volume percent.
Note: The amount of water stored in the soil is not constant with time, but may vary.
2.3.2 Saturation
During a rain shower or irrigation application, the soil pores will fill with water. If all soil pores are filled with water the soil is said to be saturated. There is no air left in the soil (see Fig. 37a). It is easy to determine in the field if a soil is saturated. If a handful of saturated soil is squeezed, some (muddy) water will run between the fingers. Plants need air and water in the soil. At saturation, no air is present and the plant will suffer. Many crops cannot withstand saturated soil conditions for a period of more than 2-5 days. Rice is one of the exceptions to this rule. The period of saturation of the topsoil usually does not last long. After the rain or the irrigation has stopped, part of the water present in the larger pores will move downward. This process is called drainage or percolation. The water drained from the pores is replaced by air. In coarse textured (sandy) soils, drainage is completed within a period of a few hours. In fine textured (clayey) soils, drainage may take some (2-3) days.
2.3.3 Field capacity

After the drainage has stopped, the large soil pores are filled with both air and water while the smaller pores are still full of water. At this stage, the soil is said to be at field capacity. At field capacity, the water and air contents of the soil are considered to be ideal for crop growth (see Fig. 37b).
2.3.4 Permanent wilting point

Little by little, the water stored in the soil is taken up by the plant roots or evaporated from the topsoil into the atmosphere. If no additional water is supplied to the soil, it gradually dries out. The dryer the soil becomes, the more tightly the remaining water is retained and the more difficult it is for the plant roots to extract it. At a certain stage, the uptake of water is not sufficient to meet the plant's needs. The plant looses freshness and wilts; the leaves change colour from green to yellow. Finally the plant dies. The soil water content at the stage where the plant dies, is called permanent wilting point. The soil still contains some water, but it is too difficult for the roots to suck it from the soil (see Fig. 37c). Fig. 37. Some soil moisture characteristics
2.4 Available water content

The soil can be compared to a water reservoir for the plants. When the soil is saturated, the reservoir is full. However, some water drains rapidly below the rootzone before the plant can use it (see Fig. 38a). Fig. 38a. Saturation
When this water has drained away, the soil is at field capacity. The plant roots draw water from what remains in the reservoir (see Fig. 38b). Fig. 38b. Field capacity
When the soil reaches permanent wilting point, the remaining water is no longer available to the plant (see Fig. 38c). Fig. 38c. Permanent wilting point
The amount of water actually available to the plant is the amount of water stored in the soil at field capacity minus the water that will remain in the soil at permanent wilting point. This is illustrated in Fig. 39. Fig. 39. The available soil moisture or water content
Available water content = water content at field capacity - water content at permanent wilting point ..... (13) The available water content depends greatly on the soil texture and structure. A range of values for different types of soil is given in the following table. Soil Available water content in mm water depth per m soil depth (mm/m) sand 25 to 100 loam 100 to 175 clay 175 to 250 The field capacity, permanent wilting point (PWP) and available water content are called the soil moisture characteristics. They are constant for a given soil, but vary widely from one type of soil to another.
2.5 Groundwater table

2.5.1 Depth of the groundwater table 2.5.2 Perched groundwater table 2.5.3 Capillary rise Part of the water applied to the soil surface drains below the rootzone and feeds deeper soil layers which are permanently saturated; the top of the saturated layer is called groundwater table or sometimes just water table (see Fig. 40). Fig. 40. The groundwater table
2.5.1 Depth of the groundwater table

The depth of the groundwater table varies greatly from place to place, mainly due to changes in topography of the area (see Fig. 41). Fig. 41. Variations in depth of the groundwater table
In one particular place or field, the depth of the groundwater table may vary in time. Following heavy rainfall or irrigation, the groundwater table rises. It may even reach and saturate the rootzone. If prolonged, this situation can be disastrous for crops which cannot resist "wet feet" for a long period. Where the groundwater table appears at the surface, it is called an open groundwater table. This is the case in swampy areas. The groundwater table can also be very deep and distant from the rootzone, for example following a prolonged dry period. To keep the rootzone moist, irrigation is then necessary.
2.5.2 Perched groundwater table

A perched groundwater layer can be found on top of an impermeable layer rather close to the surface (20 to 100 cm). It covers usually a limited area. The top of the perched water layer is called the perched groundwater table. The impermeable layer separates the perched groundwater layer from the more deeply located groundwater table (see Fig. 42). Fig. 42. A perched groundwater table
Soil with an impermeable layer not far below the rootzone should be irrigated with precaution, because in the case of over irrigation (too much irrigation), the perched water table may rise rapidly.
2.5.3 Capillary rise

So far, it has been explained that water can move downward, as well as horizontally (or laterally). In addition, water can move upward. If a piece of tissue is dipped in water (Fig. 43), the water is sucked upward by the tissue. Fig. 43. Upward movement of water or capillary rise The same process happens with a groundwater table and the soil above it. The groundwater can be sucked upward by the soil through very small pores that are called capillars. This process is called capillary rise. In fine textured soil (clay), the upward movement of water is slow but covers a long distance. On the other hand, in coarse textured soil (sand), the upward movement of the water is quick but covers only a short distance. Soil texture Capillary rise (in cm) coarse (sand) 20 to 50 cm medium 50 to 80 cm fine (clay) more than 80 cm up to several metres
2.6 Soil erosion by water

2.6.1 Sheet erosion 2.6.2 Gully erosion Erosion is the transport of soil from one place to another. Climatic factors such as wind and rain can cause erosion, but also under irrigation it may occur. Over a short period, the process of erosion is almost invisible. However, it can be continuous and the whole fertile top layer of a field may disappear within a few years. Soil erosion by water depends on: - the slope: steep, sloping fields are more exposed to erosion; - the soil structure: light soils are more sensitive to erosion; - the volume or rate of flow of surface runoff water: larger or rapid flows induce more erosion. Erosion is usually heaviest during the early part of irrigation, especially when irrigating on slopes. The dry surface soil, sometimes loosened by cultivation, is easily removed by flowing water. After the first irrigation, the soil is moist and settles down, so erosion is reduced. Newly irrigated areas are more sensitive to erosion, especially in their early stages. There are two main types of erosion caused by water: sheet erosion and gully erosion. They are often combined.
2.6.1 Sheet erosion

Sheet erosion is the even removal of a very thin layer or "sheet" of topsoil from sloping land. It occurs over large areas of land and causes most of the soil losses (see Fig. 44). Fig. 44. Sheet erosion The signs of sheet erosion are: - only a thin layer of topsoil; or the subsoil is partly exposed; sometimes even parent rock is exposed; - quite large amounts of coarse sand, gravel and pebbles in the arable layer, the finer material has been removed; - exposure of the roots; - deposit of eroded material at the foot of the slope.
2.6.2 Gully erosion

Gully erosion is defined as the removal of soil by a concentrated water flow, large enough to form channels or gullies. These gullies carry water during heavy rain or irrigation and gradually become wider and deeper (see Fig. 45). Fig. 45. Gully erosion
The signs of gully erosion on an irrigated field are: - irregular changes in the shape and length of the furrows; - accumulation of eroded material at the bottom of the furrows; - exposure of plant roots.
CHAPTER 3 - ELEMENTS OF TOPOGRAPHY

3.1 Slopes 3.2 Elevation of a point 3.3 Contour lines 3.4 Maps
3.1 Slopes
3.1.1 Definition 3.1.2 Method of expressing slopes 3.1.3 Cross slopes
3.1.1 Definition
A slope is the rise or fall of the land surface. It is important for the farmer or irrigator to identify the slopes on the land. A slope is easy to recognize in a hilly area. Start climbing from the foot of a hill toward the top, this is called a rising slope (see Fig. 46, black arrow). Go downhill, this is a falling slope (see Fig. 46, white arrow). Fig. 46. A rising and a falling slope
Flat areas are never strictly horizontal; there are gentle slopes in a seemingly flat area, but they are often hardly noticeable to the naked eye. An accurate survey of the land is necessary to identify these so called "flat slopes".
3.1.2 Method of expressing slopes

The slope of a field is expressed as a ratio. It is the vertical distance, or difference in height, between two points in a field, divided by the horizontal distance between these two points. The formula is: ..... (14a)
An example is given in Fig. 47. Fig. 47. The dimensions of a slope
The slope can also be expressed in percent; the formula used is then: ..... (14b)
Using the same measurements shown in Fig. 47:
Finally, the slope can be expressed in per mil; the formula used is then:
..... (14c)
with the figures from the same example:
NOTE: Slope in = slope in % x 10 QUESTION What is the slope in percent and in per mil of a field with a horizontal length of 200 m and a height difference of 1.5 m between the top and the bottom? ANSWER
Field slope in = field slope in % x 10 = 0.75 x 10 = 7.5 QUESTION What is the difference in height between the top and the bottom of a field when the horizontal length of the field is 300 m and the slope is 2. ANSWER
thus: height difference (m) = 0.002 x 300 m = 0.6 m. The following table shows a range of slopes commonly referred to in irrigated fields. Slope % Horizontal 0 - 0.2 0-2 Very flat 0.2 - 0.5 2-5 Flat 0.5 - 1 5 - 10 Moderate 1 - 2.5 10 - 25 Steep more than 2.5 more than 25 Fig. 48a. A steep slope
Fig. 48b. A flat slope
3.1.3 Cross slopes

Place a book on a table and lift one side of it 4 centimetres from the table (Fig. 49a). Now, tilt the book sideways (6 cm) so that only one corner of it touches the table (Fig. 49b). Fig. 49a. Main slope
Fig. 49b. Main slope and cross slope
The thick arrow indicates the direction of what can be called the main slope; the thin arrow indicates the direction of the cross slope, the latter crosses the direction of the main slope. An illustration of the main slope and the cross slope of an irrigated field is shown in Fig. 50. Fig. 50. The main slope and cross slope of an irrigated field
3.2 Elevation of a point

3.2.1 Definition 3.2.2 Bench mark and mean sea level
3.2.1 Definition
In figure 51, point A is at the top of a concrete bridge. Any other point in the surrounding area is higher or lower than A, and the vertical distance between the two can be determined. For example, B is higher than A, and the vertical distance between A and B is 2 m. Point C, is lower than A and the vertical distance between A and C is 1 m. If point A is chosen as a reference point or datum, the elevation of any other point in the field can be defined as the vertical distance between this point and A. Fig. 51. Reference point or datum "A"
Thus, the height or elevation of B, in relation to the datum A, is 2 m and the elevation of C, also related to the datum A, is 1 m. As a reminder that a point is above or below the datum, its elevation is prefixed by the sign + (plus) if it is above the datum, or - (minus) if it is below the datum. Therefore, in relation to the datum A, the elevation of B is +2 m and the elevation of C is -1 m.
3.2.2 Bench mark and mean sea level

A bench mark is a permanent mark established in a field to use as a reference point. A bench mark can be a concrete base in which an iron bar is fixed, indicating the exact place of the reference point. A bench mark can also be a permanent object on the farm, such as the top of a concrete structure. In most countries the topographical departments have established a national network of bench marks with officially registered elevations. All bench mark heights are given in relationship to the one national datum plane which in general is the mean sea level (MSL) (see Fig. 52). Fig. 52. A bench mark (B.M.) and mean sea level (M.S.L.)
EXAMPLE In Figure 52, the elevation of point A in relation to the bench mark (BM) is 5 metres. The BM elevation relative to the mean sea level (MSL) is 10 m. Thus, the elevation of point A relative to the MSL is 5 m + 10 m = 15 m and is called the reduced level (RL) of A. QUESTION What is the reduced level of point B in Figure 52. ANSWER The elevation of B relative to BM = 3 m The elevation of BM relative to MSL = 10 m Thus, the reduced level of B = 3 m + 10 m = 13 m QUESTION What is the difference in elevation between A and B? What does it represent? ANSWER The difference in elevation between A and B is the reduced level of A minus the reduced level of B = 15 m - 13 m = 2 m, which represents the vertical distance between A and B.
3.3 Contour lines

A contour line is the imaginary horizontal line that connects all points in a field which have the same elevation. A contour line is imaginary but can be visualized by taking the example of a lake. The water level of a lake may move up and down, but the water surface always remains horizontal. The level of the water on the shore line of the lake makes a contour line because it reaches points which are all at the same elevation (Fig. 53a). Fig. 53a. The shore line of the lake forms a contour line Suppose the water level of the lake rises 50 cm above its original level. The contour line, formed by the shore line, changes and takes a new shape, now joining all the points 50 cm higher than the original lake level (Fig. 53b). Fig. 53b. When the water level rises, a new contour line is formed Contour lines are useful means to illustrate the topography of a field on a flat map; the height of each contour line is indicated on the map so that the hills or depressions can be identified.
3.4 Maps
3.4.1 Description of a map 3.4.2 Interpretation of contour lines on a map 3.4.3 Mistakes in the contour lines 3.4.4 Scale of a map
3.4.1 Description of a map

Fig. 54 represents a three-dimensional view of a field with its hills, valleys and depressions; the contour lines have also been indicated. Fig. 54. A three-dimensional view Such a representation gives a very good idea of what the field looks like in reality. Unfortunately, it requires much skill to draw and is almost useless for the designing of roads, irrigation and drainage infrastructures. A much more accurate and convenient representation of the field, on which all data referring to topography can be plotted, is a map (Fig. 55). The map is what you see when looking at the three-dimensional view (Fig. 54) from the top.
3.4.2 Interpretation of contour lines on a map

The arrangement of the contour lines on a map gives a direct indication of the changes in the field's topography (Fig. 55).
Fig. 55. A two-dimensional view or map In hilly areas, the contour lines are close together while they are wider apart on flat slopes. The closer the contour lines, the steeper the slope. The wider the contour lines, the flatter the slopes. On a hill, the contour lines form circles; whereby the values of their elevation increase from the edge to the centre. In a depression, the contour lines also form circles; the values of their elevation, however, decrease from the edge to the centre.
3.4.3 Mistakes in the contour lines

Contour lines of different heights can never cross each other. Crossing countour lines would mean that the intersection point has two different elevations, which is impossible (see Fig. 56). Fig. 56. WRONG; crossing contour lines A contour line is continuous; there can never be an isolated piece of contour line somewhere on the map, as shown in Figure 57. Fig. 57. WRONG; an isolated piece of contour line
3.4.4 Scale of a map

To be complete and really useful, a map must have a defined scale. The scale is the ratio of the distance between two points on a map and their real distance on the field. A scale of 1 in 5000 (1:5000) means that 1 cm measured on the map corresponds to 5000 cm (or converted into metres, 50 m) on the field. QUESTION What is the real distance between points A and B on the field when these two points are 3.5 cm apart on a map whose scale is 1 to 2 500? (see Fig. 58) Fig. 58. Measuring the distance between A and B ANSWER The scale is 1:2 500, which means that 1 cm on the map represents 2 500 cm in reality. Thus, 3.5 cm between A and B on the map corresponds to 3.5 x 2 500 cm = 8 750 cm or 87.5 m on the field.
CHAPTER 4 - RAINFALL AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

4.1 Rainfall 4.2 Evapotranspiration All crops need water to grow and produce yields. The most important source of water for crop growth is rainfall. When rainfall is insufficient, irrigation water may be supplied to guarantee a good harvest. One of the main problems of the irrigator is to know the amount of water that has to be applied to the field to meet the water needs of the crops; in other words the irrigation requirement needs to be determined. Too much water means a waste of water which is so precious in arid countries. It can also lead to a rise of the groundwater table and an undesirable saturation of the rootzone. Too little water during the growing season causes the plants to wilt. Long periods during which the water supply is insufficient, result in loss of yield or even crop failure. In addition, the irrigation requirement needs to be determined for proper design of the irrigation system and for establishment of the irrigation schedules.
4.1 Rainfall
4.1.1 Amount of rainfall 4.1.2 Rainfall intensity 4.1.3 Rainfall Distribution 4.1.4 Effective Rainfall The primary source of water for agricultural production, for large parts of the world, is rainfall or precipitation. Rainfall is characterized by its amount, intensity and distribution in time.
4.1.1 Amount of rainfall

Imagine an open square container, 1 m wide, 1 m long and 0.5 m high (see Fig. 59a). Fig. 59a. An open container to collect rainwater
This container is placed horizontally on an open area in a field (see Fig. 59b). Fig. 59b. Container placed in the field
During a rain shower, the container collects the water. Suppose that when the rain stops, the depth of water contained in the pan is 10 mm (see Fig. 59c). Fig. 59c. 10 mm rainwater collected in the container
The volume of water collected in the pan is: V (m3) = l (m) x w (m) x d (m) = 1 m x 1 m x 0.010 m = 0.01 m3 or 10 litres It can be assumed that the surrounding field has also received an uniform water depth of 10 mm (see Fig. 59d). Fig. 59d. 10 mm rainfall on the field
In terms of volume, with a rainfall of 10 mm, every square metre of the field receives 0.01 m, or 10 litres, of rain water. With a rainfall of 1 mm, every square metre receives 1 litre of rain water. A rainfall of 1 mm supplies 0.001 m3, or 1 litre of water to each square metre of the field. Thus 1 ha receives 10 000 litres. QUESTION What is the total amount of water received by a field of 5 ha under a rainfall of 15 mm? ANSWER Each hectare (10 000 m2) receives 10 000 m2 x 0.015 m = 150 m3 of water. Thus the total amount of water received by the 5 hectares is: 5 x 150 m = 750 m Rainfall is often expressed in millimetres per day (mm/day) which represents the total depth of rainwater (mm), during 24 hours. It is the sum of all the rain showers which occurred during these 24 hours.
4.1.2 Rainfall intensity

The rainfall intensity is the depth of water (in mm) received during a shower divided by the duration of the shower (in hours). It is expressed in millimetres of water depth per hour (mm/hour). ..... (15)
For example, a rain shower lasts 3.5 hours and supplies 35 mm of water. The intensity of this shower is
(see Fig. 60). Fig. 60. Rainfall intensity LOW INTENSITY HIGH INTENSITY Suppose the same amount of water (35 mm) is supplied in one hour only, thus by a shower of higher intensity: (see Fig. 60). Although the same amount of water (35 mm) has been supplied by both showers, the high intensity shower is less profitable to the crops. The high intensity rainfall usually has big drops that fall with more force on the soil surface. In fine textured soil especially, the soil aggregates break down rapidly into fine particles that seal the soil surface (see Fig. 61). The infiltration is then reduced, and surface runoff increases (see Section 4.1.4). Fig. 61. Sealing of the soil surface by raindrops
The low intensity rainfall has finer drops. The soil surface is not sealed, the rainwater infiltrates more easily and surface runoff is limited (see Section 4.1.4).
4.1.3 Rainfall Distribution

Suppose that during one month, a certain area receives a total amount of rain water of 100 mm (100 mm/month). For crop growth, the distribution of the various showers during this month is important. Suppose that the rainwater falls during two showers of 50 mm each, one at the beginning of the month and the other one at the end of the month (see Fig. 62a). In between these two showers, the crop undergoes a long dry period and may even wilt. Irrigation during this period is then required. Fig. 62a. 100 mm rainfall, poorly distributed over one month On the other hand, if the rainwater is supplied regularly by little showers, evenly distributed over the month (see Fig. 62b), adequate soil moisture is continuously maintained and irrigation might not be required.
Fig. 62b. 100 mm rainfall, evenly distributed over one month Not only the rainfall distribution within a month is important. It is also important to look into the rainfall distribution over the years. Suppose that in a certain area the average rainfall in May is 150 mm and that this amount is just sufficient to satisfy the water need of the crops during this month. You may however find that, in this area, the rainfall in an exceptionally dry year is only 75 mm, while in a wet year the rainfall is 225 mm. In a dry year it would thus be necessary to irrigate the crops in May, while in an average year or a wet year, irrigation is not needed.
4.1.4 Effective Rainfall

i. Introduction When rain water ((1) in Fig. 63) falls on the soil surface, some of it infiltrates into the soil (2), some stagnates on the surface (3), while some flows over the surface as runoff (4). When the rainfall stops, some of the water stagnating on the surface (3) evaporates to the atmosphere (5), while the rest slowly infiltrates into the soil (6). From all the water that infiltrates into the soil ((2) and (6)), some percolates below the rootzone (7), while the rest remains stored in the rootzone (8). Fig. 63. Effective rainfall (8) = (1) - (4) - (5) - (7)
In other words, the effective rainfall (8) is the total rainfall (1) minus runoff (4) minus evaporation (5) and minus deep percolation (7); only the water retained in the root zone (8) can be used by the plants, and represents what is called the effective part of the rainwater. The term effective rainfall is used to define this fraction of the total amount of rainwater useful for meeting the water need of the crops.
ii. Factors influencing effective rainfall Many factors influence the amount of the effective rainfall. There are factors which the farmer cannot influence (e.g. the climate and the soil texture) and those which the farmer can influence (e.g. the soil structure). a. Climate The climate determines the amount, intensity and distribution of rainfall which have direct influence on the effective rainfall (see 4.1.3 and 4.1.4). b. Soil texture In coarse textured soil, water infiltrates quickly but a large part of it percolates below the rootzone. In fine textured soil, the water infiltrates slowly, but much more water is kept in the rootzone than in coarse textured soil. c. Soil structure The condition of the soil structure greatly influences the infiltration rate and therefore the effective rainfall. A favourable soil structure can be obtained by cultural practices (e.g. ploughing, mulching, ridging, etc.). d. Depth of the rootzone Soil water stored in deep layers can be used by the plants only when roots penetrate to that depth. The depth of root penetration is primarily dependent on the type of crop, but also on the type of soil. The thicker the rootzone, the more water available to the plant. (see Fig. 64). Fig. 64. Effective rainfall and depth of the rootzone
e. Topography On steep sloping areas, because of high runoff, the water has less time to infiltrate than in rather flat areas (see Fig. 65). The effective rainfall is thus lower in sloping areas. Fig. 65. Effective rainfall and topography
f. Initial soil moisture content Chapter 2.2.3 ii, explained that for a given soil, the infiltration rate is higher when the soil is dry than when it is moist. This means that for a rain shower occurring shortly after a previous shower or irrigation, the infiltration rate is lower and the surface runoff higher (see Fig. 66). Fig. 66. Effective rainfall and initial soil moisture content
g. Irrigation methods There are different methods of irrigation which will be explained in Chapter V, and each method has a specific influence on the effective rainfall. In basin irrigation there is no surface runoff. All the rainwater is trapped in the basin and has time to infiltrate (Fig. 67a). In inclined border and furrow irrigation, the runoff is relatively large. At the lower end of the field the runoff water is collected in a field drain and carried away (Fig. 67b). Thus the effective rainfall under border or furrow irrigation is lower than under basin irrigation. In contour furrow irrigation there is very little or no slope in the direction of the furrow and thus runoff is limited; the runoff over the cross slope is also limited as the water is caught by the ridges. This results in a relatively high effective rainfall, compared to inclined border or furrow irrigation (see Fig. 67c). Fig. 67a + b + c. Effective rainfall and irrigation methods
4.2 Evapotranspiration
4.2.1 Evaporation 4.2.2 Transpiration 4.2.3 Evapotranspiration 4.2.4 Factors influencing crop evapotranspiration
4.2.1 Evaporation
Imagine the same open container (Section 4.1.1) as used for the collection of rain water, but this time with a depth of 10 mm of water in it; leave the container in the field for 24 hours. Make sure that it does not rain during those 24 hours (Fig. 68a). Fig. 68a. Container with 10 mm of water
At the end of the 24 hours, part of the water originally in the container has evaporated. If only 6 mm of water depth remains in the container, then the evaporation during this day was 10 - 6 = 4 mm (see Fig. 68b). Fig. 68b. After 24 hours, 6 mm of water is left in the container
Some water from the soil in the field surrounding the container has also evaporated during the day. But it would be wrong to assume that the evaporation from the container is the same as the evaporation from the soil. In fact, evaporation from the soil surface is at most equal but usually considerably less than evaporation from an open water surface.
4.2.2 Transpiration
The plant roots suck or extract water from the soil to live and grow. The main part of this water does not remain in the plant, but escapes to the atmosphere as vapour through the plant's leaves and stems. This process is called transpiration of the plant. Transpiration happens mainly during the day time. The amount of water used by the plants for transpiration can, like evaporation, be expressed in millimetres of water per day (mm/day). Note that a day has 24 hours.
4.2.3 Evapotranspiration
The evapotranspiration of a crop is the total amount of soil water used for transpiration by the plants and evaporation from the surrounding soil surface. In other words, the crop evapotranspiration represents the amount of water utilized by the crop and its environment. The evapotranspiration is commonly expressed in millimetres of water used per day (mm/day) or per week (mm/week) or per month (mm/month).
4.2.4 Factors influencing crop evapotranspiration

Many factors influence the evapotranspiration of the crop. The main ones and their effects are shown in the following table. Effect on crop evapotranspiration high low Climate hot cool dry wet windy no wind no clouds cloudy Crop mid/late season initial or ripening dense plant spacing wide plant spacing Soil moisture moist dry Factor
CHAPTER 5 - IRRIGATION SYSTEM

5.1 Main intake structure and pumping station 5.2 Conveyance and distribution system 5.3 Field application systems 5.4 Drainage system The irrigation system consists of a (main) intake structure or (main) pumping station, a conveyance system, a distribution system, a field application system, and a drainage system (see Fig. 69). Fig. 69. An irrigation system
The (main) intake structure, or (main) pumping station, directs water from the source of supply, such as a reservoir or a river, into the irrigation system.
The conveyance system assures the transport of water from the main intake structure or main pumping station up to the field ditches. The distribution system assures the transport of water through field ditches to the irrigated fields. The field application system assures the transport of water within the fields. The drainage system removes the excess water (caused by rainfall and/or irrigation) from the fields.
5.1 Main intake structure and pumping station

5.1.1 Main intake structure 5.1.2 Pumping station
5.1.1 Main intake structure

The intake structure is built at the entry to the irrigation system (see Fig. 70). Its purpose is to direct water from the original source of supply (lake, river, reservoir etc.) into the irrigation system. Fig. 70. An intake structure
5.1.2 Pumping station

In some cases, the irrigation water source lies below the level of the irrigated fields. Then a pump must be used to supply water to the irrigation system (see Fig. 71). Fig. 71. A pumping station
There are several types of pumps, but the most commonly used in irrigation is the centrifugal pump. The centrifugal pump (see Fig. 72a) consists of a case in which an element, called an impeller, rotates driven by a motor (see Fig. 72b). Water enters the case at the center, through the suction pipe. The water is immediately caught by the rapidly rotating impeller and expelled through the discharge pipe. Fig. 72a. Diagram of a centrifugal pump
Fig. 72b. Centrifugal pump and motor
The centrifugal pump will only operate when the case is completely filled with water.
5.2 Conveyance and distribution system

5.2.1 Open canals 5.2.2 Canal structures The conveyance and distribution systems consist of canals transporting the water through the whole irrigation system. Canal structures are required for the control and measurement of the water flow.
5.2.1 Open canals

An open canal, channel, or ditch, is an open waterway whose purpose is to carry water from one place to another. Channels and canals refer to main waterways supplying water to one or more farms. Field ditches have smaller dimensions and convey water from the farm entrance to the irrigated fields. i. Canal characteristics According to the shape of their cross-section, canals are called rectangular (a), triangular (b), trapezoidal (c), circular (d), parabolic (e), and irregular or natural (f) (see Fig. 73). Fig. 73. Some examples of canal cross-sections The most commonly used canal cross-section in irrigation and drainage, is the trapezoidal cross-section. For the purposes of this publication, only this type of canal will be considered. The typical cross-section of a trapezoidal canal is shown in Figure 74. Fig. 74. A trapezoidal canal cross-section
The freeboard of the canal is the height of the bank above the highest water level anticipated. It is required to guard against overtopping by waves or unexpected rises in the water level. The side slope of the canal is expressed as ratio, namely the vertical distance or height to the horizontal distance or width. For example, if the side slope of the canal has a ratio of 1:2 (one to two), this means that the horizontal distance (w) is two times the vertical distance (h) (see Fig. 75). Fig. 75. A side slope of 1:2 (one to two)
The bottom slope of the canal does not appear on the drawing of the cross-section but on the longitudinal section (see Fig. 76). It is commonly expressed in percent or per mil. Fig. 76. A bottom slope of a canal
An example of the calculation of the bottom slope of a canal is given below (see also Fig. 76):
or
ii. Earthen Canals Earthen canals are simply dug in the ground and the bank is made up from the removed earth, as illustrated in Figure 77a. Fig. 77a. Construction of an earthen canal The disadvantages of earthen canals are the risk of the side slopes collapsing and the water loss due to seepage. They also require continuous maintenance (Fig. 77b) in order to control weed growth and to repair damage done by livestock and rodents. Fig. 77b. Maintenance of an earthen canal
iii. Lined Canals Earthen canals can be lined with impermeable materials to prevent excessive seepage and growth of weeds (Fig. 78). Fig. 78. Construction of a canal lined with bricks Lining canals is also an effective way to control canal bottom and bank erosion. The materials mostly used for canal lining are concrete (in precast slabs or cast in place), brick or rock masonry and asphaltic concrete (a mixture of sand, gravel and asphalt). The construction cost is much higher than for earthen canals. Maintenance is reduced for lined canals, but skilled labour is required.
5.2.2 Canal structures

The flow of irrigation water in the canals must always be under control. For this purpose, canal structures are required. They help regulate the flow and deliver the correct amount of water to the different branches of the system and onward to the irrigated fields. There are four main types of structures: erosion control structures, distribution control structures, crossing structures and water measurement structures. i. Erosion control structures a. Canal erosion Canal bottom slope and water velocity are closely related, as the following example will show. A cardboard sheet is lifted on one side 2 cm from the ground (see Fig. 79a). A small ball is placed at the edge of the lifted side of the sheet. It starts rolling downward, following the slope direction. The sheet edge is now lifted 5 cm from the ground (see Fig. 79b), creating a steeper slope. The same ball placed on the top edge of the sheet rolls downward, but this time much faster. The steeper the slope, the higher the velocity of the ball. Fig. 79. The relationship between slope and velocity
Water poured on the top edge of the sheet reacts exactly the same as the ball. It flows downward and the steeper the slope, the higher the velocity of the flow. Water flowing in steep canals can reach very high velocities. Soil particles along the bottom and banks of an earthen canal are then lifted, carried away by the water flow, and deposited downstream
where they may block the canal and silt up structures. The canal is said to be under erosion; the banks might eventually collapse. b. Drop structures and chutes Drop structures or chutes are required to reduce the bottom slope of canals lying on steeply sloping land in order to avoid high velocity of the flow and risk of erosion. These structures permit the canal to be constructed as a series of relatively flat sections, each at a different elevation (see Fig. 80). Fig. 80. Longitudinal section of a series of drop structures
Drop structures take the water abruptly from a higher section of the canal to a lower one. In a chute, the water does not drop freely but is carried through a steep, lined canal section. Chutes are used where there are big differences in the elevation of the canal. ii. Distribution control structures Distribution control structures are required for easy and accurate water distribution within the irrigation system and on the farm. a. Division boxes Division boxes are used to divide or direct the flow of water between two or more canals or ditches. Water enters the box through an opening on one side and flows out through openings on the other sides. These openings are equipped with gates (see Fig. 81). Fig. 81. A division box with three gates
b. Turnouts Turnouts are constructed in the bank of a canal. They divert part of the water from the canal to a smaller one. Turnouts can be concrete structures (Fig. 82a), or pipe structures (Fig. 82b). Fig. 82a. A concrete turnout Fig. 82b. A pipe turnout
c. Checks To divert water from the field ditch to the field, it is often necessary to raise the water level in the ditch. Checks are structures placed across the ditch to block it temporarily and to raise the upstream water level. Checks can be permanent structures (Fig. 83a) or portable (Fig. 83b). Fig. 83a. A permanent concrete check
Fig. 83b. A portable metal check
iii. Crossing structures It is often necessary to carry irrigation water across roads, hillsides and natural depressions. Crossing structures, such as flumes, culverts and inverted siphons, are then required. a. Flumes Flumes are used to carry irrigation water across gullies, ravines or other natural depressions. They are open canals made of wood (bamboo), metal or concrete which often need to be supported by pillars (Fig. 84). Fig. 84. A concrete flume b. Culverts Culverts are used to carry the water across roads. The structure consists of masonry or concrete headwalls at the inlet and outlet connected by a buried pipeline (Fig. 85).
Fig. 85. A culvert
c. Inverted siphons When water has to be carried across a road which is at the same level as or below the canal bottom, an inverted siphon is used instead of a culvert. The structure consists of an inlet and outlet connected by a pipeline (Fig. 86). Inverted siphons are also used to carry water across wide depressions. Fig. 86. An inverted siphon
iv. Water measurement structures The principal objective of measuring irrigation water is to permit efficient distribution and application. By measuring the flow of water, a farmer knows how much water is applied during each irrigation. In irrigation schemes where water costs are charged to the farmer, water measurement provides a basis for estimating water charges. The most commonly used water measuring structures are weirs and flumes. In these structures, the water depth is read on a scale which is part of the structure. Using this reading, the flow-rate is then computed from standard formulas or obtained from standard tables prepared specially for the structure.
a. Weirs In its simplest form, a weir consists of a wall of timber, metal or concrete with an opening with fixed dimensions cut in its edge (see Fig. 87). The opening, called a notch, may be rectangular, trapezoidal or triangular. Fig. 87. Some examples of weirs A RECTANGULAR WEIR
A TRIANGULAR WEIR
A TRAPEZOIDAL WEIR
b. Parshall flumes The Parshall flume consists of a metal or concrete channel structure with three main sections: (1) a converging section at the upstream end, leading to (2) a constricted or throat section and (3) a diverging section at the downstream end (Fig. 88). Fig. 88. A Parshall flume
Depending on the flow condition (free flow or submerged flow), the water depth readings are taken
on one scale only (the upstream one) or on both scales simultaneously. c. Cut-throat flume The cut-throat flume is similar to the Parshall flume, but has no throat section, only converging and diverging sections (see Fig. 89). Unlike the Parshall flume, the cut-throat flume has a flat bottom. Because it is easier to construct and install, the cut-throat flume is often preferred to the Parshall flume. Fig. 89. A cut-throat flume
5.3 Field application systems

5.3.1 Surface irrigation 5.3.2 Sprinkler irrigation 5.3.3 Drip irrigation There are many methods of applying water to the field. The simplest one consists of bringing water from the source of supply, such as a well, to each plant with a bucket or a water-can (see Fig. 90). Fig. 90. Watering plants with a bucket
This is a very time-consuming method and it involves quite heavy work. However, it can be used successfully to irrigate small plots of land, such as vegetable gardens, that are in the neighbourhood of a water source. More sophisticated methods of water application are used in larger irrigation systems. There are three basic methods: surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation and drip irrigation.
5.3.1 Surface irrigation

Surface irrigation is the application of water to the fields at ground level. Either the entire field is flooded or the water is directed into furrows or borders. i. Furrow irrigation Furrows are narrow ditches dug on the field between the rows of crops. The water runs along them as it moves down the slope of the field. The water flows from the field ditch into the furrows by opening up the bank or dyke of the ditch (see Fig. 91a) or by means of syphons or spiles. Siphons are small curved pipes that deliver water over the ditch bank (see Fig. 91b). Spiles are small pipes buried in the ditch bank (see Fig. 91c). Fig. 91a. Water flows into the furrows through openings in the bank
Fig. 91b. The use of siphons
Fig. 91c. The use of spiles
ii. Border irrigation In border irrigation, the field to be irrigated is divided into strips (also called borders or borderstrips) by parallel dykes or border ridges (see Fig. 92). The water is released from the field ditch onto the border through gate structures called outlets (see Fig. 92). The water can also be released by means of siphons or spiles. The sheet of flowing water moves down the slope of the border, guided by the border ridges. Fig. 92. Border irrigation
iii. Basin irrigation Basins are horizontal, flat plots of land, surrounded by small dykes or bunds. The banks prevent the water from flowing to the surrounding fields. Basin irrigation is commonly used for rice grown on flat lands or in terraces on hillsides (see Fig. 93a). Trees can also be grown in basins, where one tree usually is located in the centre of a small basin (see Fig. 93b). Fig. 93a. Basin irrigation on the hillside Fig. 93b. Basin irrigation for trees
5.3.2 Sprinkler irrigation

With sprinkler irrigation, artificial rainfall is created. The water is led to the field through a pipe system in which the water is under pressure. The spraying is accomplished by using several rotating sprinkler heads or spray nozzles (see Fig. 94a) or a single gun type sprinkler (see Fig. 94b). Fig. 94a. Sprinkler irrigation using several rotating sprinkler heads or spray nozzles Fig. 94b. Sprinkler irrigation using a single gun type sprinkler
5.3.3 Drip irrigation

In drip irrigation, also called trickle irrigation, the water is led to the field through a pipe system. On the field, next to the row of plants or trees, a tube is installed. At regular intervals, near the plants or trees, a hole is made in the tube and equipped with an emitter. The water is supplied slowly, drop by drop, to the plants through these emitters (Fig. 95).
Fig. 95. Drip Irrigation
5.4 Drainage system

A drainage system is necessary to remove excess water from the irrigated land. This excess water may be e.g. waste water from irrigation or surface runoff from rainfall. It may also include leakage or seepage water from the distribution system. Excess surface water is removed through shallow open drains (see Surface drainage, Chapter 6.2.1). Excess groundwater is removed through deep open drains or underground pipes (see Subsurface drainage, Chapter 6.2.2).
CHAPTER 6 - DRAINAGE
6.1 Need for drainage 6.2 Different types of drainage
6.1 Need for drainage

During rain or irrigation, the fields become wet. The water infiltrates into the soil and is stored in its pores. When all the pores are filled with water, the soil is said to be saturated and no more water can be absorbed; when rain or irrigation continues, pools may form on the soil surface (Fig. 96). Fig. 96. During heavy rainfall the upper soil layers become saturated and pools may form. Water percolates to deeper layers and infiltrates from the pools.
Part of the water present in the saturated upper soil layers flows downward into deeper layers and is replaced by water infiltrating from the surface pools. When there is no more water left on the soil surface, the downward flow continues for a while and air re-enters in the pores of the soil. This soil is not saturated anymore. However, saturation may have lasted too long for the plants' health. Plant roots require air as well as water and most plants cannot withstand saturated soil for long periods (rice is an exception). Besides damage to the crop, a very wet soil makes the use of machinery difficult, if not impossible. The water flowing from the saturated soil downward to deeper layers, feeds the groundwater reservoir. As a result, the groundwater level (often called groundwater table or simply water table) rises. Following heavy rainfall or continuous over-irrigation, the groundwater table may even reach and saturate part of the rootzone (see Fig. 97). Again, if this situation lasts too long, the plants may suffer. Measures to control the rise of the
water table are thus necessary. Fig. 97. After heavy rainfall the groundwater table may rise and reach the rootzone BEFORE HEAVY RAINFALL
AFTER HEAVY RAINFALL
The removal of excess water either from the ground surface or from the rootzone, is called drainage. Excess water may be caused by rainfall or by using too much irrigation water, but may also have other origins such as canal seepage or floods. In very dry areas there is often accumulation of salts in the soil. Most crops do not grow well on salty soil. Salts can be washed out by percolating irrigation water through the rootzone of the crops. To achieve sufficient percolation, farmers will apply more water to the field than the crops need. But the salty percolation water will cause the water table to rise. Drainage to control the water table, therefore, also serves to control the salinity of the soil (see Chapter 7).
6.2 Different types of drainage

6.2.1 Surface drainage 6.2.2 Subsurface drainage Drainage can be either natural or artificial. Many areas have some natural drainage; this means that excess water flows from the farmers' fields to swamps or to lakes and rivers. Natural drainage, however, is often inadequate and artificial or man-made drainage is required. There are two types of artificial drainage: surface drainage and subsurface drainage.
6.2.1 Surface drainage

Surface drainage is the removal of excess water from the surface of the land. This is normally accomplished by shallow ditches, also called open drains. The shallow ditches discharge into larger and deeper collector drains. In order to facilitate the flow of excess water toward the drains, the field is given an artificial slope by means of land grading (see Fig. 98). Fig. 98. The field is given an artificial slope to facilitate drainage
6.2.2 Subsurface drainage

Subsurface drainage is the removal of water from the rootzone. It is accomplished by deep open drains or buried pipe drains. i. Deep open drains The excess water from the rootzone flows into the open drains (see Fig. 99). The disadvantage of this type of subsurface drainage is that it makes the use of machinery difficult. Fig. 99. Control of the groundwater table by means of deep open drains
ii. Pipe drains Pipe drains are buried pipes with openings through which the soil water can enter. The pipes convey the water to a collector drain (see Fig. 100). Fig. 100. Control of the groundwater table by means of buried pipes
Drain pipes are made of clay, concrete or plastic. They are usually placed in trenches by machines. In clay and concrete pipes (usually 30 cm long and 5 - 10 cm in diameter) drainage water enters the pipes through the joints (see Fig. 101, top). Flexible plastic drains are much longer (up to 200 m) and the water enters through perforations distributed over the entire length of the pipe (see Fig. 101, bottom). Fig. 101. Clay pipes (top) and flexible plastic pipe (bottom) iii. Deep open drains versus pipe drains Open drains use land that otherwise could be used for crops. They restrict the use of machines. They also require a large number of bridges and culverts for road crossings and access to the fields. Open drains require frequent maintenance (weed control, repairs, etc.). In contrast to open drains, buried pipes cause no loss of cultivable land and maintenance requirements are very limited. The installation costs, however, of pipe drains may be higher due to the materials, the equipment and the skilled manpower involved.
CHAPTER 7 - SALTY SOILS

7.1 Salinization 7.2 Salinity 7.3 Crops and saline soils 7.4 Sodicity 7.5 Improvement of saline and sodic soils 7.6 Prevention of salinization
7.1 Salinization
A soil may be rich in salts because the parent rock from which it was formed contains salts. Sea water is another source of salts in low-lying areas along the coast. A very common source of salts in irrigated soils is the irrigation water itself. Most irrigation waters contain some salts. After irrigation, the water added to the soil is used by the crop or evaporates directly from the moist soil. The salt, however, is left behind in the soil. If not removed, it accumulates in the soil; this process is called salinization (see Fig. 102). Very salty soils are sometimes recognizable by a white layer of dry salt on the soil surface. Fig. 102. Salinization, caused by salty irrigation water
Salty groundwater may also contribute to salinization. When the water table rises (e.g. following irrigation in the absence of proper drainage), the salty groundwater may reach the upper soil layers and, thus, supply salts to the rootzone (see Fig. 103). Fig. 103. Salinization, caused by a high
Soils that contain a harmful amount of salt are often referred to as salty or saline soils. Soil, or water, that has a high content of salt is said to have a high salinity.
7.2 Salinity
7.2.1 Water salinity 7.2.2 Soil salinity
7.2.1 Water salinity

Water salinity is the amount of salt contained in the water. It is also called the "salt concentration" and may be expressed in grams of salt per litre of water (grams/litre or g/l) (see Fig. 104), or in milligrams per
litre (which is the same as parts per million, p.p.m). However, the salinity of both water and soil is easily measured by means of an electrical device. It is then expressed in terms of electrical conductivity: millimhos/cm or micromhos/cm. A salt concentration of 1 gram per litre is about 1.5 millimhos/cm. Thus a concentration of 3 grams per litre will be about the same as 4.5 millimhos/cm. Fig. 104. A salt concentration of 10 g/l
7.2.2 Soil salinity

The salt concentration in the water extracted from a saturated soil (called saturation extract) defines the salinity of this soil. If this water contains less than 3 grams of salt per litre, the soil is said to be non saline (see Table below). If the salt concentration of the saturation extract contains more than 12 g/l, the soil is said to be highly saline. Salt concentration of the soil water (saturation extract) in g/l in millimhos/cm 0-3 0 - 4.5 3-6 4.5 - 9 6 - 12 9 - 18 more than 12 more than 18 Salinity non saline slightly saline medium saline highly saline
7.3 Crops and saline soils

Most crops do not grow well on soils that contain salts. One reason is that salt causes a reduction in the rate and amount of water that the plant roots can take up from the soil (see Fig. 105). Also, some salts are toxic to plants when present in high concentration. Fig. 105. A high salt concentration in the soil is harmful for the plants as the water uptake is reduced
Some plants are more tolerant to a high salt concentration than others. Some examples are given in the following table: Highly tolerant Date palm Barley Sugarbeet Cotton Asparagus Spinach Moderately tolerant Wheat Tomato Oats Alfalfa Rice Maize Flax Potatoes Carrot Onion Cucumber Pomegranate Fig Olive Grape Sensitive Red clover Peas Beans Sugarcane Pear Apple Orange Prune Plum Almond Apricot Peach
The highly tolerant crops can withstand a salt concentration of the saturation extract up to 10 g/l. The moderately tolerant crops can withstand salt concentration up to 5 g/l. The limit of the sensitive group is about 2.5 g/l.
7.4 Sodicity
Salty soils usually contain several types of salt. One of these is sodium salt. Where the concentration of sodium salts is high relative to other types of salt, a sodic soil may develop. Sodic soils are characterized by a poor soil structure: they have a low infiltration rate, they are poorly aerated and difficult to cultivate. Thus, sodic soils adversely affect the plants' growth.
7.5 Improvement of saline and sodic soils

7.5.1 Improvement of saline soils 7.5.2 Improvement of sodic soils Numerous areas in the world are naturally saline or sodic or have become saline due to improper irrigation practices. Crop growth on many of these is poor. However, their productivity can be improved by a number of measures.
7.5.1 Improvement of saline soils

Improvement of a saline soil implies the reduction of the salt concentration of the soil to a level that is not harmful to the crops. To that end, more water is applied to the field than is required for crop growth. This additional water infiltrates into the soil and percolates through the rootzone. During percolation, it takes up part of the salts in the soil and takes these along to deeper soil layers. In fact, the water washes the salts out of the rootzone. This washing process is called leaching (see Fig. 106). Fig. 106. Leaching of salts
The additional water required for leaching must be removed from the rootzone by means of a subsurface drainage system (Chapter 6). If not removed, it could cause a rise of the groundwater table which would bring the salts back into the rootzone. Thus, improvement of saline soils includes, essentially, leaching and sub-surface drainage.
7.5.2 Improvement of sodic soils

Improvement of sodic soils implies the reduction of the amount of sodium present in the soil. This is done in two stages. Firstly, chemicals (such as gypsum), which are rich in calcium, are mixed with the soil; the calcium replaces the sodium. Then, the replaced sodium is leached from the rootzone by irrigation water.
7.6 Prevention of salinization

7.6.1 Irrigation water quality 7.6.2 Irrigation management and drainage Soils will become salty if salts are allowed to accumulate. Proper irrigation management and adequate drainage are not only important measures for the improvement of salty soils, they are also essential for the prevention of salinization.
7.6.1 Irrigation water quality

The suitability of water for irrigation depends on the amount and the type of salt the irrigation water contains. The higher the salt concentration of the irrigation water, the greater the risk of salinization. The following Table gives an idea of the risk of salinization: Salt concentration of the irrigation water in g/l less than 0.5 g/l 0.5 - 2 g/l more than 2 g/l Soil salinization risk Restriction on use
no risk no restriction on its use slight to moderate risk should be used with appropriate water management practices high risk not generally advised for use unless consulted with specialists
The type of salt in the irrigation water will influence the risk of developing sodicity: the higher the concentration of sodium present in the irrigation water (particularly compared to other soils), the higher the risk.
7.6.2 Irrigation management and drainage

Irrigation systems are never fully efficient. Some water is always lost in canals and on the farmers' fields. Part of this seeps into the soil. While this will help leach salt out of the rootzone, it will also contribute to a rise of the water table; a high water table is risky because it may cause the salts to return to the rootzone. Therefore, both the water losses and the water table must be strictly controlled. This requires careful management of the irrigation system and a good subsurface drainage system.
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Manual 1 - Introduction To Irrigation

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Manual 1 - Introduction To Irrigation

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Table of Contents

Irrigation Water Management: Training Manual No. 1 - Introduction to Irrigation

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CHAPTER 1 - BASIC TERMS AND CALCULATIONS

CHAPTER 1 - BASIC TERMS AND CALCULATIONS

1.1 Introduction to surface area

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CHAPTER 1 - BASIC TERMS AND CALCULATIONS

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CHAPTER 1 - BASIC TERMS AND CALCULATIONS

1.1.2 Squares and Rectangles

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CHAPTER 1 - BASIC TERMS AND CALCULATIONS

1.1.3 Rhombuses and Parallelograms

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CHAPTER 1 - BASIC TERMS AND CALCULATIONS

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CHAPTER 1 - BASIC TERMS AND CALCULATIONS

base = 3 cm top = 1 cm height = 1 cm base = 2 cm top = 4 cm height = 2 cm

A = 0.5 x (3 cm + 1 cm) x 2 cm = 0.5 x 4 cm x 2 cm = 4 cm2 A = 0.5 x (2 cm + 4 cm) x 2 cm = 0.5 x 6 cm x 2 cm = 6 cm2

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CHAPTER 1 - BASIC TERMS AND CALCULATIONS

1.1.6 Metric Conversions

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CHAPTER 1 - BASIC TERMS AND CALCULATIONS

1.2 Surface areas of canal cross-sections and farms

1.2.1 Determination of the surface areas of canal cross-sections

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CHAPTER 1 - BASIC TERMS AND CALCULATIONS

1.2.2 Determination of the surface area of a farm

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CHAPTER 1 - BASIC TERMS AND CALCULATIONS

CHAPTER 1 - BASIC TERMS AND CALCULATIONS

1.3 Introduction to volume

CHAPTER 1 - BASIC TERMS AND CALCULATIONS

Of course, the result is the same: 0.4 m3 = 400 000 cm3

1.3.1 Units of volume

1.3.2 Volume of water on a field

CHAPTER 1 - BASIC TERMS AND CALCULATIONS

CHAPTER 1 - BASIC TERMS AND CALCULATIONS

1.4 Introduction to flow-rate

1.4.2 Calculation and Units

CHAPTER 1 - BASIC TERMS AND CALCULATIONS

CHAPTER 1 - BASIC TERMS AND CALCULATIONS

1.5 Introduction to percentage and per mil

1.5.2 Per mil

CHAPTER 1 - BASIC TERMS AND CALCULATIONS

1.6 Introduction to graphs

CHAPTER 1 - BASIC TERMS AND CALCULATIONS

CHAPTER 1 - BASIC TERMS AND CALCULATIONS

CHAPTER 1 - BASIC TERMS AND CALCULATIONS

Fig. 24c. Graph of the growth rate of a maize plant

CHAPTER 1 - BASIC TERMS AND CALCULATIONS

1.7 Test your knowledge

CHAPTER 1 - BASIC TERMS AND CALCULATIONS

CHAPTER 1 - BASIC TERMS AND CALCULATIONS

Graph of monthly rainfall over a period of one year

CHAPTER 2 - SOIL AND WATER

CHAPTER 2 - SOIL AND WATER

2.1 The soil