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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
!! Common civil engineering materials: "! steel "! mineral aggregates "! concrete "! masonry "! asphalt "! wood "! soil for geotechnical engineers !! Less common materials "! aluminum "! glass "! plastic "! Fiber-reinforced composites
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
New Materials
!!Advances in "! polymers "! adhesives "! composites "! geotextiles "! coatings "! synthetics !! High performance materials "! higher strength to weight ratio "! improved durability "! lower costs
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Loading Conditions
!! Static (Dead) Loads long term "! applied and removed slowly so no vibrations "! usually due to gravity !! Dynamic (Live) Loads short term shock or vibration "! periodic repeating wave form (rotating equipment) "! transient quick impulse that decays back to resting (vehicles) "! random never repeats (earthquake)
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Stress-Strain Relations
All solid materials deform under load !! stress is like force (or load) with the size factored out so that we can directly compare different sizes "! stress = force / area ! = F / A (psi, ksi, kPa, MPa, GPa) !! strain is like deformation with the size factored out "! strain = deformation / original length " = #L / L0 (%, in/in, mm/mm)
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Steel
Aluminum alloys
Concrete
Soft rubber
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Elastic Behavior
!! Instantaneous response to load !! Returns to its original shape upon unloading
"! stretches bonds between atoms without rearranging them
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Linear elastic
Non-linear inelastic
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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E = !" / !#
"! slope (rise over run) of the linear portion of stress-strain curve
!! Poissons Ratio
$ = -#l / #a
"! relates lateral strain, "l, to axial strain, "a "! as material is stretched the cross section shrinks and vice versa for compression "! Range = 0 to 0.5 (practically 0.1 to 0.45)
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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! z $" (! x + ! y ) #z = E
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
!! What if response is not linear? !! How do we find the slope (Modulus of Elasticity)?
Initial Tangent Modulus Tangent Modulus
Stress
Chord Modulus
Secant Modulus
Strain
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Elastoplastic Behavior
Most materials are linear elastic in small stress range and then plastic "! the transition point is elastic limit !! Elastic "! stretches bonds between atoms without rearranging them "! recoverable deformations (springs back) !! Plastic "! atomic bonds slip past each other and rearrange "! permanent deformations (doesnt spring all the way back)
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Elastic-perfectly plastic
Strain hardening
!! when unloaded, rebound parallel to the linear portion with some remaining plastic deformation "! stretched bonds return, rearranged ones dont !! when reloaded, follows the rebound line and then original curve !! strain hardening "! stress increases during plastic deformation "! reloading returns to previous peak stress
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Force is applied resulting in stress and strain When force is removed, stress returns to zero. Path is parallel to the initial slope of the curve. Part of the strain is recovered, this is elastic behavior. Part of the strain is permanent, this is plastic behavior. Reloading will resume to the highest previous stress level. Elastic limit is reset to the previous highest stress level.
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Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Definitions
!! Proportional Limit "! transition between linear and non-linear behavior !! Elastic Limit (Yield Point) "! transition between elastic and plastic behavior maximum stress with full recovery !! Yielding "! strain continues with little or no increase in stress (after elastic limit) !! Ultimate Stress "! maximum stress on the curve (tensile or compressive strength)
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Definitions (Cont.)
!! Rupture Stress "! point where specimen fractures or ruptures !! Brittle Material "! has little plastic deformation before failure (glass, concrete) !! Ductile Material "! has lots of plastic deformation before failure (structural steel, rubber)
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Viscoelastic Behavior
!!Viscosity: Resistance to flow (i.e., to shear force) "! for linear materials:
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!!Viscoelastic materials "! Deformation depends on o! Duration of load o! Rate of loading #!A quick shock or pulse may cause little deformation, while a sustained load can cause much deformation o! Temperature !!Creep: Long-term deformation under constant load "! Asphalt concrete creeps "! Portland cement concrete creeps over decades
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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!! Rheological models "! used to model mechanically the time-dependent behavior of materials "! basic rheological elements
Spring
Dashpot
St. Venant
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Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Endurance Limit
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Factor of Safety
!!FS = (allowable stress / actual stress)
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! G=
!w
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Thermal Expansion
!!All materials expand and contract with temperature !!Linear Coeff. of Thermal Expansion 'L = (!L / L0) !T !!Volumetric Coeff. of Thermal Expansion 'V = !V / V0 !T "! for isotropic materials 'V = 3'L !!Stresses develop because of different rates of thermal expansion and contraction for different materials that are connected together "! use expansion joints
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Surface Characteristics
!!Corrosion and Degradation !!Abrasion and Wear Resistance !!Surface Texture
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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!! Precision: measure many times and get same result !! Bias: tendency to deviate in one direction from true value !! Accuracy: close to true value; absence of bias
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Sampling
Proper sampling must ensure that a random and representative sample is taken from the population (e.g., stockpile, lot, etc.) "! Random: have an equal chance of being selected "! Representative: perfect average of the entire stockpile !! Sample size: "! depends on materials variability & tolerance level of results "! more variability dictates a larger sample !! Rigorous statistical evaluations required for special applications: "! high quality asphalt and Portland cement concrete
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Normal Distribution
!! Describes many populations that occur in nature, including material properties !! Area under the curve between any two values represents the probability of occurrence
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Control Charts
!! Decrease inspection frequency !! Early detection of troubles !! Provide a record of quality !! Basis of acceptance
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Experimental Error
Caused by 3 factors: !! Procedural errors
"! Are often undiscovered
!! Human errors
"! Minimize by repetition, double-checking, etc.
o! Always do more than one test
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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LVDT
Strain Gauge
Dial Gauge
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Load Cell
Mamlouk/Zaniewski, Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Third Edition. Copyright 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Proving Ring 47
!! Important considerations: "! Sensitivity "! Accuracy "! Calibration !! Sensitivity of measuring devices: "! the smallest value that can be read on the devices scale "! sensitivity is not accuracy or precision "! accuracy cannot be better than the sensitivity "! When choosing a device, sensitivity depends on the required accuracy, which depends on the type of test.
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