WILJAM FLIGHT TRAINING

Chapter 1. Laws and Definitions

Introduction Before studying aerodynamics it is essential to have a thorough grounding in basic mechanics and any related units of measurement. In aeronautics all measurements world-wide are based on the International System (SI) of units, but in practice some anomalies exist, for example altitude, which is quoted in terms of feet, and airspeed which is quoted in nautical miles per hour (knots). S I Units The fundamental SI units are those of: Mass Length Time The amount of matter in a body; measured in kilograms (kg). The distance between two points; measured in metres (m). The duration of an event; measured in seconds (s).

From these, other standard units can be derived. Derived Units The following quantities and their related units of measurement are extensively used in aerodynamics: Area Volume A measure of a surface; measured in square metres (m2). A measure of the bulk or space occupied by a body; measured in cubic metres (m3). A measure of motion in a specified direction: measured in metres per second (m/s). A measure of the change of velocity of a body: measured in metres per second per second (m/s2). The product of the mass and the velocity of a body: measured in kilogram metres per second (kgm/s). An external influence capable of altering the state of rest or motion of a body, and is proportional to the rate of change of momentum of a body. Force = Mass x Acceleration The unit of force is the Newton (N), which is the force required to give a mass of one kilogram an acceleration of one metre
1-1

Velocity

Acceleration

Momentum

Force

WILJAM FLIGHT TRAINING

per second per second. Weight The gravitational force of attraction that the earth exerts on a body of given mass: measured in kilograms (kg). Weight = Mass x Acceleration Due to Gravity Unlike the mass of a body, which remains constant irrespective of its location, the weight of a body varies with distance between the body and the centre of the earth. This is because acceleration due to gravity varies with geographical location and altitude, but under standard conditions this term is assumed to be 9.81 m/s2. Work The effort needed when a force is applied to a body causes it to be lifted or moved a given distance in the same direction as the force. Work = Force x Distance The unit of work is the Joule (J). One Joule is the work done when a force of one Newton moves a body through a distance of one metre in the direction of the force. Work is also stated in terms of Newton Metres (Nm), where 1 Joule = 1 Nm. Power The rate of doing work: measured in units of work per unit time: measured in Watts (W), where 1 watt = 1 J/s or 1 Nm/s. Power = Force x Velocity Energy The capacity for doing work, which in mechanics exists in two basic forms: Potential energy - Due to position. Kinetic energy - Due to motion.

The unit of energy is the Joule (J), where 1 Joule = 1 Nm. Pressure The force per unit area acting on a surface: measured in Newtons per square metre (N/m2), which is properly called the Pascal (Pa). In aviation the bar is more commonly used to measure pressure where 1 bar = 105 Pa, or 1mb = 1hPa. In aerodynamics three types of pressure exist: Static Pressure (PS). When air is stationary it exerts pressure equally in all directions. For example a mass of stationary air in a container, will exert a certain amount of static pressure on the surrounding walls (Fig. 1.1)

1-2

WILJAM FLIGHT TRAINING

STATIC PRESSURE

FIG. 1.1

Dynamic Pressure (PD). This occurs when moving air is brought to rest on the surface of a body, i.e. when relative movement exists between the surface and the airflow (Fig.1.2).

DYNAMIC PRESSURE (q)

FIG. 1.2
Dynamic Pressure is expressed as: Q = RhoV2 Rho () is the air density, which decreases with altitude, and V is the speed of the body relative to the airflow. Total Pressure (PT). The sum of both the static and dynamic pressures. This is a very important term in aerodynamic formulae and is used in the calculation of lift, drag and indicated air speeds (these terms will be explained later). Total pressure = Static Pressure + Dynamic pressure

1-3

WILJAM FLIGHT TRAINING

In aerodynamics this is also referred to as Pitot Pressure.

Density

The mass of material per unit volume: measured in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3). The density of air is an important property in the study of aerodynamics and varies with changes in pressure, temperature and humidity. Such changes have a significant effect on aircraft performance. A measure of the hotness of a body: measured in Degrees Celsius (C). The unit of thermodynamic temperature is the Kelvin (K) and is the unit normally used in scientific calculations. To convert from the Celsius system to the Kelvin system, 273 must be added to the temperature in C. eg. 15C = 15+273 = 288K

Temperature (T)

Viscosity

A measure of the resistance to motion. In aerodynamics it is the resistance to movement of one layer of air over another, and in the case of a fluid, how easily it flows over a surface. For example cold engine oil has high viscosity, and hot engine oil has low viscosity. The total aircraft weight supported per unit area of the wing: measured in Newtons per square metre (N/m2). Wing Loading = AUW / wing area

Wing Loading

1-4

WILJAM FLIGHT TRAINING

Airspeeds Indicated Airspeed The airspeed of an aircraft as shown on its pitot-static airspeed indicator (ASI), that provides vital airspeed (IAS). information, e.g. stalling and structural limitation airspeeds, to the flight-crew. It is calibrated to reflect standard atmospheric adiabatic compressible flow at sea level, and is uncorrected for airspeed system errors. Calibrated Airspeed (CAS). The Indicated airspeed of an aircraft corrected for position and instrument errors. CAS is equal to the True Airspeed (TAS) in standard atmosphere at sea level only. The calibrated airspeed of an aircraft corrected for compressibility error at a particular altitude. EAS is equal to IAS at airspeeds less than 300 knots, and is equal to TAS in standard atmosphere at sea level only. The actual speed of an aircraft through the air relative to the air that is uninfluenced by the aircraft. TAS is important for navigation purposes only. The relationship between EAS and TAS is as follows:TAS = EAS ( o / )1/2 where o = density at sea level = density at altitude Mach No. The ratio of the TAS of an aircraft to the speed of sound in the surrounding atmosphere, i.e. the local speed of sound (LSS). Mach No = TAS / LSS Newtons Laws of Motion Newtons 1st Law. States that a body will continue in a state of rest, or in uniform motion in a straight line, unless acted on by an external force, i.e. it has inertia.

Equivalent Airspeed (EAS).

True Airspeed (TAS).

Newtons 2nd Law. States that a body at rest or in uniform motion will when acted on by an external force accelerate in the direction of the force. The magnitude of the acceleration for any given mass is directly proportional to the size of the force applied, i.e. when a force of 1N is applied to a mass of 1kg it will accelerate at 1m/s2. Force = mass x acceleration Newtons 3rd Law. States that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

1-5

WILJAM FLIGHT TRAINING

Intentionally Left Blank

1-6