Chapter 1 - Laws and Definitions

Introduction Before studying aerodynamics it is essential to have a thorough grounding in basic mechanics and any related units of measurement. In aeronautics all measurements world-wide are based on the International System (SI) of units, but in practice some anomalies exist, for example altitude, which is uoted in terms of feet, and airspeed which is uoted in nautical miles per hour (!nots). S I Units - "he fundamental SI units are those of# Mass - "he amount of matter in a body$ measured in !ilograms (!g). Length - "he distance between two points$ measured in metres (m). Time - "he duration of an event$ measured in seconds (s). %rom these, other standard units can be derived. Derived Units "he following uantities and their related units of measurement are extensively used in aerodynamics# Area, Volume, Velocity, Acceleration, Momentum, Force & measure of a surface$ measured in s uare metres (m'). & measure of the bul! or space occupied by a body$ measured in cubic metres (m(). & measure of motion in a specified direction# measured in metres per second (m)s). & measure of the change of velocity of a body# measured in metres per second per second (m)s'). "he product of the mass and the velocity of a body# measured in !ilogram metres per second (!gm)s). &n external influence capable of altering the state of rest or motion of a body, and is proportional to the rate of change of momentum of a body. %orce * +ass x &cceleration "he unit of force is the ,ewton (,), which is the force re uired to give a mass of one !ilogram an acceleration of one metre per second per second. "he gravitational force of attraction that the earth exerts on a body of given mass# measured in !ilograms (!g). Weight, Wor , !o"er and #nergy -eight * +ass x &cceleration .ue to /ravity 0nli!e the mass of a body, which remains constant irrespective of its location, the weight of a body varies with distance between the body and the centre of the earth. "his is because acceleration due to gravity varies with geographical location and altitude, but under standard conditions this term is assumed to be 1.23 m)s'. "he effort needed when a force is applied to a body causes it to be lifted or moved a given distance in the same direction as the force. -or! * %orce x .istance

"he unit of wor! is the 4oule (4). 5ne 4oule is the wor! done when a force of one ,ewton moves a body through a distance of one metre in the direction of the force. -or! is also stated in terms of ,ewton +etres (,m), where 3 4oule * 3 ,m. "he rate of doing wor!# measured in units of wor! per unit time# measured in -atts (-), where 3 watt * 3 4)s or 3 ,m)s. 6ower * %orce x 7elocity "he capacity for doing wor!, which in mechanics exists in two basic forms# !otential energy - .ue to position., $inetic energy - .ue to motion. "he unit of energy is the 4oule (4), where 3 4oule * 3 ,m. !ressure "he force per unit area acting on a surface# measured in ,ewton8s per s uare metre (,)m'), which is properly called the 6ascal (6a). In aviation the bar is more commonly used to measure pressure where 3 bar * 39: 6a, or 3mb * 3h6a. In aerodynamics three types of pressure exist#

Static !ressure %!S&. -hen air is stationary it exerts pressure e ually in all directions. %or example a mass of stationary air in a container, will exert a certain amount of static pressure on the surrounding walls (%ig. 3.3) Dynamic !ressure %!D&' "his occurs when moving air is brought to rest on the surface of a body, i.e. when relative movement exists between the surface and the airflow (%ig.3.'). .ynamic 6ressure is expressed as# ; * <=ho7' =ho (>) is the air density, which decreases with altitude, and 7 is the speed of the body relative to the airflow. Total !ressure %!T&' "he sum of both the static and dynamic pressures. "his is a very important term in aerodynamic formulae and is used in the calculation of lift, drag and indicated air speeds (these terms will be explained later). "otal pressure * Static 6ressure ? .ynamic pressure In aerodynamics this is also referred to as !itot !ressure' Density "he mass of material per unit volume# measured in !ilograms per cubic metre (!g)m(). "he density of air is an important property in the study of aerodynamics and varies with changes in pressure, temperature and humidity. Such changes have a significant effect on aircraft performance.

Tem(erature %T& & measure of the hotness of a body# measured in .egrees @elsius (A@). "he unit of thermodynamic temperature is the Belvin (B) and is the unit normally used in scientific calculations. "o convert from the @elsius system to the Belvin system, 'C( must be added to the temperature in A@. eg. 3:A@ * 3:?'C( * '22B Viscosity & measure of the resistance to motion. In aerodynamics it is the resistance to movement of one layer of air over another, and in the case of a fluid, how easily it flows over a surface. %or example cold engine oil has high viscosity, and hot engine oil has low viscosity. Wing Loading "he total aircraft weight supported per unit area of the wing# measured in ,ewton8s per s uare metre (,)m'). -ing Doading * &0- ) wing area Airs(eeds Indicated Airs(eed%IAS&, )ali*ratedAirs(eed %)AS&, #+uivalentAirs(eed %#AS&, TrueAirs(eed %TAS& and Mach ,o' "he airspeed of an aircraft as shown on its pitot-static airspeed indicator (&SI), that provides vital airspeed information, e.g. stalling and structural limitation airspeeds, to the flight-crew. It is calibrated to reflect standard atmospheric adiabatic compressible flow at sea level, and is uncorrected for airspeed system errors."he Indicated airspeed of an aircraft corrected for position and instrument errors. @&S is e ual to the "rue &irspeed ("&S) in standard atmosphere at sea level only. "he calibrated airspeed of an aircraft corrected for compressibility error at a particular altitude. E&S is e ual to I&S at airspeeds less than (99 !nots, and is e ual to "&S in standard atmosphere at sea level only. "he actual speed of an aircraft through the air relative to the air that is uninfluenced by the aircraft. "&S is important for navigation purposes only. "he relationship between E&S and "&S is as follows#"&S * E&S ( >o ) > )3)', where >o * density at sea level, > * density at altitude "he ratio of the "&S of an aircraft to the speed of sound in the surrounding atmosphere, i.e. the local speed of sound (DSS). +ach ,o * "&S ) DSS ,e"ton-s La"s o. Motion ,e"ton-s /st La" States that a body will continue in a state of rest, or in uniform motion in a straight line, unless acted on by an external force, i.e. it has inertia. ,e"ton-s 0nd La" States that a body at rest or in uniform motion will when acted on by an external force accelerate in the direction of the force. "he magnitude of the acceleration for any given mass is directly proportional to the siFe of the force applied, i.e. when a force of 3, is applied to a mass of 3!g it will accelerate at 3m)s'. %orce * mass x acceleration ,e"ton-s 1rd La"' States that for every action there is an e ual and opposite reaction.