BIOTECHNOLOGY JANJER D. CERIACO III-SCORPIO 1.

) Recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecules are DNA molecules formed by laboratory methods of genetic recombination (such as molecular cloning) to bring together genetic material from multiple sources, creating sequences that would not otherwise be found in biological organisms. Recombinant DNA is possible because DNA molecules from all organisms share the same chemical structure. They differ only in the nucleotides sequence within that identical o erall structure. !.) Recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology is a field of molecular biology in which scientists "edit" DNA to form new synthetic molecules, which are often referred to as "chimeras". The practice of cutting, pasting, and copying DNA dates bac# to Arthur $ornberg%s successful replication of iral DNA in a brea#through that ser ed as a proof&of&concept for cloning. This was followed by the 'wiss biochemist (erner Arber%s disco ery of restriction en)ymes in bacteria that degrade foreign iral DNA molecules while sparing their own DNA. *.) Stem cells are undifferentiated biological cells, that can differentiate into speciali)ed cells and can di ide (through mitosis) to produce more stem cells. They are found in multicellular organisms. +n mammals, there are two broad types of stem cells,embryonic stem cells, which are isolated from the inner cell mass of blastocysts, andadult stem cells, which are found in arious tissues. +n adult organisms, stem cells andprogenitor cells act as a repair system for the body, replenishing adult tissues. +n a de eloping embryo, stem cells can differentiate into all the speciali)ed cells-ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm (see induced pluripotent stem cells)-but also maintain the normal turno er of regenerati e organs, such as blood, s#in, or intestinal tissues. ..) A gene probe is a specific segment of single-strand DNA that is complementary to a desired gene. For example, if the gene of interest contains the sequence AATGG A A, then the probe !ill contain the complementary sequence TTA GTGT. "hen added to the appropriate solution, the probe !ill match and then bind to the gene of interest. To facilitate locating the probe, scientists usually label it !ith a radioisotope or a fluorescent dye so that it can be #isuali$ed and identified. /.)Gene splicing is a post-transcriptional modification in which a single gene can code for multiple proteins. Gene Splicing is done in eukaryotes, prior to mRNA translation, y the differential inclusion or e!clusion of regions of pre-mRNA. Gene splicing is an important source of protein di"ersity. #uring a typical gene splicing e"ent, the pre-mRNA transcri ed from one gene can lead to different mature mRNA molecules that generate multiple functional proteins. $hus, gene splicing ena les a single gene to increase its coding capacity, allowing the synthesis of protein isoforms that are structurally and functionally distinct. Gene splicing is o ser"ed in high proportion of genes. %n human cells, a out &'-(') of the genes are known to e!hi it alternati"e splicing. 0.) Gene therapy is the use of DNA as a pharmaceutical agent to treat disease. +t deri es its name from the idea that DNA can be used to supplement or altergenes within an indi idual%s cells as a therapy to treat disease. The most common form of gene therapy in ol es using DNA that encodes a functional, therapeutic gene to replace a mutated gene. 1.) A gene gun or a biolistic particle delivery system, originally designed for planttransformation, is a de ice for in2ecting cells with genetic information. The payload is anelemental particle of a hea y metal coated with plasmid DNA. This technique is often simply referred to as bioballistics or biolistics. 3.) Tissue culture is the growth of tissues or cells separate from the organism. This is typically facilitated ia use of a liquid, semi&solid, or solid growth medium, such as broth or agar. Tissue culture commonly refers to the culture of animal cells and tissues, with the more specific term plant tissue culture being used for plants. 4.) Human cloning is the creation of a genetically identical copy of a human. +t does not refer to mono)ygotic multiple births or the reproduction of humans5animals cells or tissue. The ethics of cloning is an e6tremely contro ersial issue. The term is generally used to refer to artificial human cloning7 human clones in the form of identical twins are commonplace, with their cloning occurring during the natural process of reproduction.

89.) +n biology, cloning is the process of producing similar populations of genetically identical indi iduals that occurs in nature when organisms such as bacteria, insects or plantsreproduce ase6ually. :loning in biotechnology refers to processes used to create copies ofDNA fragments (molecular cloning), cells (cell cloning), or organisms. The term also refers to the production of multiple copies of a product such as digital media or software. 88.) A restriction enzyme (or restriction endonuclease) is an en)yme that cuts DNA at or near specific recognition nucleotide sequences #nown as restriction sites.;8<;!<;*<Restriction en)ymes are commonly classified into three types, which differ in their structure and whether they cut their DNA substrate at their recognition site, or if the recognition and clea age sites are separate from one another. To cut DNA, all restriction en)ymes ma#e two incisions, once through each sugar&phosphate bac#bone (i.e. each strand) of the DNA double heli6. 8!.) +n biochemistry, ligase (from the =atin erb ligre - "to bind" or "to glue together") is an en)yme that can cataly)e the 2oining of two large molecules by forming a new chemical bond, usually with accompanying hydrolysis of a small chemical group dependent to one of the larger molecules or the en)yme cataly)ing the lin#ing together of two compounds, e.g., en)ymes that cataly)e 2oining of :&>, :&', :&N, etc. 8*.) Gel electrophoresis is a method for separation and analysis of macromolecules (DNA,RNA and proteins) and their fragments, based on their si)e and charge. 8..) Artificial chromosomes are synthetic chromosomes consisting of fragments of DNA integrated into a host chromosome. These artificial chromosomes are introduced into host cells to propagate and can be used to transfect other cells, introducing new DNA. Artificial chromosomes are useful in cloning larger fragments of DNA, as plasmids can only contain up to 89,999 base pairs and phages are hard to wor# with. Artificial chromosomes can contain anywhere from *99,999(?A:) to 8,999,999(@A:) base pairs, effecti ely reducing the amount of runs needed for a large fragment to be analy)ed. ?ecause these chromosomes are more useful in cloning larger fragments of DNA, it is easier and quic#er to clone and transform genes. Artificial chromosome ectors also ma#e it easier to store through bacterial cells rather than mammalian cells. 8/.) +n modern molecular biology and genetics, the genome is the entirety of an organism%s hereditaryinformation. +t is encoded either in DNA or, for many types of iruses, in RNA. The genome includes both the genes and the non&coding sequences of the DNA5RNA. 80.) Reverse transcriptase (RT) is an en)yme used to generate complementary DNA (cDNA) from an RNA template, a process termed reverse transcription. RT is needed for the replication of retro iruses (e.g., A+B), and RT inhibitors are widely used as antiretro iral drugs. RT acti ity is also associated with the replication of chromosome ends (telomerase) and some mobile genetic elements (retrotransposons). 81.) A plasmid is a small DNA molecule that is physically separate from, and can replicate independently of, chromosomal DNA within a cell. Cost commonly found as small circular, double&stranded DNA molecules in bacteria, plasmids are sometimes present in archaea and eu#aryotic organisms. +n nature, plasmids carry genes that may benefit sur i al of the organism (e.g. antibiotic resistance), and can frequently be transmitted from one bacterium to another (e en of another species) ia hori)ontal gene transfer. Artificial plasmids are widely used as ectors in molecular cloning, ser ing to dri e the replication ofrecombinant DNA sequences within host organisms 83.) +n molecular cloning, a vector is a DNA molecule used as a ehicle to artificially carry foreign genetic material into another cell, where it can be replicated and5or e6pressed. A ector containing foreign DNA is termed recombinant DNA. The four ma2or types of ectors areplasmids, iral ectors, cosmids, and artificial chromosomes. :ommon to all engineered ectors are an origin of replication, amulticloning site, and a selectable mar#er. 84.) +n biology, a host is an organism that harbors a parasite, or a mutual or commensalsymbiont, typically pro iding nourishment and shelter. +n botany, a host plant is one that supplies food resources and substrate for certain insects or other fauna. D6amples of such interactions include a cell being host to a irus, a bean plant hosting helpful nitrogen&fi6ing bacteria, and animals as hosts to parasitic worms, e.g. nematodes. 20.)Gamma probes are o! a "mpor#a #$ !e%%-es#ab%"s&e' #e(& o%o)* " #&e ma a)eme # o+ (a (er$ par#"(,%ar%* " #&e 'e#e(#"o o+ se #" e% %*mp& o'es. I #raopera#"-e se #" e% %*mp& o'e as !e%% as #,mor 'e#e(#"o ma* be "mpro-e' , 'er some ("r(,ms#a (es b* #&e ,se o+ be#a . e)a#ro or pos"#ro )$ ra#&er #&a )amma 'e#e(#"o $ be(a,se #&e -er* s&or# ra )e . / mm or %ess) o+ s,(& par#"(,%a#e ra'"a#"o s e%"m" a#es #&e (o #r"b,#"o o+ (o +o, '" ) (o, #s +rom a(#"-"#* o#&er #&a " #&e "mme'"a#e -"(" "#* o+ #&e 'e#e(#or.