Assessing Mathematics Assessing !

Mathematics 1

A #TRA$T

The mathematics education community recogni0es the integrality of reading and +riting in

Assessing Understanding Through Reading and Writing in Mathematics

learning and communicating mathematics ,no+ledge. Unfortunately, many students have yet to significantly e1perience this integrality in their mathematics classrooms despite the po+er these Kwaku Adu-Gyamfi tools offer teachers Department for assessing of Mathematics, student ,no+ledge. Science, andThis Technology paper e1plores Education the integrality of College of Education reading and +riting in mathematics and East outlines Carolina techni2ues University that can 3e utili0ed in mathematics Greenville, C !"#$# assessment to create e1periences that promote %!$!& '!#()'*) reading and +riting as tools for articulating adug+amfi,-ecu.edu mathematics understanding. Michael J. oss! Department of Mathematics, Science, and Technology Education College of Education East Carolina University Johna "aulconer Department of Curriculum and /nstruction College of Education East Carolina University

Assessing Mathematics ' %ntroduction The ational Council of the Teachers of Mathematics % CTM& ar gues that rather than 3eing perceived as helpful add(ons to mathematics instruction, reading and +riting should 3e recogni0ed as an integral part of mathematics learning % CTM, 1)#), !444&. CTM reflects a 3elief that, since reading and +riting necessitates the use of ver3al e1pressions, num3ers, sym3olic e1pressions, and graphical representations, it is a crucial component in the development of reasoning, communication and connections in mathematics. /n the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics, CTM further assert that, 5Students +ho have

opportunities, encouragement, and support for spea,ing, +riting, reading, and listening in mathematics classes reap dual 3enefits6 they communicate to learn mathematics, and they learn to communicate mathematically.7 % CTM, !444 p. *4&. 8esearchers in the field of mathematics education have, over the years, e1pressed similar sentiments. 9iancarosa and Sno+ %!44*& contend that reading is a central s,ill in life(long learning. /n mathematics, no less so, reading is vie+ed as a vehicle through +hich mathematical te1t and conte1t are negotiated to construct mathematical ,no+ledge %9orasi : 9ro+n, 1)#$; 9orasi, Siegel, <on0i, : Smith, 1))#; Siegel : 9orasi, 1))!; Siegel, 9orasi, : <on0i, 1))#&. =riting is similarly considered as a means to not only communicate 3ut also to develop mathematical understanding %Emig, 1)""&. 8esearchers claim that +riting sustains students development of reasoning, communication and connections and conse2uently deepens mathematical ,no+ledge and e1tends thin,ing %9randau, 1))4; Doherty, 1))*; Dra,e : Amspaugh, 1))>; Gopen : Smith, 1))4; Grossman, Smith, : Miller, 1))'; Miller, 1))!; ahrgang : ?eterson, 1)#*;

?ugalee, 1))"; ?orter : Massingila, !444; 8ose, 1)#); Shepard, 1))'; Stehney, 1))4&. 8eading

Assessing Mathematics > and +riting is thus recogni0ed as integral tools in developing and assessing mathematical understanding %9ishop, 1)##&. Unfortunately, the integrality of reading and +riting in mathematics have yet to 3e significantly e1perienced in mathematics assessment; a crucial component in the teaching and learning of mathematics. Assessment Assessment plays an integral role in mathematics teaching and learning. Some of the roles identified 3y Croo,s %1)##& include, 3ut is not restricted to6 reactivating or consolidating prere2uisite s,ills and ,no+ledge; focusing attention on important aspects of ,no+ledge; giving students opportunities to practice and consolidate learning; providing ,no+ledge of results and corrective feed3ac,; influencing students choice of learning strategies and study patterns; communicating and reinforcing the 3road goals of instruction and desired standards of performance to students; and guiding the choice of further instructional or learning activities. Assessment is thus a ,ey component to 3e addressed in order to ensure purposeful e1periences of reading and +riting to learn mathematics. CTM %!444& vie+s assessment as a component of instruction that 3est informs and guides teachers as they ma,e instructional decisions and students as they ma,e @udgment of +hat is important to learn and their approaches to personal study. The Assessment Standards for School Mathematics % CTM, 1))$& recommends that classroom assessment should reflect the mathematics that students should ,no+ and 3e a3le to do. CTM %!444& posits that assessment tas,s can convey to students +hat ,inds of mathematical ,no+ledge and performance are valued. Thus, for reading and +riting to 3e recogni0ed as essential tools in learning and articulating

Assessing Mathematics $ understanding in mathematics, an assessment regime +here students and teachers have a shared e1pectation that learning and articulating understanding through reading and +riting is a +orth+hile goal. Unfortunately, assessment of mathematical understanding is 3ereft of purposefully directed reading and +riting e1periences %Mar,s : Mousley, 1))4&; lac,ing in assessments 3ased on reading and +riting $urrent &ractices of Reading and Writing in Mathematics Although it may 3e argued that students are continually assessed in mathematics classrooms through reading and +riting, much of the current occurrences of reading and +riting are not purposefully directed and as a result serve limited roles %Mar,s : Mousley, 1))4&. <or e1ample, in a typical math class, students may 3e as,ed to ta,e notes, interpr et directions for a +or,sheet, and read a math te1t or solve a +ord pro3lem. /n most of these classrooms, reading and +riting serves as a means for e1tracting or receiving mathematical information %from te1t or teacher& rather than as a vehicle for articulating mathematical understanding %9orasi and Siegal, 1))4&. Many teachers report that they assign 3iographical reports on famous mathematicians +hen as,ed a3out the types of purposefully directed assessments they provide to their students that involve reading and +riting in mathematics. 9ishop %1)##& argued that this ,ind of purposefully directed assessment practice serve the limited role of promoting reading and +riting as a mode of ,no+ledge display rather than as a vehicle for learning and articulating mathematical understanding. Unfortunately, this is the most common form of purposefully directed reading and +riting assessment activity o3served in most mathematics classrooms. <e+ mathematics assessments are purposefully directed activities of reading and +riting in mathematics, despite the po+er these tools offer teachers for assessing student mathematics

Assessing Mathematics * understanding.

'eed for &ur(osefully )irected Assessment Acti*ities 8eading mathematics is comple1 and non(linear. /t often re2uires 3ouncing repeatedly from te1t to ta3les to diagrams to sym3olic e1pressions to graphs and such %<reitag, 1))"; oonan, 1))4&. Additionally, mathematical te1ts are more conceptually dense than other genres of +riting %9rennan : Dunlap, 1)#$; Culyer, 1)##; Thomas, 1)##& and are replete +ith linguistic and sym3olic conventions +hich ma,e navigating the te1t challenging %Adams, !44'&. Thus, it cannot 3e assumed that students, +ho can fluently read the +ords in a math te1t, actually comprehend the te1t %8o33, !44'&. /nsisting that reading in mathematics is sufficiently different from reading in other fields, <uentes %1))#& and 8eehm and Aong %1))*& recommend that purposefully directed classroom assessments are needed in order for students to read to learn mathematics. Since +riting mathematics re2uires different and additional s,ills to +riting in most other su3@ect areas, students also need to e1perience purposely directed classroom +riting assignments in order to gain this s,ill. <or students to effectively +rite mathematics, they must have a mastery of mathematical representations %numeric, sym3olic, graphical, and ver3al& and the connections among representations %<reitag, 1))"&. Additionally, in order for students to master the precision of the mathematical language, they must e1perience specific instruction regarding such and have ample opportunity at refining their +riting. Moore %1))'& and Shi3li %1))!& recommend that teachers 3oth directly instruct students in the +riting of mathematics and

Assessing Mathematics " develop assessment materials purposefully geared to+ard +riting to learn mathematics. Moreover, since standardi0ed test 2uestions are 3ecoming increasingly open(ended, re2uiring students to read, understand the 2uestion, and then compose responses, the practice of assessment in mathematics classroom needs to improve in order to 3e compati3le +ith, and to support and reinforce e1periences +here students read and +riting to articulate understanding. That is, classroom assessment needs to change to purposefully afford students opportunity to communicate their understanding via reading and +riting. Similarly, the content of assessment needs to improve to include items that re2uire students to reflect on ideas, formulate definitions, read, and e1press ideas 3oth orally and in +riting and to communicate their thin,ing %Shield : Gal3raith, 1))#&. Unfortunately, all too fe+ resources and techni2ues have 3een provided to teachers to employ in their classes. /n the su3se2uent sections, techni2ues are outlined for improving classroom assessment through reading and +riting mathematics.

Techni+ues for %m(ro*ing $lassroom Assessment through Reading and Writing in Mathematics The premise underlying this article is that in order for reading and +riting to 3e purposeful in a student s mathematical e1perience, a classroom culture +here students read and +rite to articulate mathematics understanding may 3e needed. Berein, numerous assessment techni2ues are outlined that teachers can incorporate in assessment to simulate e1periences that promote reading and +riting as essential tools in learning and articulating mathematics understanding. These are separated into t+o types6 Aptitude Assessment and Content Assessment. The former assesses students involvement, interest, and engagement in mathematics.

Assessing Mathematics # The latter assesses student s conceptual understanding and content ,no+ledge. Most of these assessments have the purpose of delving more deeply into student understanding and revealing far more in respect to conceptual %mis&understanding +hile promoting reading and +riting as integral tools in mathematics. Through reading, interpreting, and +riting, each of these techni2ues forces students to investigate, reason, perform, and or report as they interact +ith mathematical concepts. Ans+ers to these assessments are never single(step operations demonstrating one single s,ill at a time; rather, these assessments al+ays necessitate the student summoning and revealing more of their understanding in the process of responding to the 2uestionCprompt. Aptitude Assessment Techniques Aptitude Assessments consider students involvement, interest, and engagement in mathematics +ithout divorcing such from simultaneously investigating students conceptual understanding. Some of the ones identified in the literatur e includeD@ournal +riting %9orasi : 8ose, 1)#); =ay+ood, 1))!; Clar,e, =ay+ood, : Stephens, 1))'&, e1pository +riting %Eenne, 1)#)&, proof +riting, and re+riting lecture notes %Sip,a, 1))4&. These can 3e regularly assigned in the classroom. E1amples of these are provided 3elo+. Peer Evaluation. Students can 3e as,ed to ma,e +ritten @udgment a3out a peer s performance on a given mathematical tas,s or 2uestion. This techni2ue assesses a student s a3ility to understand mathematics produced 3y another and communicate mathematically regarding such. Thus, as colla3oration is promoted in student +or,, so too can assessment 3e a vehicle for colla3oration. Altogether, the teacher can use the results of this activity to assess the

Assessing Mathematics ) understanding of 3oth students involved and students gain practice +ith guidance at reading, 2uestioning, and interpreting their o+n ideas and the ideas of their peers. Two Stage Test . After students receive feed3ac, from teachers on tests and assignments, students can provide +ritten responses to teacher comments. This method of assessment provides information to 3oth students and teachers %via +riting& on ho+ +ell a particular topic or content has 3een learned or understood and the area of difficulty and affords students the opportunity to relearn and rearticulate their understanding 3ased on the feed3ac, given. Portfolios. ?ortfolios have long 3een promoted as an assessment tool to gain insight into students learning. ?ortfolios afford students the opportunity to longitudinally document their understanding and progress throughout the school year through purposefully selected artifacts of their +or, and +ritten @ustifications of +hy the artifacts +ere selected to represent their understanding. Journal Writing. Fournaling can 3e utili0ed to prompt students to +rite a3out a specific concept or rule or to e1plain ho+ to perform a mathematical procedur e or to e1plain +hy a given mathematical outcome occurs. /t can also 3e utili0ed as a means for students to record reflections on materials learned in class, reactions to readings or lectures or responses to open ended assignments. Fournals can then 3e used to informally assess student understanding of the included mathematical concepts. Content Assessment Techniques Content Assessment techni2ues employ reading, interpreting and +riting to loo, deeply into student understanding. Many of the types of e1amples outlined in here can 3e perceived as more difficult than traditional test 2uestions. This occurs for a num3er of reasons. <irst, the style of

Assessing Mathematics 14 these 2uestions is dissimilar from traditional test items. Second, all too infre2uently students e1perience open(ended 2uestions and even rarer are 2uestions +hich seemingly as, the student to state all he can a3out the mathematical situation 3efore him. Third, some of these 2uestion types necessitate heuristics +hich employ multiple strategies and the use of multiple simultaneous representations. <ourth, 3eing a3le to 5correctly complete7 the pro3lems is not as important as r evealing all one ,no+s a3out the pro3lem. <ifth, many of these pro3lems ta,e multiple steps to solve and paragraphs to e1plain. All of these dimensions differentiate these pro3lems from traditional test items and simultaneously ma,e these items more revelatory of student understanding. =hile many of the e1amples herein are consistent +ith high school mathematics, most of these techni2ues can 3e modified to 3e grade appropriate. The style and concepts 3ehind the techni2ue are more important than the actual pro3lems themselves.

Investigate and E plain The Investigate and E plain techni2ue interconnects many of the previously stated findings among reading, +riting, and mathematics 3y focusing on different representations and leading to others. 8eading and +riting in mathematics is a non(linear process +hich integrates reading te1t, inspecting associated diagrams %graphs, ta3les, charts&, considering sym3olic e1pressions, and fluidly moving in and 3et+een each of these representations %Adams, !44'; <reitag, 1))"; oonan, 1))4& and necessitates an understanding and use of a precise grammatical synta1. The Investigate and E plain techni2ue simulates such reading and +riting e1periences for students. The follo+ing e1amples serve to illustrate +ays in +hich the Investigate and e plain techni2ue

Assessing Mathematics 11 may 3e incorporated in mathematics assessment.

E ample !. "iven that

! 4 '$ c

, e1plain for +hich value%s& of c this +ill

have; no real roots; one real root; t+o real roots.

E ample #. E1plain mathematically +hat this diagram demonstrates.

1.!'>!'>!'>!'>
E ample $. E1plain the follo+ing.

1.!'>$!'>$!'>$ 1.!'> 1.!'>$ !.>*#"$"*#*$")

Assessing Mathematics 1! E ample %. Tell all you can a3out the polynomial function +hich +ill produce the accompanying graph of f% &.

As a component of assessment, the investigate and e plain techni2ue furnishes teachers +ith insight into students understanding +hile promoting reading and +riting as essential tools in the classroom %Arm3ruster, 1))*&. 9y affording students a chance to unpac, these te1ts and diagrams, this techni2ue also allo+s students to articulate their understanding in many different +ays. &reate 'our E ample This techni2ue serves the purpose of allo+ing a student to 3oth analy0e a mathematical concept and to e1press the concept in a creative manner +hich demonstrates her understanding of the concept. The follo+ing e1amples serve to illustrate +ays in +hich ideas from this techni2ue can 3e incorporated in assessment.

Assessing Mathematics 1'

E ample !. Create a real +orld pro3lemCscenario +hich +ould use or demonstrate the concepts in the follo+ing statement. <or sets the cardinality of set S, then A, ( , and &, and n%S& denoting

n% A& ( %& &% n &% A&n ( n & n %A& ( %& n%A &&n(& n %& A(&

E ample #. Create a real +orld pro3lemCscenario for +hich the use of the follo+ing theorem +ould 3e part of the solution. 5The intersection of perpendicular 3isectors of any t+o nonparallel chords of a circle is the center of the circle.7

The create )our e ample techni2ue is similar in scope to that proposed 3y researchers and curriculum developers such as Alvermann : Moore %1))1&, 8othstein, 8othstein, : Aau3er %!44"&. As a component of assessment, this techni2ue may offer teachers insight into students understanding and also serve to promote reading and +riting as essential tools in articulating mathematics understanding. /n that +hen students create their own real(+orld e1amples and or applications of math concepts, teachers can immediately recogni0e the students depth of understanding. Also, +hen a student creates an inappropriate e1ample for a given mathematical concept, much can 3e deduced regarding the nature of the conceptuali0ations developed 3y the

Assessing Mathematics 1> student regarding the underlying concept.

*efinition + or Theorem Altering This techni2ue focuses on assessing students mastery of 3oth voca3ular y and concepts via their articulations on purposefully and precisely altered definitions and theorems. The follo+ing e1amples serve to illustrate +ays in +hich ideas from this techni2ue can 3e incorporated in assessment.

E1ample 1. Discuss the validity of this statement6. A function is continuous on the closed interval Ga, 3H if it is continuous at each point in the interval.

E1ample !. Discuss the validity of this statement6 /f f and hare functions that are continuous at 1 I c then their 2uotient function is also continuous at c.

The *efinition + Theorem Alteringtechni2ue melds suggestions regarding formal e1pository mathematical +riting +ith creative mathematics +riting assignments %Alvermann : Moore, 1))1; 9orasi : 8ose, 1)#); Clar,e, =ay+ood, : Stephens, 1))'; Sip,a, 1))4; Eenne, 1)#); =ay+ood, 1))!&. Since mathematical understanding is strongly correlated to fluency, through this techni2ue, teachers can 3egin to assess much regarding student understanding of theorems they read. % Earp : Tanner, 1)#4; Bel+ig, 8o0e,(Tedesco, Tindal, Beath : Almond, 1))); Stahl : <air3an,s, 1)#*&. Also students discussions lead to 3oth more car eful reading and an

Assessing Mathematics 1$ appreciation for the precision 3y +hich mathematics is +ritten.

&onnect ,epresentations. This techni2ue is similar to the s,etch(to(stretch strategy proposed 3y 9orasi et al %1))#&, +here students develop nonlinguistic representations, and ela3orate on such, of mathematical concepts discovered in mathematical te1ts. The follo+ing e1amples serve to illustrate +ays in +hich ideas from this techni2ue can 3e incorporated in assessment.

E ample !. Use te1t and pictures to e1plain the concept, 5/f

f % & is a polynomial

of degree n, +ith nI 1, then f% & can 3e e1pressed as a product of linear factors in the follo+ing +ay6 f % & I a% ( c1 &% ( c! & % ( cn &, +here c1 , c! , , cn are

comple1 num3ers and ais the leading coefficient of polynomial function of degree 0eros.7 nI 1 has e1actly

f% &. That is, every comple1 n%not necessarily distinct&

E ample #. Dra+ a pictorial representation of the theorem6 The points of a line can 3e placed in a correspondence +ith the real num3ers such that; %1& to every point of the line there corresponds e1actly one real num3er; %!& to every real num3er there corresponds e1actly one point of the line; and %'& The distance 3et+een t+o distinct points is the a3solute value of the difference of the corresponding real num3ers. ,r Every line can 3e made into an e1act copy of the real num3er line using a 1(1 correspondence.

Assessing Mathematics 1* E ample $. Using 3oth te1t and diagrams, e1plain the follo+ing theorem6 Jn an interval, given any nK1 points in the form % each
i i ,)i &

in +hich iI 4, 1, !, ',L, n, and n

is uni2ue, there e1ists a polynomial function of degree no greater than

that maps through the nK1 points +ithin the interval.

E ample %. =rite the theorem depicted 3y the diagram 3elo+

As +ith other types of assessment techni2ues demonstr ated in this paper,

&onnect

,epresentations employs the process of reading, interpreting and +riting mathematics. Another version of this techni2ues is provided 3y 8eadence, 9ean, and 9ald+in %!441&, +here students discuss ver3al concepts through pictures and diagr ams. /t is said that +hen students connect representations in order to e1plain mathematical concepts, their +or, and e1planations reveal much regarding their understanding of the representation at hand % CTM, !444&. Since students are not told precisely ho+ to ma,e the connections, 3oth the product and the process are revelatory of student understanding. Conse2uently as a tool for assessment, &onnecting

Assessing Mathematics 1" ,epresentations provide teachers +ith the opportunity to assess student understanding of each dimension of this process6 during the reading of the representation, the interpretation of the representation, or the creation of other e1planator y r epresentations.

$onclusion Teachers can deeply assess student mathematical understanding +hen assessment strategies employ reading and +riting components. There are multiple assessment techni2ues to promote successful integration of reading and +riting in mathematics and as mathematics teachers, +e should e1plore these and share our successes. Berein, a fe+ such assessment techni2ues are outlined 3ased on their emergence in the literature. /t is hoped that these e1amples +ill generate greater interest in assessing mathematics through reading and +riting and +ill encourage others to develop additional assessment methods.

Assessing Mathematics 1#

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Assessing Mathematics !1 Shield, M., : Gal3raith, ?. %1))#&. The analysis of student e1positor y +riting in mathematics. Educational Studies in Mathematics, $. %1&, !)($!. Siegel, M., : 9orasi, 8. %1))!&. To+ard a ne+ integration of reading in mathematics instruction. 6=&9S =n 7earning Pro0lems in Mathematics, !% %!&, 1#('*. Siegel, M., 9orasi, 8., : <on0i, F. %1))#&. Supporting students mathematical in2uiries through reading. Journal for ,esearch in Mathematics Education, #< %>&, '"#(>1>. Sip,a, T. %1))4&. =riting mathematics6 A plethora of possi3ilities. /n A. Sterrett %Ed.&, 9sing writing to teach mathematics %pp. 11(1>&. =ashington, DC6 Mathematical Association of America. Stahl, S. A., : <air3an,s, M. M. %1)#*&. The eff ects of voca3ulary instruction6 A model(3ased meta(analysis. ,eview of Education ,esearch -. %1&, "!(114. Stehney, A. M. %1))4&. A +riting program and its lessons for mathematicians. /n A. Sterrett %Ed.&, 9sing writing to teach mathematics %pp. !*(!)&. =ashington, DC6 Mathematical Association of America. Thomas, D. A. %1)##&. 8eading and reasoning s,ills for mathematics pro3lem solvers. ,eading, $# %'&, !>>(!>). Journal of

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