Carmen Cochior Plescanu SOAS Ref. No. 221618 Course Code: 155901 2!

Course name: Cul"ural #is"or$ of %i&e" Con'enor: Na"han #ill (acul"$ of Ar"s and #umani"ies )e*ar"men" of "he S"ud$ of Reli+ions

Define the influence and character of the Tibetan cultural aesthetics in the Tangut Empire

Ssu , ma of -in. "he au"hor of "he Shih,chi , "he firs" of "he d$nas"ic his"ories of China around 100 /C, 0as "he firs" "o em*lo$ "he "erm 1%an+u"2 "o denomina"e "he Pro"o,/urmese 3in+dom of 4ansu. 5rea" in"er*re"a"ions 0ere +i'en "o "he u"ili6a"ion of "he 1%an+u"2. as used &$ 7arco Polo in "he "hir"een cen"ur$ accordin+ "o "he Books of the Marvels of the World. 8he"her descendin+ from "he %ur3ish horde as "he "ermina"ion ut mi+h" su++es". from "he nomadic *eo*le of Nor"h 4orea as 7eille" and Cohen 0ould im*l$ as h$*o"hesis. i" is $e" no" clearl$ decided amon+ scholars. 9n con"ras" 0i"h "he Risin+ Sun of China. Ssu-ma Chien has named 4ansu "he 15rea" 7oon (amil$2. Ta Yueh Shih 0hich in Old Chinese 0as *ronounced Da-Ngwat :%an+u";. ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
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1. Classical ci'ili6a"ions of Sou"h <as" Asia: an an"holo+$ of ar"icles. Pu&lished in %he /ulle"in of Soas. <di"ed &$ =ladimir /ra+ins3$. >ni'ersi"$ of ?ondon. School of Orien"al and African S"udies. Rou"led+e 2002. *.@ 9

9" 0as in "he la"e "en"h and earl$ ele'en"h cen"ur$ "ha" "he %an+u" *eo*le :Ti ! Mi-n"ang# Mong! Tang"ud; es"a&lished an inde*enden" re+ime in "he s"e**e re+ion 0i"hin "he loo* of "he -ello0 Ri'er. in Ordos. 0hich de'elo*ed ra*idl$ in"o "he 15rea" S"a"e of 8hi"e and #i+h2 as "he$ self *roclaimed or "he em*ire of AiBia. %he +eo+ra*hical *arame"ers of "ha" *eriod. *laces AiBia as nei+h&ourin+ "he Son+. ?iao and Cin s"a"es "o "he sou"h and eas". %i&e"ans "o "he sou"h0es" and "he Cen"ral Asian 3in+doms in "he 0es".
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An im*erial s"a"e 0as formall$ defined in 10 8 and i"s

eBis"ence is *resen"ed in chronicles un"il "he fa"al crush of Chin++is Dan2s las" cam*ai+n. in 122!. Al"hou+h Chin++is Dan2s *uni"i'e eB*edi"ion lef" onl$ "en *ercen" of "he %an+u" *o*ula"ion ali'e. i" is e'iden" from "he re, edi"ion of AiBia %ri*i"a3a in .620 $uan. com*le"ed se'en"$ $ears af"er "he fall of AiBia a" "he reEues" of 4u&lai 4han. "ha" "heir cul"ure has no" 'anished immedia"el$. &u" con"inued "hrou+h "he "hir"een and in"o "he firs" *ar" of "he four"een cen"ur$.
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9" 0as in %i&e" "ha" some of "he %an+u"

ro$al famil$ mem&ers "oo3 refu+e in 122!. 0here "heir descendan"s assumed "he name of /$an+ and Fsu**lied "he a&&o"s for s%od r)orGe &ran+. a &ranch of +rea" rN$in+,ma,*a monas"er$ of r)o rGe &ran+. founded in 1610 C<H.
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%he *rimar$ sources ma"erials for AiBia his"or$ ha'e +rea"l$ eB*anded durin+ "he *as" cen"ur$ im*erialis" and archaeolo+ical *reoccu*a"ion in 9nner Asia. 0hich mos"l$ da"e "o "he "0elf"h cen"ur$ and la"er and 0hich are *redominan"l$ /uddhis" in na"ure.
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/ecause "he *rodi+ious maGori"$

of eB"an" %an+u" ma"erials are /uddhis" and *roduc"s of im*erial *a"rona+e !. i" is im*or"an" "o unders"and and anal$6e %i&e"an /uddhis" influence, di*loma"ic. *oli"ical and cul"ural , on Aia s"a"e. 9" is 0or"h men"ionin+ "ha" "he 4ho3honor 1&lac3 headed and red faced2 %i&e"ans and "he %an+u" shared ances"ral. lin+uis"ic and cul"ural "ies. %hese common

e*i"he"s cons"an"l$ a""ri&u"ed "o "he %i&e"ans are used no" onl$ in odes and *oe"r$ &u" in o"her %an+u" indi+enous "eB"s as 0ell. ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
2. %he 5rea" S"a"e of 8hi"e and #i+h. . Ru"h 8 )unnell. >ni'ersi"$ of #a0aii Press 1996. *. . 9&id 2 @. <arl$ Sino,%i&e"an Ar". #ea"her S"oddard. Orchid Press %hailand 2008. *. 5. 9&id @ 6. 9&id 2 !. 9&id 2. *.@

9" is a +rea" *ossi&ili"$ "ha" "he "erm 1&lac3 headed 2 0hich s"ands for "he %an+u" *ries"s in "he *re,/uddhis" "imes. la"er "o ha'e &een em*lo$ed "o desi+na"e "he 4arma *a /lac3 #a" Sec". 0hich *ene"ra"ed "he %an+u" s"a"e in "0elf"h and "hir"een"h cen"uries as re+is"ered in %i&e"an sources. %he *resence of 4arma Pa3shi. second in "he
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%a- rg"ud-&a linea+e of

"he 4arma*as in a *ain"in+ of Bhaisa$a"a hattaraka collec"ed from "he 4hara3ho"o s"u*a. e'idence i"s *o0erful *resence and influence 0i"hin "he %an+u" <m*ire. #is icono+ra*hic de*ic"ion a**ears dis"inc" 0earin+ a &lac3 ha" sho0in+ a visva-va$ra in fron". ha'in+ a dar3 com*leBion. his hands in dharma'akra mudra and +oa"ee &eard :his nic3name &ein+ r("a- o or 1&eard$2;.
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Similar fi+ures of s*iri"ual re*resen"a"i'es are

found in earl$ %i&e"an *ain"in+s and "heir loca"ion in "he &o""om lef" corner could im*l$ or re*resen" "he ac"ual donor. %his *ar"icular ar"is"ic ima+e 0as *er*e"ua"ed "hrou+hou" cen"uries u* "o "he *resen" da$ in all *ain"in+s of "he Tshur-&hu 4arma,*a linea+e. 9" is 0or"h$ "o men"ion "ha" 4arma Pa3si 0as res*onsi&le for &uildin+ a lar+e "em*le and man$ smaller ones in "he #or 7i,n$a+ 15a2 :AiBia; &e"0een 1255,56. 0hich e'iden"l$ held "he aes"he"ic &asis of "he &eau"$ and s*iri"uall$ communica"ed
10

%i&e"an /uddhis" archi"ec"ural and *ic"ural elemen"s.

%he AiBia *eo*le formed a miB"ure of %i&e"an and %urco,7on+ol elemen"s. s*ea3in+ a %i&e"o,/urman lan+ua+e and em*lo$ed an eB"remel$ com*leB s$s"em of 0ri"in+ &ased on Chinese charac"ers. %he "erri"or$ on 0hich "he %an+u"s se""led 0as an old /uddhis" si"e 0i"hin 0hich "he Cen"ral Asia. Chinese and %i&e"an /uddhism me" and a *eculiar form of /uddhism emer+ed.
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%he %an+u" 3in+dom of AiBia a'o0ed *rofession of /uddhism

as "he s"a"e fai"h and "heir cul"ure 0as dee*l$ em&edded 0i"h "he /uddhis" elemen"s and s$m&ols. *ar"icularl$ 0i"h "hose 0hich ma$ &e called %i&e"an s"$led. 9 %he ar"efac"s found in "he )unhuan+ and -ulin ca'es of "he "0elf"h cen"ur$ *ermi" us "o a**recia"e "he aes"he"ics and /uddhis" influence im*or"ed "o AiBia from %i&e". ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
8. IJKLMN OPQMJPRLS IKTMLU. %he /lac3,headed and "he Red,faced in %an+u" 9n+idenuous %eB"s. h""*:VV000.sB,$s.com 9. 9&id @. *.16 10. 9&id 9 11. %he S*read of /uddhism. <di"ed &$ Ann #eirman and S"e*han Pe"er /um&acher. Par" 8. =ol. 16./rill 200!. *. 81 12. %i&e"an Ar". Am$ #eller. Caca /oo3. An"iEue Collec"ors2 Clu&. 1999. *. 1 1
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(ra+men"s of frescos and scul*"ures found in 4hara3ho"o. "he *resumed ca*i"al of AiBia. &u" merel$ a fron"ier "o0n 0hich ser'ed as ou"*os" for eBiled *oli"ical *risoners.
1

*ro'ided "he earlies" 3no0n 0oodcu"s and

*rin"s in "he %i&e"an s"$le. Ser+e d2Olden&ur+ remar3s on "he *ain"in+s. s"ucco and 0ood ima+es found in "he 4hara3o"o s"u*a : Mon! su urgan; of "he ancien" <m*ire of 7inia "ha" "he$ hold an eB"reme resem&lance in com*osi"ion and "ha" Fma3e us *resume "ha" "he$ all came from a common source. 3no0n "o "he ancien" /uddhis" 0orldH.
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%hese ar"efac"s %a-

reflec" 0i"h no dou&" "he s"$le of Pala WSena d$nas"$. 0hose conce*"s and icono+ra*h$ 0as &rou+h" "o %i&e" from 9ndia &$ "he earl$ 1/ri,+un+,*a
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rg"ud mas"ers such as 7ar*a and fur"her "ransmi""ed "o AiBia "hrou+h . %he influence of "he Pala aes"he"ic 'oca&ular$ W chroma"ic nuancin+ of "he dee*. rich colours used "o model "he &odil$ and facial fea"ures of "he s*iri"ual charac"ers, eB"ended far &e$ond cen"ral %i&e" "o0ards )unhuan+ and "he "erri"ories occu*ied &$ "he AiBia 3in+dom. la"er &ein+ incor*ora"ed in"o "he -uan <m*ire.

%he inheren" cul"ural "ransference from %i&e" "o "he %an+u" <m*ire. "oo3 *lace once ?ian+ 6hou. "he cosmo*oli"an and mul"i,e"hnic *o*ula"ion lon+ ruled &$ "he %i&e"ans. 0as occu*ied &$ "he ra*idl$ eB*andin+ AiBia. in 1100. Once 0i"h "he es"a&lishmen" of "he AiBia <m*ire in 10 8. "he %an+u" occu*a"ion *ro+ressi'el$ encom*assed "he former %i&e"an areas
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of influence alon+ "he Sil3 Rou"e. res*ec"i'el$ )unhuan+ and much of "he former "erri"or$ of "he Pur+$el d$nas"$. %he *oli"ical and +eo+ra*hical si"ua"ion "ha" +a'e %i&e"ans direc" access "o AiBia. 0i"h 0hom "he$ shared close e"hic and cul"ural "ies. facili"a"ed "he dissemina"ion of "heir *ar"icular /uddhis" ar"is"ic elemen"s. (acin+ "he his"orical chan+es. "he %i&e"ans. 0hile a&sor&in+ "he forei+n influences. also succeeded "o lea'e "heir o0n cul"ural im*rin". %he %i&e"an *rela"es and "heir re"inue of ar"is"s 0ere assiduousl$ su**or"ed and in'i"ed "o AiBia *ar"icularl$ durin+ "he rei+n of Aia Ren6on+ :11 9,119 ; for "heir "eachin+s &u" also for "he aes"he"ic idioms *ain"in+s. ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, em*lo$ed in "heir archi"ec"ure. icono+ra*h$ and

1 . 9&id @. *. 1@. 9&id @. *. 16 15. 9&id 1@

%he AiBia monas"eries follo0ed icono+ra*hic and li"ur+ical *a""erns *re'alen" in "he %i&e"an cul"ure. such as re*resen"a"ions of s"u*as. %he (i'e %ranscenden"al /uddhas. or medi"a"ional and *ro"ec"i'e dei"ies such as Samvara and )'ala. %he &rillian" colours. hi+hl$ decora"i'e and me"iculousl$ refined Euali"ies of "he %an+u" ar". 0ere eBecu"ed accordin+ "o "he *rinci*les and "as"e of "he %i&e"an *a"rons.
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%he mos" im*or"an" findin+s of "he "0o eB*edi"ions led &$ Colonel 4o6lo' durin+ 1908,1909 "o "he ruins of 4hara3ho"o. 0as a +rea" s"u*a ori+inall$ &uil" in honour of a 1incarna"e "eacher2.
1!

0hich held hidden a 'arie"$ of

&oo3s and manuscri*"s. a lar+e num&er of *rin"in+s on clo"h. sil3. *a*er. s"a"ues in me"al and 0ood. minia"ure s"u*as and o"her ar"efac"s 0hich are curren"l$ 3e*" a" S". Pe"ers&ur+2s *eritage Museum. %he a&undan" remains of /uddhis" manuscri*"s 0ere 0ri""en in &o"h %an+u" and %i&e"an scri*". 0hile o"her *a*ers re'eal "o &e 0ri""en Chinese. >i+ur and %an+u". %he indica"ion "ha" "he %i&e"an scri*" 0as em*lo$ed in reli+ious li"era"ure and official 0ri"in+s reflec"s "ha" "he %i&e"ans &ecame *ar" of "he %an+u"
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iden"i"$. *ar"icularl$ af"er "he 12"h cen"ur$. 0hen "he %i&e"an /uddhis" influence eB*anded in AiBia. No"icea&l$. "he #alaho" manuscri*"s *reser'ed in Russia con"ain much charac"eris"ic of "he ancien" %i&e"an scri*" em*lo$ed in "he %an+u" <m*ire. The Nationalit" +nstitute of the Chinese )'adem" of So'ial S'ien'e and "he St! ,eters urg +nstitute of -riental Studies concluded "ha" in addi"ion "o "he manuscri*"s from "he )unhuan+ 5ro""os. "he disco'er$ of "he earl$ #alaho" %i&e"an manuscri*"s added si+nifican" con"en"s "o "he research on "he his"or$ of %i&e" and %i&e"an cul"ure. As a charac"eris"ic crea"ion of "he %i&e"an cul"ure in AiBia. "he use of &u""erfl$ &indin+,0i"h "rans'erse 0ri"in+, in %i&e"an manuscri*"s re*resen"s a uniEue fea"ure. Fnea"l$ 0ri""en. ele+an" scri*". carefull$ car'ed. "id$ ro0s and usin+ "he &road s*ace of "he 0hole *a+e.H
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16. 9&id 12. *.1 1!. 9&id @. *. 5 18. A s"ud$ of "he earlies" %i&e"an 0oodcu" co*ies. %ransla"ed &$ Xhan+ Aiaomei. Chima 9nforma"ion Cen"re. 000.%i&e".cn 200!. *. 1

%he s3ilfulness and "he de+ree of com*leBi"$ re'eals a ma"uri"$ in "he ar" of *rin"in+. 0hich lead us "o "he conclusion "ha" %i&e"an 0ood&loc3 *rin"in+ had alread$ eBis"ed lon+ &efore "he %an+u"s &e+un "o em*lo$ "he s$s"em and "ha" "hrou+h "hem "he mas"er$ 0as de'elo*ed in "he AiBia <m*ire. (ur"hermore. AiBia crea"ed a decora"i'e s$s"em for 0ri"in+ "he al*ha&e"ic 0ords on "he &asis of %i&e"an cul"ure :no0ada$s 0e can onl$ see such *a""erns of decora"ion of "he "eB" in "he manuscri*"s s"ored in "he Russian li&rar$;. 0hich sho0s a d$namic cross,cul"ural in"erac"ion 0hich led "o "he de'elo*men" of science and ar"is"ic "echniEues across clan &orders.
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%he %i&e"an ar"is"ic elemen"s found 0i"h *redilec"ion in "he

#alaho" manuscri*"s. 0ri""en durin+ "he AiBia *eriod. consis" of ima+es 0i"h 0heel desi+ns 0hich con"ain incan"a"ions used "o *ra$ "o 0ard off calami"ies and send do0n &lessin+s, &o"h %i&e"an and Sans3ri",.
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dia+rams. Xodiac. animal s$m&olism. mo"ifs 0hich are 0ood&loc3, *rin"ed in "he 5er+e Scri*"ure Prin"er$ un"il no0ada$s.
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Accordin+ "o "he AiBia fra+men"s of illus"ra"ions of /uddhis" "eB"s found in 4hara3ho"o. *u&lished in "he 9nnermos" Asia. &odhisa""'as. mon3s and /uddhas.
22 21

one could remar3 "he

%i&e"an s"$lis"ic *h$sio+nom$ fea"ures of "he "an"ric ima+es. of "he %he 0oodcu"s in %i&e"an s"$le
2

*u&lished in "he lar+e collec"ion of AiBia "eB"s. "he %an+u" %ri*i"a3a

&elon+ "o &o"h "he .i/ia kan and Yuan kan. %he earlier %i&e"an ar"is"ic illus"ra"ions consis" of fi+ures of &odhisa""'as. /uddhas and mon3s 0i"h slim *ro*or"ions of "he &od$. "rian+ular sha*es on "he arm &ands and cro0n. round earrin+s and &ear a su&"le "ransforma"ion of "he fi+ure fea"ures. from "he 9ndian "$*e "o "he %i&e"an one. %he un*u&lished 4hara3ho"o 0oodcu"s 3e*" a" "he 9ns"i"u"e of Orien"al S"udies in S". Pe"ers&ur+. a**ear "o &e s"$lis"icall$ lin3ed 0i"h "he .i/ia kan *eriod. and i" is im*or"an" "o no"e "ha" "he arran+emen" of "he fi+ures and "he s"$le recall of "he ele+ance of "he Pala d$nas"$ of nor"hern 9ndia 0hich could indica"e fur"her "he close associa"ion &e"0een %i&e" and AiBia. and "he *resence of a *ar"icular %i&e"an monas"ic school on %an+u" +round.
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19. 9&id 20. 9&id 21. 9&id 22. 9&id 2 . 9&id 2@. 9&id

,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
18. *. 19 @. *. 5 21 21 @ . *. 6

%he -uan en+ra'in+s illus"ra"ed in "he Tangut Tri&itaka. sho0 an eclec"ic aes"he"ic a**roach. a min+lin+ of )aois" Chinese ornamen"al. secondar$ elemen"s 0i"h "he %i&e"an elemen"s 0hich remain cen"ral: in "he illus"ra"ion of "he Maha&ra$na&aramita sutra. "he /uddha. his mandorla and "hrone are *urel$ %i&e"an. 0hile "he flo0er *a""erns on "he ro&es and "he mandorla and fur"hermore. "he hos" of lis"eners "o "he /uddha2s "eachin+s are *urel$ Chinese. %he -uan *rin"s. as 7aB ?oehr
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remar3s.

sho0 a s"ron+ %i&e"an influence and re*or"s "he findin+s of O+a0a

!

4anichi. 0ho s"a"es in his 0or3 Dai0ok"o Seiritsu to hensen. "ha" some of "he *rin"s 0ere ac"uall$ cu" from &loc3s of "he .i/ia0ang W a com*le"e edi"ion of /uddhis" "eB" in AiBia scri*" com*le"ed in 1 02, and ha'e &een la"er recons"ruc"ed and added ne0 aes"he"ic elemen"s. #e fur"her refers "o 5uan6hu&a :Ti ! %a-1g"ur-&a; of AiBian ori+in &u" 0i"h %i&e"an educa"ion. an ar"is" in char+e 0i"h "he *rin"in+ and la"er com*le"ion of .i/ia0ang 0i"h %i&e"an eso"eric elemen"s. %here is an as"onishin+ 'arie"$ of ar"is"ic Euali"$ desi+n of s*iri"ual &ein+s or im*or"an" "eachers 0hich held "he %i&e"an clo"hin+ and *h$sio+nom$ fea"ures amon+ "he AiBia en+ra'in+s. 0he"her "rian+ular in sha*e 0hen a&s"rac"ed and s"$li6ed in Pala re*resen"a"ions. round sha*ed for "he female di'ini"ies or sEuare for "he male &odhisa""'as and /uddhas re*resen"a"ions. )e"ails of "he Ge0eller$. nec3laces and o"her ornamen"s han+in+ o'er "he forehead of a s"one fi+ure of %ara sho0s clearl$ lamais" s"$le.
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%he %i&e"an ar"is"ic 'oca&ular$ infused and re*resen"ed a direc" source of ins*ira"ion for "he AiBian cul"ure. Al"hou+h "he %i&e"an ar"is"ic s"$le is *resumed "o &e eB"remel$ conser'a"i'e and resumed "o "he imi"a"ion of a s"ric" s"$lis"ic model. "he %an+u" ar"efac"s of %i&e"an ori+in .re'eal "ha" %i&e"ans &e+un "o &e *ermea"ed &$ ne0 aes"he"ics es*eciall$ in *ain"in+. %he ar"is"ic in"erchan+e &e"0een "he AiBia 4in+dom and "heir %i&e"an com*a"rio"s resul"ed e'iden"l$ in F*roduc"s of "he "echnical in+enui"$ and "he unerrin+ aes"he"ic ins"inc"s and rich ima+ina"ions of "he mos"l$ un3no0n ar"is"sH.
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25. 9&id @. * 26. 9&id @. *. 2! 2!. #imala$as. An Aes"he"ic Ad'en"ure. Prara*adi"$a Pal. 0i"h con"ri&u"ions &$ Am$ #eller. Os3ar 'on #inu&er and 5au"ama =. =aGrachar$a. %he Ar" 9ns"i"u"e of Chica+o in associa"ion 0i"h "he >ni'ersi"$ of California Press and 7a*in Pu&lishin+ 200@. *.166