Week 2: Philosophy of Man as Philosophy of Morality: How Humans should live their lives I. Three Types of Ethics 1.

Metaethics It comes from the word meta which means beyond. Therefore it is the study of the origin and meaning of ethical concepts. - It attempts to address questions regarding ethics like: 1. Is ethics a product of social invention !. "oes it come from the will of #od

Two Prominent Issues in Metaethics: 1. Metaphysical tries to solve the issue whether morality e$ists independently -The world is composed of moral values as spiritual ob%ects and physical things as tangible entities &lato !. Psycholo ical concerning the underlying mental basis of moral %udgments and conduct. Moral !ealist - 'oral facts are ob%ective facts that are out there in the world. This means that moral values are absolute( which came from the divine commands of #od. - )olds that are ob%ective values. *ealist believes that evaluative statements are factual claims( which are either true or false and that their truth or falsity does not depend on our beliefs( feelings or other attitudes towards the things that are evaluated.

Two "ariants of Moral !ealism: 1. Ethical Intuitionism )olds that there are ob%ective( irreducible moral properties +such as the property of goodness and that we sometimes have intuitive awareness of moral properties or moral truths. !. Ethical #aturalism ,rgues that moral properties are ob%ective( these properties can be reduced into non ethical properties. Moral $nti !ealists - 'orality is determined by facts about us. ,nti-*ealists may be called as -individual realist because according to them( moral values are determined by the individuals own standards.

"ariants of Moral $nti%!ealism

&. Ethical 'u()ectivism - .tatements +specifically moral/ can be held true or false depending on the attitudes0conventions of observers. - 1thical statements are false. - ,ccording to error theorist( there are no ob%ective values( but the claim that there ob%ective values is part of the meaning of ordinary ethical sentences( which is why( in their view( ethical sentences are false. *our versions of Ethical 'u()ectivism 1. Moral !elativism a thing is considered as moral if it is accepted by the society. !. +ivine ,ommand Theory the rightness or wrongness of a particular thing depends on #od2s will. 3. Individualist 'u()ectivism the goodness of badness of moral ob%ects +values/ depends on the interpretation of the individual. 4. Ideal -(server Theory what is right is determined by the attitudes of the ideal observer. #on%,o nitivism - It presents ethical sentences which are neither true nor false. These sentences failed to establish genuine propositions. - 5on-cognitivism encompasses: 1. Emotivism - main purpose of ethical sentences is to e$press emotion. !. Prescriptivism the main purpose of moral0ethical statements is to prescribe laws. 3. .uasi%!ealism moral0ethical statements can be considered as factual claims +can either be true of false/

2. #ormative Ethics - 6ecause it is basically concerned with normative theory( normative ethics involves moral standards +of what is ought to be/ which regulates right and wrong conduct. - /olden !ule classic e$ample of normative ethics. This rule involves one absolute principle which governs0%udge our particular action. "irtue Theory - Insists that it is the character rather than the consequences of actions that should be the focal point. - 7irtue theorist argued that it is necessary to develop good habits of character. $ristotle on "irtue: - )e argued that moral virtues are acquired through good habits. - In addition( he argued that the most virtues are placed in the middle of two e$tremes e$cess and deficiency. This is called the doctrine of the mean.

,-0!$/E 88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888 8 E1cess "irtue +eficiency

)owever ,ristotle failed to state the standard point on how to determine the mean between two e$tremes. )e pointed out that the determination should depend on the individual. Thus reasoning must be employed. 'oral actions are freely chosen and are e$tensions of virtuous habits. &ractical wisdoms guides human in developing moral virtues by informing them of their ultimate purpose and showing them the best means of attaining it.

+uty Theory 2+eontolo y3 - It tends to concentrate on the types of action performed rather than the consequences it brings. - This theory regards that some acts are evil because of their nature. - It is often regarded that humans have inherent duties and obligations.

,ccording to .ameul &ufendorf +#erman &hilosopher/( "uties may be classified into three types: 1. +uties to /od ! 9inds 1. , duty to acknowledge the e$istence of #od. !. , practical duty to follow and obey #od2s command !. +uties to -neself ! 9inds. 1. It is man2s duty to develop his skills and talents. !. It is man2s duty to keep harm away form his body( such as gluttony 4. +uties to -thers - 'an has duties to others( through agreement and contracts. - ,bsolute "uties generally binding on the people - :onditional "uties include diverse types of duties !i ht Theory - *ight is a %ustified claim against the actions of other people - In a way( rights and obligations are somewhat related. The right one is equivalent to the obligations of the other. !i hts for 5ohn 6ocke - The nature mandated that we should not harm other people2s live( liberty and possessions. - ,ccording to him( these natural rights are #od-given

*our *eatures of Moral !i ht: 1. #atural and inherent rights are present at the time that man is born. !. 0niversal rights do not differ form one country to another 3. E7ual rights are the same for each individual. 4. Inaliena(le a person2s rights could not be transferred to anyone. ,ate orical Imperative: - This theory was perceived by Immanuel 9ant. ,ccording to him( actions are made irrespective of one2s personal desire. - :ategorical imperative manages our action2s morality( which brings individual effect. - ;urthermore( one should treat everyone with dignity< other individuals should not be used as mere instruments to achieve one2s personal desires. Prima *acie +uties formulated (y W+ !oss - )e argued that the duties of humans are part of nature and universe. - "uties are manifestations of man2s moral principles. 'i1 concepts of Prima *acie +uties: *idelity It is the duty to sustain one2s promises. !eparation the duty to give compensation to others whom you harmed. /ratitude 8 the duty to be grateful to those who have helped you. 5ustice recognition of +either positive or negative/ actions. 9eneficence the duty to develop the intangible possessions of an individual #on%maleficence the duty not to commit harm to others. ,onse7uentialism - Type of moral theory which claims that the consequences of an action are the valid basis of generating moral %udgments.

1. !. 3. 4. =. >.

"arities of ,onse7uentialism: 1. 0tilitarianism 8 this states that the action is regarded to be morally right if the consequences of action are favorable to everyone. !. Ethical E oism we can conclude that a particular action is moral if its result is favorable to the agent who performed such action. 3. Ethical $ltruism direct opposite of ethical egoism. 4. $pplied Ethics - It is involved in studying controversial and specific moral issues like abortion( euthanasia and etc. - 1thics is incorporated into the professional activities of man. ,s result( ,pplied 1thics came into being through: 6usiness( 'edical( .e$ual and 1nvironmental.

 Two *eatures of $pplied Ethics Issue: 1. Issue must (e controversial there must be pros and cons on a particular issue. !. Issue must (e moral issue what is the distinction between a moral issue and a social issue 1. !. 3. 4. =. >. ?. @. A. II. The Principles reco ni:ed and used in $pplied Ethical issues do not consider one;s duty to /od: Personal 9enefit the consequences of each action is directed to the individual. 'ocial 9enefit the consequences of such action is directed to the society0community. Principle of 9enevolence one should help someone who is in need. Principle of Paternalism the principle that claims that one should assist someone who is incapable of doing things himself. Principle of Harm the principle that claims that it is wrong to harm to others. Principle of Honesty this principle states that it is odd to deceive other people. Principle of $utonomy one should acknowledge a freedom over his actions. Principle of 6awfulness this principle states that man should concur to the established laws on the land Principle of 5ustice due process( %ust compensation and etc. ,lassical Philosophy: #ature and ,omposition of Man #ature of Man - 'an is an individual( a single substance resultant from the determination of matter by a human form. 6eing capable of reasoning( he verifies the philosophical definition of a person.

,omposition of Man 1. 9ody it can be regarded as the material component of man. Its nature is temporary and essentially evil. - The human body is transient and mortal. - The body is the prison of the soul and death releases the soul from the body. !. 'oul It can be regarded as the spiritual component of man +good and eternal/. - The human soul is permanent and immortal. - The soul( according to many religious and philosophical traditions( is a self aware ethereal substance particular to a unique living being. - it should be noted that man is not a body plus soul which would make him two individual( but a body that is what it is +)uman body/( by reason of its union with the soul. Platonic 'oul - ,ccording to &lato( the soul is the spirit that uses the body. It is in a nonnatural state of union( and longs to be freed from its bodily prison.

,omposition of Man 2Plato3 - &lato( drawing on the words of his teacher .ocrates( considered the soul as the essence of a person( being that which decides how we behave. - The platonic .oul comprises Three parts: 1. 6o os which is translated as mind0reason !. Thymon which means emotion or ego 3. Pathos This is synonymous to appetite. - 5ote that each part has a function in a balanced and peaceful soul. - &lato argued that reality is composed of two parts. These are: 1. Places of 'enses 2. Places of Ideas. ,ccording to him( this parts of reality is the material entity which uses five senses o 1verything must flow0pass( o The material entity of reality will eventually degenerate. o This part can be perfectly compared into a -soap bubble.B - The second part pertains to the world of ideas, such as the perfect form0concept - Chen this part +idea/ is incorporated into the body( the soul strive to search for perfect ideas - If it its +soul from the world of ideas/ nature to return from its origin. $ristotle Theory on 'oul - ,ristotle argued that the soul is the core essence of a being. )e challenged the philosophical precept of his teacher +&lato/ that the soul has a separate e$istence. - The soul is the first activity of a living body - )umans have bodies for rational activity and the potential for rational activity thus constituted the essence of human soul. - )e also challenged the &latonic theory of ;orms. )e subscribed to the idea of &lato that the material part of the reality -flowsB( )owever( this idea of form +from the material part/ is only the consolidated idea0concept of human beings. - ,ristotle argued that this so called form + as perceived by &lato/ only pertains to the common0similar characteristics of everything. - This is the difference between &lato and ,ristotle: - Plato;s philosophical approach is linked to achieving things through reason - $ristotle used his senses to e$plain such things. Plato;s *our cardinal "irtues Moderation<Temperance regulation of the desires of the body. ,oura e .upport of reason by the passion 5ustice 9nowing and practicing the functions given by nature Wisdom *ational part of human self.

1. !. 3. 4.

Plato;s Moral Theory - ,ccording to &lato( the good is the source of ultimate moral perfection - )e also argued that moral values are eternal( non-changing and nonphysical forms. - )e proposed that humans become moral +perfect/ by participating in the moral forms. - 'oral 9nowledge is acquired by recollecting the moral forms from past life encounter - The form of the good is the source of knowledge. Plato;s Political Philosophy

&. Who should rule= - ,ccording to him( a specially trained group of individuals called the aristocrats should rule the society. - They are fit to rule for they are endowed with superior intelligence and this #od-given gift should be utiliDed to uphold the welfare of the people. 2. What is the ideal society= - There is an analogy between the individual person +%ust man/ and the society +ideal/ in which he lives in. - 25ust3 Man is composed of three different parts: 1. 9ody It must be develop the virtue of moderation !. 'pirit it must be develop the virtue of courage 3. 'oul it must be develop the virtue of wisdom. - It should be emphasiDed that a %ust man must be in possession of these three parts and their respective virtues. - $n ideal society is also composed of three classes: 1. Philosopher >in <.ueen as the administrators of the state( they must cultivate the virtue of wisdom !. Warriors defenders of the state( they must develop courage as their virtue 3. Workers providers of the state2s basic needs such as food and shelter( they develop the virtue of moderation. - , society with these classes is deemed to be a %ust society. To summariDe 9-+? :hest ,bdomen )ead "I!T0E :ourage Temperance0'oderation Cisdom 'T$TE ,u$iliaries0Carriors Corkers0Eaborers &hilosopher 9ing0Fueen

The /ood 6ife: 'elf 'ufficiency - The aim of human life inside a society can be only be achieved through division of labor. 1ach individual has a function given to them by nature. - &erformance of these functions leads to perfection and happiness.

, good life is a virtuous life: 9nowledge and practice of one2s part in the whole. Theory and ,oncept of "irtue and 5ustice - 7irtue-9nowledge and e$cellence of function +social role/ - Two faculties of Human 'elf: 1. !eason makes Gudgments( pursue wisdom and reflect upon the world and cosmos +an orderly universe/ !. +esires directed by the senses and wants. - Gustice is one of the highest good which is desired not %ust for its result but for its sake. - The virtue of the soul is %ustice an in%ustice is a deficiency of an imperfection. - ;or a %ust man( living well involves well-being and happiness.

$lle ory of the ,ave - This allegory was cited in Plato;s !epu(lic - .etting: :ave - :haracters: &risoners( &uppeteers +shadows/ - .tory: The prisoners are chained +since childhood/ inside a cave and unable to turn their heads. 6ehind them is a fire between the prisoners and the fire is a walkway where the puppeteers are situated. 6ecause of this they only see the shadows +of the puppeteers/ on the wall. The prisoners are engaged in a game to name the shapes as they come by. .uppose on of the prisoners has been given a chance to come out of the cave. ,t first( he will be able to see darker shapes such as shadows and then( brighter and brighter ob%ects. Insi hts and Interpretations: - The prisoners would mistakes appearance for reality. They would think that the shadows on the wall were real. - The prisoners will be mistaken( for they will be taking the term sin their language to refer to the shadows that pass before their eyes rather than real ob%ects casting the shadows. - The general term of the language is not -names of the physical ob%ects that we can see. They are actually names of things that we cannot see( things that we can only grasp with the mind. Plato;s aim: - It is necessary for us to achieve this reflective understanding( but even without it( it remains true that our very ability to think and to speak depends on the forms.

Week 4 ,lassical Philosophy 2,lassical "iew of Human #ature3 6ife of $ristotle )e was born at .tageira in Thrace in 3@403 6:. )is father2s name is 5icomachus( a doctor of the 'acedonian 9ing( ,mynthas II. )e was 1? yrs old when he pursued his studies at the academy +which was established by &lato/( )e had academic intercourse with &lato which made him a critic of the latter. 6ecause ,ristotle was deeply engage in empirical science( he citied some of the &latonic philosophical concepts as the Theory of ;orms. In spite of his negative interpretation on the different &latonic philosophical theories( ,ristotle still regarded &lato as his great influence( his mentor and his friend. ,ristotle quest for the development of philosophy continued even after the death of his master. )e transferred to ,ssos in the Troad where he influenced )ermias( the leader of ,tarneus. 6ecause of his growing popularity in &hilosophy( ,ristotle was invited to &ella by &hilip of 'acedon in order to educate the latter2s son( ,le$ander. This boy became prominent and was dubbed as @$le1ander the /reatA. ,ristotle established his own school( the Eyceum ,ristotle went out to ,thens after ,le$ander the #reat died. )e transferred to :halcis in 1uboea( where the land of his dead mother was situated. )e died of an illness in 3!!01 6:. The most gifted student of &lato( is accorded the title The Philosopher )e taught the truth is the agreement on knowledge and reality. There is no innate idea.

$ristotle on Morality - ,ccording to ,ristotle( there are two kinds of virtue: 1. Intellectual "irtue acquired through step by step instructions 1$ample: academic instructions( classroom teaching and etc. !. Moral "irtue acquired through practice and habit. It also pertains to human ability to properly control desires. - ;urthermore( reason should be used in deriving moral principles. - *ational self interest is the basis of morality. ,n act is moral if it truly benefits the agent and immoral if it is truth harms the agent. - The agent must desire what is truly good for him. This precepts central to ,ristotle2s &hilosophy.

,oncepts of /ood and Moral "irtues #oodness and )appiness are not identical with pleasure: a good life is not focused only on en%oyment( but also on successful and fulfilled life. Three types of 6ife 1. Pleasura(le 6ife slave of the senses( a life similar to that of a beast !. Political 6ife identifies happiness with honor 3. ,ontemplative 6ife - a quest for a self-sufficient life. It should be emphasiDed that -rational contemplation: is the highest form of happiness +as an activity/. It should be emphasiDed that wealth( honor and pleasure are not pursued for their own sake but for the sake of happiness. These are means to the end goal. )appiness +end or -telosB/ is final and self sufficient. It is the goal of human activity +but not necessarily the main goal of life itself/.

Three 'teps towards a "irtuous 6ife

1. ,ristotle argued that we must pursue the ultimate good +which is happiness/. It is the highest end of every human activity that can lead us to desirable and purposive life. 5ote that the concepts of -goodB and -endB should be understood separately. !. "iscover human purpose by analyDing human psyche. 3. 9now the nature of moral 7irtues. - one of its natures is that it can be acquired through constant practice +making it a habit/ +ivisions of Human Psyche

&. !ational Psyche - It is distinctly human. - :alculative in nature. - *esponsible for the human ability to contemplate and reason logically. - ;ormulate scientific principle. 2. Irrational Psyche - 7egetative faculty that is responsible for physical nutrition and growth - ,ppetitive faculty and is responsible for emotions and desires. - &resent among living creatures: plants( animals and human. #ature of Moral "irtues The ability to regulate desires is not instinctive but learned. It is also the outcome of teaching and practice.

"esire regulating virtues are character traits or habitual dispositions and should not be seen as either emotions or mental faculties. 'oral virtuous are desire regulating character traits are at a mean between more e$treme character traits.

Three Editions of $ristotle Ethical Theory: 1. 5ichomachean 1thics which is the most popular !. 1udemian 1thics 3. 'agnus 'oralia #ichomachean Ethics )istorical .etting +In #reece/ - #reece was made up of -small-city statesB. These minis states had independent government - There are si1 social classes found in the city state: namely: 1. 5on citiDen manual laborer !. :hildren 3. Comen 4. ,lien =. .laves >. :itiDens they run the city( usually adult males - :itiDens usually have citiDen parents. They were freed and independent. Their concept of leisure was the result of their intellectual energy - )owever( &hilosophy( art( science and etc( flourished in this period - 5ormally( ,ristotle2 students +who are apparently offspring of citiDens/ were e$pected to assume public office. - There is this so called-:lassical ,thenian democracy. This kind of democracy is different form modern day version of democracy +representative democracy/ wherein every citiDen was e$pected to address their opinions in a large and deliberative assembly. Important Terms &. $krasia - It is usually translated as incontinence. This refers to the lack of self control with the things involved in pleasure( satisfaction and self indulgence. - This concept can be related to the .ocratic claim that no person willingly commits bad things and all these things are only results of ignorance. 2. +octrine of Mean -,ccording to ,ristotle( virtue lies between the so called -e$cessB and deficiencyB. This doctrine is also synonymous to the principle of moderation. 4. $rete - This philosophical concept can be incorporated into the concept of -e$cellenceB Intellectual and moral values are the to main types of virtue. )owever the #reeks usually relate this concept into the optimum

performance of a particular thing such as the e$cellence of an athlete( sharpness of a knife. B. Ethos - It refers to a #reek root word for ethics. ,s mentioned before. It is the study of what is right and what is wrong in human a behavior. Therefore ,ristotlelian ethics +5ichomachean that is/ also involves character. C. Ener eia - It is also a #reek word which is translated as energy. In the conte$t of ,ristotelian philosophy( 1nergeria is regarded as the -activity2. )appiness is considered as energy because this can lead to our main goal. - ,ccording to ,ristotle( happiness is not a virtue< the latter is considered a disposition +or he$is/ to behave in a right manner. D. Phronesis -It is translated as prudence. ,ristotle treats this term as -practical wisdomB which is a combination of human instinct and intellectual virtue. E. Eudaimonia - This term is translated as -happinessB. The #reeks have distinct understanding0approach of the concept. )appiness is neither a virtue nor a goal. It is an activity in order to be a successful person. - , citiDen2s life was centraliDed into public affairs of the city state therefore happiness is considered as a public matter + only the citiDens have the right and opportunity to be happy/ F. Telos - ,ristotle considered this term as the end goal. ,ccording to him( telos can only be achieved if human will act according to their purpose. - The main purpose of a man is to become rational. Ta Ethika - 5ichomachean 1thics +Ta 1thika/ is about virtue and character which serves as a guide to reach the desirable end. The whole manuscript is believed to be edited or dedicated to the great thinker2s son( 5icomachus. - ,ristotle2s ethics has been described as -teleologicalB or -goal directedB philosophical +ethical/ work because the principles and theories involved in the whole manuscript suggest that everything has an end +purpose/ - ,ccording to ,ristotle( people have purpose< they should do things according to their purpose in order to achieve their goals. - It has also been regarded as -character-centered ethicsB virtue because it suggests precepts on how to be -goodB. ,ccording to ,ristotle( every action should not be treated as a separate act rather( actions are connected to a virtuous ideal Essence and *unction of Man - The main purpose of man is to become rational. This activity +of reasoning/ makes a man human. 'an possesses the essence of being a man( that is( the ability to reason< however( not all humans are capable of

suing such ability. In other words( not all humans have the skill to use their functions properly. ;unctions if man: a virtuous activity of the soul in accordance with the rational principles. The essence and function of a man must be performed during his0her lifetime.

Eudaimonia - ,ristotle mentioned about the main goal of political science. ,t the beginning of this philosophical work. )e postulated that political science is not an e$act science< he argued that this discipline is unlike natural .cience and 'athematics that tend to produce e$act and accurate results. &olitical science is the study of diverse political behavior and attitudes of various political actors. - )e argued that the main end +purpose/ of &olitical .cience is -happinessB. - ,ristotle argued that happiness is not the end goal itself( but the aim of all the activities. It is not necessarily the main goal of life( because as mentioned before( happiness is %ust a mean to achieve such goal +that is( to have a rational life/. 1very activity has a telos. - )appiness is not a state of mind. It is a -way of lifeB wherein it can be achieved and assessed in life time because it is the only translated from #reek to 1nglish Eanguage( happiness may also be attributed to success( fulfillment and flourishing. It can also be attained through the aid of: 1. moral goodness !. studying or constant training like moral virtues 3. physical characteristics known as good fortune "irtue - Two Type: 1. Intellectual maybe acquired in the series of formal teaching and instruction. !. Moral through habit and constant practice. - ,s ,ristotle puts it( virtue is a kind of disposition +he$is/. ;urthermore( it is a state wherein man acts in order to have a happy life. - 7irtue serves as a wall between a man and animal. +octrine of Mean - 'ean lies between e$cess and deficiency. Therefore( it is neither many nor few. - ,ristotle provided three pillars to create a complete account of the doctrine. These are: 1. , good man must be in a state of equilibrium !. 'ean +or virtue/ should be relative 3. 7irtue must be at the middle of two vices +e$cess and deficiency/

&. $ristotle on the Will $ccordin to $ristotleG actions can (e classified into three: &. Involuntary Ce can say that an action is involuntary it is performed under coercion which brings pain to the person who committed such involuntary act. ;urthermore( this act does not come from the person who committed such act. 2. "oluntary , person can manipulate his0her actions. It should be emphasiDed that an action done under the influence of a threat can also be considered as voluntary. 4. #on%voluntary Ce can describe this kind of action if someone has committed nonvoluntary action out of ignorance without any recognition of that he0she is ignorant.

- ,ristotle postulated that gratification should only be given to voluntary feelings0actions. Involuntary actions0feelings should be pitied or condoned. 2. $ristotle on 5ustice This concept is one of the most important highlights of the 5ichomachaen 1thics. Gustice can be related to lawfulness and fairness. It is also concerned with the public life of the citiDen +:lassical ,thenian .ociety/. It is also a concept which pertains to maintaining a proper balance. , %ust society is composed of citiDens who understand and practice the virtues. Gustice( according to ,ristotle( is not the same as virtue. The latter is directed to the moral domain of an individual while the former is concerned with one2s relations to others. 5ustice can (e classified into two distinct forms: &. 0niversal *efers to a kind of person who generally concurs to the rule of law 2. Particular There are two su(types of particular )ustice: 1. .tate that an action is distributive %ustice if the wealth or other things that can be acquired are distributed according to one2s merit. !. 5atural law states that if a person gains something( the other person is deprived of something.

4. $ristotle on Intellectual "irtue The soul is divided into two parts to wit: rational and irrational. Eikewise the rational part is divided into contemplative part +which deals with e$act sciences such as mathematics and naturals sciences/ and calculative part +which studies pragmatic0practical domains of human life./ 'ain function: This kind of virtue enables us to realiDe that there is such a thing as -doctrine of meanB and helps us on how to deal with it. *urthermore $ristotle enumerated five kinds of intellectual virtues. &. >nowled e treated as scientific to arrive in an absolute truth through deduction and induction. 2. $rt This is synonymous to technical skill + ability to reason/ 4. Prudence .ometimes called as practical wisdom( it can lead us to a better life. B. Intuition It is regarded as -first principlesB that may help us attain the scientific truth. C. Wisdom ,s mentioned before( it is the combination of intuition +first raw0principle/ and scientific truth. B. $ristotle on Evil , negative type of character. Hbviously( this is not a virtue. $ristotle enumerated three forms of evil 2other authors called these three as three (as states of character: &. "ice It is an attitude or character which is neither e$cess or deficiency 2. Incontinence This refers to the lack of self control with the things involved in pleasure( satisfaction and self indulgence. , person who manifests incontinence knows that a particular behavior is good but he0she lacks voluntary control to avoid such satisfaction. 4. 9rutality It is considered as an e$treme and irrational type of evil0wrongdoing. )e regarded this negative character as popular to non-#reeks. C. $ristotle on *riendship ;riendship have mutual positive attitude between two people It can be a type of virtue because it brings improvement to both parties Three types of *riendship accordin to $ristotle:

&. *riendship accordin to 0tility - It only survives to get mutual benefit from each other. 2. *riendship accordin to Pleasure - The basis of friendship is according to physical features0attributes of both parties. 4. *riendship accordin to /oodness - 6oth parties appreciate the goodness of character of one another. True *riendship considered as the highest form of friendship.