International Journal of Science Education Vol. 32, No. 15, 1 October 2010, pp.

20972111

RESEARCH REPORT

Identifying Twice-Exceptional Children and Three Gifted Styles in the Japanese Primary Science Classroom
Manabu Sumida*
Faculty of Education, Ehime University, Matsuyama City, Japan
msumida@ed.ehime-u.ac.jp 0 00 Dr. 000002009 ManabuSumida International 10.1080/09500690903402018 TSED_A_440379.sgm 0950-0693 Original Taylor 2009 & and Article Francis (print)/1464-5289 Francis Journal of Science (online) Education

Children with mild developmental disorders sometimes show giftedness. In this study, an original checklist was developed to identify gifted characteristics specific to science learning among twiceexceptional primary school children in Japan. The checklist consisted of 60 items on Attitudes, Thinking, Skills, and Knowledge/Understanding. A total of 86 children from eight primary schools in an urban area in Japan, 50% of whom had Learning Disabilities (LD), Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and/or High-functioning Autism (HA), were observed using the checklist. Factor analysis revealed three factors. A cluster analysis with the subscale points of each factor identified three gifted styles in science. These were: (1) Spontaneous Style; (2) Expert Style; and (3) Solid Style. LD/ADHD/HA children characteristically displayed a Spontaneous Style while the non- LD/ ADHD/HA children were characterized by the Solid Style. In both subject groups, the number of Expert Style children was the lowest with no significant difference in their numbers. Based on the results of this research, this paper discusses the implications of the findings for teaching science to twice-exceptional children and argues the benefits of inclusive science education for children with and without mild developmental disorders.

Keywords: Gifted education; Learning styles; Primary school; Science education Introduction Among those scientists who have made their mark on history, quite a few are known to have lived with not only outstanding talent and brilliance but also some kind of learning difficulty. For example, it is well known that Albert Einstein, who wrote numerous papers while still in his 20s on topics as diverse as the photoelectric effect and the special theory of relativity, may have had learning difficulties (Prause, 1974;
*Department of Science Education, Ehime University, 3, Bunkyocho, Matsuyama, 7908577, Japan. Email: msumida@ed.ehime-u.ac.jp ISSN 0950-0693 (print)/ISSN 1464-5289 (online)/10/15209715 2010 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/09500690903402018

2098 M. Sumida West, 1991). Michael Faraday, who made many great discoveries such as the law of electromagnetic induction, and who is famous for the Royal Institution Christmas lectures for children, seemed to have exhibited several traits that generally fit within the broader definition of learning difficultiesfor example, difficulty with mathematics and with memory (West, 1991). Even if a child might be identified as gifted based on multiple criteria, it is possible that the child has special educational needs as well. Twice-exceptionality (heretofore referred to as 2E) is the term used for someone who is gifted or talented and at the same time has one or more learning difficulties or disabilities (Buttriss & Callander, 2005). Although the learning disabilities of 2E children will no doubt be studied and addressed in the future, it is evident in the extant literature that few conceptual or practical studies which focus on the gifted traits that the majority of these children possess have been conducted. This development and emphasis on the gifted aspects of a 2E child, the strengths as opposed to the weaknesses, would help to compensate for the disability. New perspectives are needed to identify the giftedness of these children and to enhance it so that there is both compensation for and sensitivity to their learning difficulties or disabilities. The criteria for gifted identification are usually domain-independent, such as IQ, creativity, and leadership. However, there are many science-specific programmes for gifted children in and out of school from early childhood to high school (e.g. Brandwein & Passow, 1988; Johnsen & Kendrick, 2005; McGinnis & Stefanich, 2007; Taber, 2007a, 2007b). The Centre for Gifted Education at the College of William and Mary analysed numerous commercial science programmes for gifted children in the USA (e.g. Full Option Science System [FOSS] and Great Explorations in Math and Science [GEMS]) and found that very few were appropriately challenging for gifted learners (Johnson, Boyce, & VanTassel-Baska, 1995). The Centre developed original problem-based learning (PBL) science units for high-ability learners from Grades 18 (e.g. Centre for Gifted Education, 2007). A longitudinal assessment of the PBL science curriculum suggested that gifted childrens learning in school science had been enhanced at significant and important levels in terms of scientific experimental research design skills through the implementation of the curriculum (Feng, VanTassel-Baska, Quek, Bai, & ONeill, 2005). Boyce, VanTassel-Baska, Burruss, Sher, and Johnson (1997) showed the positive effects of the problem-based science curriculum on teachers as well as students. Science learning seems to be an appropriate context for children to reveal, and for teachers to identify, giftedness in a practical context. The purpose of this study was twofold: to develop a checklist for identifying gifted learning characteristics of children and to determine the gifted learning styles of children with and without mild developmental disorders who are engaged in school science. These children had mild developmental disorders including Learning Disabilities (LD), Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and Highfunctioning Autism (HA), now under the new special needs education umbrella in Japan (MEXT, 2007). For these children, LD and other disabilities are especially apparent in the areas of arithmetic, mathematics, and Japanese. This study sought to

Three Gifted Styles in Science 2099 reveal both the learning disabilities and talents these children might reveal in school science. The Diversity of Childrens Competences Children who Show Giftedness in Science An extensive variety of methods, going beyond the traditional IQ test, are now being promoted as ways of identifying gifted children (Johnsen, 2004). The standards for determining eligibility for gifted education programmes in schools are readily understandable as definitions. However, the criteria for determining whether a child is gifted may change over time depending on assumptions about the need for special programming and the perceived benefits. In the USA, the criteria for giftedness typically include mental abilities, ability to commit to tasks and to express oneself, achievements, creativity, and leadership (NAGC, 2007). As far as screening for gifted and talented programmes is concerned, assessment in one specific domain only (for example, science) is not commonplace. Coleman and Coltrane (n.d.) recommend the use of inquiry activities in science for overall observation of childrens gifted behaviour. There are also widely known and reputable screening tools, such as Scale for Identifying Gifted Students (SIGS) (2004) and Screening Assessment for Gifted Elementary and Middle School Students, K8Second Edition (SAGES2) (Johnsen & Corn, 2001), which cover a limited number of items related to science. Some proposed behavioural characteristics of gifted children in science include is imaginative, uses numbers often when expressing ideas, displays curiosity by asking relevant questions, and goes beyond obvious answers (e.g. Alderman, 2008; Cooper, Baum, & Neu, 2005; Matthews, 2006; QCA, 2008). Taber (2007b) proposed four clusters such as scientific curiosity, cognitive abilities, metacognitive abilities, and leadership for gifted science learners. However, it is difficult to find enough discussion about validity and reliability of these behavioural gifted characteristics specific to science. In non-Western countries there are few studies about behavioural characteristics indicating science talent (Phillipson & McCann, 2007). Sternberg (2007) pointed out that in identifying children as gifted, the cultural context in which the children grew up is often ignored. In Japan, there has been little research providing a Japanese view of the behavioural characteristics of school children who show giftedness and none regarding talent in the domain of science specifically.

Children with Mild Developmental Disorders Special needs education in Japan, in addition to the disabilities targeted in special education in the pastsuch as visual disorders, hearing disorders, intellectual disabilities, physical handicaps, health impairments, speech disorders, and emotional disturbancesnow also encompasses LD, ADHD, HA, and Aspergers

2100 M. Sumida syndrome. LD, ADHD, and high-functioning pervasive developmental disorder (HFPDD) are referred to as mild developmental disorders in Japan. In 2002, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) conducted a nationwide survey about students enrolled in regular classes who needed special needs education (MEXT, 2003). The survey encompassed 41,579 students attending regular classes in public primary schools (Grades 16) and public lower secondary school (Grades 79) in five geographical regions. It included both forced choice and open-ended questions to which teaching staff, including class teachers and curriculum coordinators, responded. The questions consisted of 95 items that covered: (1) academic aspects (listening, speaking, reading, writing, calculating, and reasoning); (2) behavioural aspects I (inattention, hyperactivityimpulsivity); and (3) behavioural aspects II (relationships with other people, compulsiveness). The validity and reliability for teacher ratings had been verified before the survey (MEXT, 2003). According to the survey results, teaching staff noted pronounced difficulties in learning or behaviour in 6.3% of students (MEXT, 2003). On the basis of responses to each item in the survey, it is estimated that 4.5% of these students have suspected LD, 2.5% have suspected ADHD, and 0.8% have suspected HA (Japan Association of the Special Educational Needs Specialist, 2007a). However, as intellectually slow children in regular classes (estimated at 2%) were excluded from the survey, this suggests that the total number of students requiring special support, (including the 1.5% of students already receiving special education) could reach 10% (Japan Association of the Special Educational Needs Specialist, 2007a). Why Develop a Gifted Behaviour Checklist for Science? Since children with mild developmental disorders may suffer setbacks in academic performance in the areas of listening, speaking, reading, writing, calculating, and reasoning, the main focus of research on academic instruction in special needs education has been on classroom teaching with an eye to enabling these children to overcome learning difficulties in Japanese and mathematics (Japan Association of the Special Educational Needs Specialist, 2007b). The aim of this study in developing a gifted behaviour checklist in science was to determine ways in which all primary school children, including those with mild developmental disorders, might express giftedness so that teachers may identify and nurture such giftedness in science classes. The word science comes from the Latin scientia, which means knowledge. In the nineteenth century, the word scientist first appeared, and the natural sciences were professionalised and systematised (Fuller, 1997). Science today has been elaborately classified into branches, and has evolved into a huge and dynamic endeavour (Sumida, 2005). The domain-specific, dynamic nature of science with its encompassing of a wealth of different fields of study can accommodate childrens varied areas of interest and for this reason makes science learning ideal for the development of a checklist for giftedness.

Three Gifted Styles in Science 2101 DeVries (2002) defined physical-knowledge activities as those in which children act on objects and observe their reactions, and pointed out that such activities appeal to childrens interests, inspire experimentation, and usually involve cooperation. The physical and creative intellectual activity that science offersthe opportunity to observe, experiment, and make thingsalso provides an appropriate context for teachers to find out childrens potentials, and for children to develop their science talent. Hands-on science activities that address fewer topics can be especially beneficial for children with special needs (Patton, 1995). The hands-on activities in science learning can promote creative ideas and develop a persistence in children that often surpasses their teachers expectations. The skills of recording observations, interpreting experimental data, and making models in science can potentially deepen and extend the learning process into other areas such as Japanese, arithmetic, and arts. VanTassel-Baska, Bass, Ries, Poland, and Avery (1998) found a significant effect of the Integrated Curriculum Model (ICM) on gifted learners. For 2E children in particular, an integrated scientific approach will be beneficial in that their dominant strengths can be reinforced and developed in a broader context. Baum (1990) recognises that a child who is an expert on insects at age eight, for example, may be able to name and classify a hundred species of insects even though the child has difficulty reading. For children who have problems in their relationships with others, science can help improve social skills through engaging in activities in areas that the children excel in and enjoy (Sumida, Fukada, Nakamura, Masukagami, & Sakata, 2007). As Ziman (1980) clearly noted, scientific knowledge is much more than the sum of the separate discoveries of independent scientists and science is peculiarly reliable because it is the product of a scientific community. Science encompasses collaborative learning activities in the laboratory and in the field. Scientific endeavour is a team effort, with scientists working within self-established norms and sharing basic attitudes and ways of thinking. Research Design Methods of screening for 2E children can be broadly divided into two types. The first method is to screen for the disorder first, and then screen for gifted characteristics in these children identified as having a disorder (Baum, 2004; Baum & Owen, 2004). The second method is to screen children for their giftedness, and then identify disorders in academic or behavioural functioning in the children identified as gifted (Baum & Owen, 2004). These two methods, despite their reverse order for screening, both combine characteristics of giftedness and developmental disorders (e.g. Cooper et al., 2005; Weinfeld, Barnes-Robinson, Jeweler, & Shevitz, 2006). This present study was conducted in an urban area in Japan using a three-stage systematised framework that had been developed for use in profiling children with mild developmental disorders. The system consists of the following stages:

2102 M. Sumida

An initial screening of all children using a general checklist noting characteristics of developmental disorders; A second screening of those children identified in the initial screening as being of concern: this stage utilized a checklist focusing more specifically on potential developmental disorders; and A more detailed assessment including: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for ChildrenThird Edition (WISCIII), Japanese Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K = ABC), Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities (ITPA), and other such developmental surveys, scholastic records, home environment, and early developmental history.

Class teachers were asked to keep notes about the learning and behavioural concerns they identified in children. Items that the teachers were asked to comment on were weaknesses in listening, speaking, reading, writing, calculating and reasoning (as LD indicators), inattention and hyperactivityimpulsivity (as ADHD indicators), and poor interpersonal relationships and compulsiveness (as HA indicators). According to Holden and Cooke (2005), distinct support should be provided for each of these disabilities. It has been shown, however, that the disabilities often overlap. For example, it is thought that 3050% of those with ADHD have difficulties with reading, writing, and arithmetic (about 30% of whom having difficulty expressing themselves), while 2040% of LD students also have ADHD (Muta, 2005). For this reason, in developing a behavioural checklist for 2E children in science in this study, LD, ADHD, and/or HA were not considered as distinct disorder-specific characteristics of children but grouped together as a single broad category, with areas of specific difficulty in regard to learning or behaviour for each child being noted. In this research, an original gifted behaviour checklist (see Appendix) was developed with science teachers, primary school special education specialists, local education board members, and university professors in science. To make the checklist easy to score for the science teachers, items were broadly organised under the four assessment criteria used in Japanese primary school science (Interest, Motivation, and Attitude toward Natural Phenomena, Scientific Thinking, Skill and Expression in Observation and Experiment, and Knowledge and Understanding of Natural Phenomena). On the gifted behaviour checklist, each of 60 items was scored as one of the following: (1) never observed; (2) seldom observed; (3) sometimes observed; or (4) frequently observed. Before completing the checklist, the teacher was asked to note anything needing special mention in regard to each childs study of science. Formal science education in Japan starts at Grade 3 in primary school. Using the gifted behaviour checklist, teachers observed children in Grades 36 at eight schools chosen randomly from the approximately 60 primary schools in the city. One class was selected from each grade at each of the eight schools. Class teachers work with a particular primary class for most subjects. From each selected class, the class teacher chose two groupsone comprising the children with LD, ADHD, and/or HA and a second group of children without developmental disorders. The two groups were

Three Gifted Styles in Science 2103 identical in terms of the number of males and females and similar in regard to closeness of birth dates. The selected children with disabilities were those with a marked stumbling block in a particular area and with major differences in their performance in various subjects, rather than those falling behind in all subjects generally. The teacher in charge of the childrens science lessons was responsible for completing the science checklist for each child over a period of two or three weeks. Eighty-six children were observed using the checklist in February and March, 2007. Results Factor Analysis of the Behaviour Checklist for Giftedness in Science A factor analysis was performed on the questionnaires collected from each school. Three factors were extracted by carrying out a principal factor analysis. A promax rotation was then conducted. Items with low factor loadings (absolute value < 0.40) were removed, and another factor analysis done. The results are shown in Table 1. Factor I loaded on items such as Reports clearly the result of an observation and experiment and Understands quickly the content of science classes and was
Table 1. Items Factor I. General competence in science Reports clearly the result of an observation and experiment Understands quickly the content of science classes Finds patterns in the results of an observation and experiment Understands the causal relations of a natural phenomenon Expresses what s/he learned in his/her own words Reasons persuasively Factor II. Competence in science regarding natural things Likes to collect animals, plants, or rocks Skilfully collects animals, plants, or rocks Classifies animals, plants or rocks by their characteristics Knows the names of animals, plants, or rocks in daily life Takes care of animals or grows plants with regard to their ecology Shows understanding of natural phenomena in his/her daily life Factor III. Creative competence in science Shows different ways of doing and thinking from others without caring Tries to do things in his/her own way, not by the instruction Carries out own observations or experiments without concern for success Asks unanticipated questions to the teacher Has interest in things different from peers Becomes too absorbed in an observation and experiment to finish the task in time Note. Six items with higher factor loading in each of the factors. Results of factor analysis of behaviour scales for giftedness in science (factor patterns following promax rotation) Loading

0.957 0.921 0.912 0.910 0.908 0.890 0.869 0.828 0.774 0.728 0.630 0.585 0.792 0.740 0.714 0.702 0.683 0.565

2104 M. Sumida therefore labelled general competence in science. Factor II loaded on items such as Likes to collect animals, plants, or rocks and Skilfully collects animals, plants, or rocks and was labelled competence in science regarding natural things. Factor III loaded on items such as Shows different ways of doing and thinking from others without caring and Tries to do things in his/her own way, not by the instruction and was labelled creative competence in science. Mean values for the items on each of the three factors were then calculated and labelled as general competence in science subscale scores, competence in science regarding natural things subscale scores, and creative competence in science subscale scores. To investigate the internal consistency of the scores, Cronbachs alpha coefficients were calculated, yielding = 0.98 for Factor I, = 0.86 for Factor II, and = 0.84 for Factor III, respectively. Therefore, a high level of reliability was obtained for all factors.

Classification of Science-Gifted Styles of Children Cluster analysis was performed with the cluster method within groups linkage using the subscale scores for general competence in science, competence in science regarding natural things, and creative competence in sciences. The analysis yielded three clusters, with 38 children in Cluster I, 13 children in Cluster II, and 35 children in Cluster III. An analysis of variance was then conducted using the identified three clusters as the independent variables, and the three factorsgeneral competence in science, competence in science regarding natural things, and creative competence in scienceas dependent variables. Significant differences were found in all cases. Therefore, multiple comparisons based on Tukeys HSD test (alpha level 5%) were performed. The results showed Cluster II > Cluster III > Cluster I for general competence in science, Cluster II > Cluster III > Cluster I for competence in science regarding natural things, and Cluster II > Cluster I > Cluster III for creative competence in science. Cluster I had low scores for general competence in science and competence in science regarding natural things, but a more significant score than Cluster III for creative competence in science. Cluster I was labelled the Spontaneous Gifted Style. Cluster II had higher scores for all three factors and was labelled Expert Gifted Style. Cluster III was characterised by higher scores than Cluster I for general competence in science and competence in science regarding natural things, but a low score for creative competence in science. Cluster III was labelled Solid Gifted Style. The mean values of each subscale score for these three cluster groups are given in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Three gifted styles in science

Characteristics of Science-Gifted Styles of Children with and without Mild Developmental Disorders Table 2 is a matrix of the three science-gifted styles (Spontaneous, Expert, and Solid) and the two groups of subjects.

Three Gifted Styles in Science 2105

Figure 1. Table 2.

Three gifted styles in science

Three gifted styles and two groups of children Gifted styles in science Spontaneous Expert 5 8 Solid 7 21

Groups

Children with LD/ADHD/HA Children without LD/ADHD/HA

31 7

The prevalence of the three science-gifted styles in the two subject groups was analysed by the 2 test, and significant differences in gifted style were found between the two groups (2 [2] = 22.41, p < .01). Residual analysis showed that the group of children with LD/ADHD/HA had a greater number of Spontaneous Style children and fewer Solid Style children than in the group of children without LD/ADHD/ HA. No significant difference was found between the two groups in the number of Expert Style children. Conclusions and Implications This study is a first step in identifying the characteristics of 2E children gifted in science. In contrast to the detailed classification and screening procedures being developed theoretically, empirically and practically in the area of learning disabilities including, more recently, mild developmental disorders, there is insufficient educational research being done to identify in detail the areas in which these children excel. Research on 2E learners can hold great promise for children who struggle to reach their potential because of a limiting disability (Kalbfleisch & Iguchi, 2008).

2106 M. Sumida The gifted behaviour checklist for science developed in this study is applicable for use in identifying giftedness in all children, not only 2E science learners. In regard to the gifted styles proposed in this study, no significant difference was found in the proportion of Expert gifted style children in the two groups (i.e. with and without LD/ADHD/HA). Silverman (2003, p. 533) points out that in the USA, the incidence of learning disabilities in the gifted population is at least as high as the incidence in the general population (1015%), and that some preliminary investigations suggest that the risk of learning disorders increases as a function of IQ. As the behavioural characteristics of children with disabilities overlap with those of gifted children, studies such as this paper can also contribute to an understanding of giftedness in children without developmental disorders. For children identified as Expert-style learners, with and without LD/ADHD/HA, the provision of a wealth of science resources of a multitude of types for maintaining interest and promoting further curiosity is implicated. The inclusion of challenging tasks in their areas of strength can raise their self-esteem and sense of self-fulfilment. The use of technology such as digital cameras, computers, and calculators can stimulate new methods of inquiry, allow for more sophisticated use of data and facilitate higher order thinking. The provision of opportunities for varied informal science learning options and settings such as involvement in science clubs and science camps is also indicated. Differences in 2E childrens interaction with peers have been observed. Stewart (2003) notes that many 2E children have difficulties to relating to peers, preferring adult company. Cooper et al. (2005) identify inappropriate social interaction as one problem 2E children have and proposed that group identity based on talent or ability should be developed. It is important to consider the group makeup in science activities. The implications for the science classroom are that for activities involving observation and experiments, children should be grouped not according to student ID number or fixed seating position (as is typical in Japanese schools) but according to, for example, shared hypotheses or preferred methods of investigation. In addition to such group activities, the inclusion of individual independent activities is also appropriate. When there are children who have difficulty relating to others or who need social-emotional support, as some 2E children may, group composition is an important consideration in the science classroom. The general trends in regard to learning styles identified in this paper suggest that the appropriateness and value of classroom methodologies for science instruction would benefit from recognition and appreciation of the characteristics of each style. A significantly higher number of children identified as Spontaneous gifted style learners were found among the children with LD/ADHD/HA, while the number of children identified as having a Solid gifted learning style was significantly higher among the children without LD/ADHD/HA. The children with LD/ADHD/HA displayed high creativity overall. A hallmark of natural science is respect for something new. Childrens ideas that lie outside teachers expectations and may even seem inappropriate at first can be a springboard to new insights in science activities. As the strength of science is tolerance of difference of opinion (Ziman, 2000), developing science class tasks that take into account the Spontaneous gifted

Three Gifted Styles in Science 2107 style which would value originality, is indicated for the benefit of children both with and without mild developmental disorders. This study of 2E children gifted in science is an early-stage effort to spark new science educational research work targeted at the diverse needs of all children. Because the strengths in one group are typically weaker areas in the other group, it should be possible, if the teacher recognises and is aware of the distinctive style of each group, to design inclusive science lessons that would enable the two groups of primary children to study together for their mutual benefit. Acknowledgments This research is partially supported by Japan Society for the Promotion of Science and the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Grant-in Aid for Scientific Research. I am grateful to Professor Anni Marlow, Dr. Kimberely L Chandler, Professor Masakata Ogawa and Professor Nobutaka Matsumura for reading the draft critically and giving helpful suggestions. References
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2110 M. Sumida Appendix.

No. Items

Gifted behaviour checklist in science for primary children

Scale

Interest, motivation, and attitudes toward natural phenomena 1 Shows interest in and asks questions about natural phenomena 2 Likes to investigate natural phenomena of his/her own accord 3 Shows interest in analysis using numbers 4 Tries to organise his/her own thoughts using diagrams and drawings 5 Is persistent in exploring specific topics and tasks 6 Observes continuously over a long period 7 Is willing to care for and nurture living things 8 Likes to collect animals, plants, or rocks 9 Shows interest in making things 10 Attempts to apply things s/he has studied in everyday life 11 Has interest in things different from peers 12 Shows different ways of doing and thinking from others without caring 13 Becomes too absorbed in an observation and experiment to finish the task in time 14 Tries to do things in his/her own way, not by the instruction 15 Shows interest in TV, newspaper, picture book and Internet-related science information Scientific thinking 1 Has a clear purpose of observation and experiment 2 Tests out his/her ideas logically 3 Likes solving problems simply and efficiently 4 Solves problems in various ways 5 Finds patterns in the results of an observation and experiment 6 Finds another approach when a problem cannot be easily solved 7 Comes up with well-focused research questions 8 Reasons persuasively 9 Reflects on his/her own thought process 10 Reasons deductively and logically 11 Applies what has learnt in science classes to other situations 12 Comes up with many ideas and answers about a question 13 Dislikes and gets bored with easy repetitive lessons or tasks 14 Asks unanticipated questions to the teacher 15 Classifies animals, plants or rocks by their characteristics Skills and expression in observation and experiment 1 Readily finds materials to observe and experiment on 2 Handles equipment used in an observation and experiment correctly and adeptly 3 Observes natural events and phenomena in detail

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Three Gifted Styles in Science 2111 Appendix. (Continued)

No. 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Items Makes his/her own modifications and improvements to apparatus used in an observation and experiment Reports clearly the result of an observation and experiment Applies scientific ideas creatively when making models Uses computers adeptly Expresses what s/he learned in his/her own words Express his/her own ideas effectively in diagrams and drawings Summarises the results of an observation and experiment appropriately in tables and figures Draws accurate sketches of observations and experiments Takes care of animals or grows plants with regard to their ecology Skilfully collects animals, plants or rocks Carries out own observations or experiments without concern for success Takes particular care when using equipment used in an observation and experiment

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Knowledge and understanding of natural phenomena 1 Is knowledgeable about specific scientific topics 2 Understands the causal relations of a natural phenomenon 3 Understands the key points in problems and ways of solving them 4 Retains things studied in science classes for a long time 5 Links up and interrelates the various topics studied in science classes 6 Is knowledgeable about the equipment used for observations and experiments and its operation 7 Knows many scientific terms 8 Has a concept of what science is 9 Is knowledgeable about science and technology beyond the textbook 10 Shows understanding of natural phenomena in his/her daily life 11 Knows the names of animals, plants, or rocks in daily life 12 Is confident about his/her knowledge and understanding of science 13 Understands quickly the content of science classes 14 Grasps the big picture before the minutiae 15 Prefers active learning to passive learning

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Scale: 1, never observed; 2, seldom observed; 3, sometimes observed; 4, frequently observed.

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