UNIT 2

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADVERBS USED BEFORE THE VERB TO BE ASKING QUESTIONS 1. Read the f !! "#$% te&t' a$d "(#te d "$ the $e" " (d') The function of the bones is to form a hard skeleton for the softer materials of the body, to enclose and protect some of the most important vital organs. Bone development takes place at a very early period. In embryonic life, the parts destined to become bones consist of a congeries of cells which constitutes the simplest form of cartilage. This temporary cartilage is an exact miniature of the bone which in due course is to take its place. The process of ossification is slow and not completed until adult life. The next step is the ossification of the intercellular substance and of the cells composing the cartilage. The period of ossification varies much in different bones. It commences first in the clavicle, in which the primitive point appears during the fifth week; next in the lower aw. The ribs also, and the long bones of the limbs, appear soon after. !or a long period after birth, a thin layer of unossified cartilage remains between the diaphysis and epiphyses, until their growth is finally completed." #$enry %ray & Gray`s Anatomy. Descriptive and Surgical' (lmost all the elements of the oints of adults are also present in the oints of the newborn. The most active factor determining the formation of a oint after birth are the muscles which exert an action on the given oint, i.e. the work of a oint. The development of bone articulations is directly dependent on the formation of the bony and connective) tissue structures and muscular tissue. (ll the elements encountered in the oints of the newborn continue their formation and ac*uire the geometrical shapes of the articular surfaces characteristic of each oint of an adult. " #+.,. -inelnikov & Atlas of Human Anatomy'

* VO+ABULARY PRA+TI+E

2. P( $ ,$-e a$d !ea($ the $a.e' f the .a#$ /a(t' f the '0e!eta! '1'te.. Add . (e te(.' t the !#'t) The '0e!eta! '1'te.) ) skull . craniu ) spine/spinal column/backbone . coloana vertebral0 ) vertebra, )ae /bony ring . vertebr0 ) spinal cord /marrow . m0duva spin0rii ) the cervical, dorsal, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal sections of the spine . sec1iunile cervicale, dorsale, lombare 2i coccigiene ale coloanei vertebrale ) rib . coast0 ) cartilage . cartila ) sternum /breastbone . stern ) clavicle /collarbone . clavicul0 ) thoracic cage . cu2c0 toracic0 ) shoulder girdle . centur0 scapular0 ) scapula/ shoulder blade . omoplat, scapul0

) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) )

pelvis . pelvis pubis . pubis sacrum . os sacral coccyx . coccis articulation / oint . articula1ie fibrous oint . articula1ie fibroas0 synovial oint . articula1ie sinovial0 ossification . osificare ligament . ligament hip oint . articula1ia 2oldului knee oint . articula1ia genunchiului ankle oint . articula1ia gle3nei

2. + ./!ete the f !! "#$% 'e$te$-e' ,'#$% the $ ,$' #$ the 3 &. The f#('t $e ha' 3ee$ d $e f ( 1 , a' a$ e&a./!e) 'te($,. '-a/,!a t#3#a - --1& /ha!a$%e' .eta-a(/,' -a(/,' -(a$#,. fe.,( -a!-a$e,' 4 #$t 5e(te3(ae

4. The spine is a flexuous column, formed of a series of bones called 5 vertebrae_. 6. The 666666666666 is composed of eight bones7 the occipital, two parietal, frontal, two temporal, sphenoid, and ethmoid. 8. The 666666666666 is a long, flat vertical bone, situated in front of the thorax to which are attached the collarbone and the first seven parts of ribs. 9. The 666666666666 is the longest, thickest and heaviest bone in the skeleton, articulating with the pelvis above and the knee below. :. The 666666666666 is the inner and thicker of the two bones of the human leg, between the knee and ankle. ;. The 666666666666 is a small triangular bone at the end of the spinal column, articulating by its base with the apex of the sacrum. <. The 666666666666 is a large, flat bone, triangular in shape which forms the back part of each shoulder. =. The hand is subdivided into three segments7 the 6666666666 or wrist, the 666666666666 or palm and the 666666666666 or fingers. >. The 66666666666666 or heel bone is the largest tarsal bone, irregularly cuboidal in form and situated at the lower back part of the foot. 4?. The structures which enter the formation of a 66666666666 are7 bone, cartilage, fibro)cartilage, ligament and synovial membrane. 7. Mat-h ,/ the f !! "#$% " (d' "#th the#( def#$#t# $') 4. breastbone 6. ligament 8. skull 9. vertebrae a. +ings placed one above the other which form a single column, the spinal column b. Triangular bone that forms the back of the pelvis c. Twelve pairs of curved bones extending from the backbone round the chest d. @arrow, bony and curved column & as a

:. clavicle ;. spine <. pelvis =. sacrum >. cartilage 4?. ribs

cable for the spinal cord e. Basin)shaped framework of bones at the lower end of the body f. Tough white flexible tissue attached to bones and oints g. Though, flexible tissue that connects bones and holds organs in position h. Thin, flat, vertical bone in the chest, between the ribs i. Bone oining the breastbone and the shoulder blade . Bony framework of the head under the skin

8 GRAMMAR INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADVERBS USED BEFORE THE VERB TO BE Ahen forming interrogative sentences with the verb TO BE the rule to be remember is to place the words in the following order7
9HAT 9HI+H 9HERE : #' ;'%.< = a(e ;/!.< > /(e'e$t : 9HY : "a' ;'%.< = "e(e ;/!.< > /a't : HO9 HO9 MANY

34e-t 34e-t

9HAT > is used to ask somebody to specify one or more things, places, people, etc from an indefinite

number7 What are the main causes of muscular weakness? What is the shape of the spinal column? 9HI+H ? is used to ask somebody to specify one or more things, people, etc from a limited number7 Which is the est treatment in this situation? Which is the shortest and the most curved of all the ri s? 9HY ) means for what reason or purpose7 Why is physical therapy etter than surgery in my case? 9HERE & means in or to what place or position7 Where is the sternum situated? HO9 > means in what way or manner7 How is the sternum descri ed in terms of shape! position! structure and development? HO9 MANY & is used to in*uire about the number of things7 How many phalanges are for each finger! e"cept the thum ? @. A'0 A,e't# $' f ( the ,$de(!#$ed /h(a'e' ,'#$% the #$te(( %at#5e " (d' what, which, where, why, how, how many a$d the 5e(3 to be. The f#('t t" ha5e 3ee$ d $e f ( 1 , a' e&a./!e') 4. There are t"e!5e ribs on each side of the thoracic part of the spinal column. How many ri s are on each side of the thoracic part of the spinal column? 6. The foot consists of three divisions7 the ta(','B .etata(',' a$d /ha!a$%e'. Which are the three divisions of the foot?

8. The leg consists of three bones7 the /ate!!a #knee cap', placed in front of the knee, the t#3#a and f#3,!a. 6666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666C 9. The patella is a small, flat, triangular bone situated at the a$te(# ( /a(t f the 0$ee 4 #$t. 6666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666C :. The scapula is situated between the first and seventh ribs. 6666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666C ;. The sternum has the shape of a$ a$-#e$t '" (d, consisting of three parts. 6666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666C <. That form of cartilage which enters into the formation of the oints is called a(t#-,!a( -a(t#!a%e. 6666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666C =. The ligament is /!#a$t a$d f!e&#3!e, ' a' t a!! " /e(fe-t f(eed . f . 5e.e$t but 't( $%B t ,%h a$d #$e&te$'#3!e, ' a' $ t t 1#e!d ,$de( a 'e5e(e!1 a//!#ed f (-e. #ask three *uestions'

666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666C >. There are 2DE distinct bones in the entire skeleton of an adult. 666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666C 4?. The ',/e(# ( e&t(e.#t1 is the largest part of the humerus. 666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666C

E. Read the f !! "#$% e&t(a-t' a$d t(a$'!ate the. #$t R .a$#a$) Bost bones of a human adult consist of a bony and cartilaginous framework, as a result of which a bony part and a cartilaginous part are distinguished in the skeletal system. The bony part makes up most of the bone. The articular cartilages, the epiphyseal cartilages and the costal cartilages form the cartilaginous part of the skeletal system. The long bones #humerus, clavicle, femur, phalanges, etc.' have a middle part, the diaphysis, and two end parts, the epiphyses. The epiphysis located closer to the axial skeleton is called the proximal epiphysis, while the epiphysis of the same bone but situated further from the axial skeleton is called the distal epiphysis. The wider parts of long bones between the diaphysis and the epiphysis are known as metaphysis. Their boundaries are visible only in the bones of children and adolescents when a cartilaginous layer, the epiphyseal cartilage still remains between the diaphysis and epiphyses.

The red marrow possesses high functional activity and is capable of forming blood cells of the myeloid series. Aith the development and growth of the organism, the red marrow is gradually replaced by the yellow marrow. The yellow marrow is less active and plays a reserve role, but under certain conditions it may be activated." #+.,. -inelnikov & Atlas of Human Anatomy' F. T(a$'!ate the f !! "#$% A,e't# $' #$t E$%!#'hB ,'#$% the $e" 5 -a3,!a(1. P( 5#d#$% a$ a$'"e( t the'e A,e't# $' "#!! a!' te't 1 ,( a$at .1 0$ "!ed%e) 4. Care este 2tiin1a care se ocup0 cu studiul oaselorD 6. Care sunt principalele tipuri de oaseD 8. Care sunt p0r1ile constituente ale unei articula1iiD 9. Care sunt cau3ele care determin0 traumatismele 2i fracturile coloanei vertebraleD :. ,in cEte oase este format craniul 2i care sunt acesteaD ;. Care articula1ie este cel mai frecvent afectat0 Fn fracturiD <. CEte vertebre are coloana lombar0D ,ar coloana toracal0D =. Gnde este plasat acromionulD >. Cum este descris sternul Fn atlasul de anatomieD 4?. ,e ce este interven1ia chirurgical0 mai potrivit0 Fn acest ca3 decEt fi3iokinetoterapia sau balnoeterapiaD GH Pa#( " (0 8. Question-answer exercise) U'#$% 1 ,( a$at .1 - ,('e' $ te'B a'0 1 ,( de'0.ate A,e't# $' a3 ,t the '0e!eta! '1'te..