6.

State Space Analysis

State space analysis uses matrix algebra for systems analysis rather than just
differential equations. It is particularly useful for higher order systems and systems with
multiple inputs or multiple outputs.
6.1 Introduction
For the purpose of illustration, we start with a second 2
nd
order differential
equation and show how it can be represented with state space matrices.
A second-order differential equation
Consider the following equation
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
! 2 , " #, $ " 2
d y t dy t
y t f t y y
dt dt

+ + . %&.#.#'
(e start by just sol)ing for the *ero+input response, i. e., the response due to the initial
conditions
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
! 2 " $ " ! "
,.
zi
Y s s s sy y y
s
+ + + +
+
( )
( ) ( )
,
# 2 # 2
zi
s A B
Y s
s s s s
+
+
+ + + +
%&.#.2'
( ) ( )
# 2
, - , !
-, !
2 # # #
s s
s s
A B
s s

+ +

+ +
( ) ( ) ( )
2
- !
t t
zi
y t e e u t


. %&.#.!'
.he step response, the response for ( ) ( ) f t u t
and all initial conditions at *ero, is
determined by
( ) ( )
2
#
! 2
step
Y s s s
s
+ + ,
or
( )
( ) ( )
#
# 2 # 2
step
C D E
Y s
s s s s s s
+ +
+ + + +
. %&.#.-'
(e find
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
" # 2
# # # # #
, #,
# 2 2 2 # 2
s s s
C D E
s s s s s s


+ + + +
,
so
( ) ( ) ( )
2
"., ".,
t t
step
y t e e u t

+
. %&.#.,'
.he total solution is the sum of the two
( ) ( ) ( )
2
"., ! 2.,
t t
total
y t e e u t

+
&.# Introduction #2/##/2"#! #
State Space Formulation
0et us loo1 at this in a completely different way. Suppose I define the following
parameters
# 2 #
, x y x y x & &
2ow my original equation becomes
( )
# 2
2 # 2
2 !
x x
x x x f t

+
&
&
( ) ( )
# 2
" #, " 2 x x
I could write the abo)e equations as a matrix equation
( )
( )
( )
# # #
2 2 2
" " " # #
,
" 2 ! 2
x x x
f t x x x
1 1 1 1 1 1
+
1 1 1 1 1 1

] ] ] ] ] ]
&
&
,
or more compactly
( ) ( )
"
% ', " , t t + & x Ax +Bf x x y Cx Df
%&.#.& a'
[ ] [ ]
#
"
2
" # " #
, , , , # " , "
2 ! # 2
x
x
1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

] ] ] ]
x A B x C D
. %&.#.& b'
.he )ector
x
is 1nown as the state )ector. (e will use matrix algebra to sol)e for this
state )ector. .hen we can sol)e for the output, y, from the equation
[ ]
#
#
2
# "
x
x
x
1

1
]
y Cx
. %&.#.3'
2ote that 4q. %&.#.&' has a matrix D that pro)ides for the case where the output may be
directly related to the input. 5owe)er, for this example [ ] " D
.
6nce again, we will start by sol)ing for the *ero+input solution
( )
"
, " & x Ax x x
.
In fact, I will ta1e the 0aplace transform of the abo)e equation, ( ) ( ) ( ) " s X s x AX s
which I can write as
( ) ( ) s s s
0
X - AX x
,
then
( )
( )
( )
( )
# #
2 2
" # #
2 ! 2
X s X s
s
X s X s
1 1
1 1

1 1
1 1

] ]
] ]
,
or
( )
( )
( )
( )
# #
2 2
" " # #
" 2 ! 2
X s X s s
X s X s s
1 1
1 1 1

1 1
1 1 1

] ] ]
] ]
,
[ ] ( ) s s
0
I A X x
.
.he solution is
( ) [ ]
#
s s


0
X I A x .
&.# Introduction #2/##/2"#! 2
7emember that the identity matrix is
# "
" #
1

1
]
I
.
.herefore,
#
2 !
s
s
s
1

1
+
]
I - A
.
7ecall that the in)erse of a 2x2 matrix is
( )
#
#
a b d b
c d c a ad cb

1 1

1 1

] ]
,
so
[ ]
( ) ( )
#
! #
#
2 # 2
s
s
s s s

+ 1

1
+ +
]
I - A
.
which we use to sol)e for the state )ector
( ) ( )
#
2
! # #
#
2 2 # 2
X s
X s s s
+ 1 1 1

1 1 1
+ +
] ] ]
.
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
#
! 2 ,
# 2 # 2
s s
X
s s s s
+ + +

+ + + +
, %&.#.8'
.his is the same equation that we got when we sol)ed for ( )
zi
Y s
in 4q. %&.#.2' abo)e.
.he equation for the step response is
% ' u t & x Ax +B
,
( )
# #
2 2
" " #
2 !
x x
u t x x
1 1 1 1
+
1 1 1 1

] ] ] ]
&
&
.
.a1ing the 0aplace transform of both sides gi)e
( )
( )
( )
( )
# #
2 2
" # "
2 ! #/
X s X s
s
X s X s s
1 1
1 1
+
1 1
1 1

] ]
] ]
,
( )
( )
#
2
# "
2 ! #/
X s s
X s s s
1 1 1

1
1 1
+
] ]
]
,
( ) ( )
#
2
! # "
#
2 #/ # 2
X s
X s s s s
+ 1 1 1

1 1 1
+ +
] ] ]
.
Sol)ing for the output,
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
#
#/ #
# 2 # 2
s
X s
s s s s s

+ + + +
, %&.#.9'
which is the same as 4q. %&.#.-'.
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
&.# Introduction #2/##/2"#! !
Exaple
: system is described by the following differential equation
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
! 2
! 2
- & 2 ,
" ", $ " 2, $$ " #
d y t d y t dy t
y t f t
dt dt dt
y y y

+ + +

(rite this as a state space formulation. ;ou may regard yt! as the output and ft! as the
input.
Solution
Choose
#
x y
,
2 #
x x y & &
,
! 2
x x y & &&
.
.he differential equation becomes
( )
! ! 2 #
- & 2 x x x x f t + &
.
.he selection of state )ariables is not unique. .his selection is called the p"ase #ariable
canonical form$
( ) ( )
# #
2 2
! !
" # " " "
" " # " , " 2
2 & - # #
x x
x x f t
x x
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
+
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
] ] ] ] ]
&
&
&
x
( ) [ ] [ ]
#
2
!
# " " , "
x
y t x
x
1
1

1
1
]
D
.
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
!C Circuit Exaple
<sing the node+)oltage method, write the state )ariable equations for the following
circuit. <se the node )oltages as the state )ariables.
Solution
First, we sum currents at =#
&.# Introduction #2/##/2"#! -
# 2 !
i i i +
# # 2 #
#
# 2
in
# % % % d%
C
& & dt

+
,
which we can rewrite as
# # # 2
# 2
# 2 # # # 2 # 2 2 # #
# # # # # # #
in
in
# % d% % %
% % #
dt C & C & C & & & C &C
_
+ + + +

,
2ow loo1 at the current i2
2 # 2
2 2
2
d% % %
i C
dt &

or
2 # 2
2 2
d% % %
dt & C

.
.his gi)es us our two state equations which we write as
# # # 2 2 2
# #
2
2 2 2 2
# # # #
#
, ,
# #
"
% C & & & C
&C
%
& C & C
1 _
+
1
1
1
, 1
1

1
1
1

]
1
1
]
1
]
" A B
,
( )
in
# t + & " A" B
,
[ ] , " #
out
# C" C
.
Suppose that we decided to ta1e
#
i
as the output. .hen
#
#
in
# %
i
&

,
or
[ ] [ ] , #/ " , #/
out in
i D# & D & + C" C
.
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Exaple (rite the state space equations for the following circuit, assuming the output is
the )oltage across 7! as shown.
Solution
Start by summing currents at =#,
# 2 !
i i i +
,
&.# Introduction #2/##/2"#! ,
# # 2 #
#
# 2
inA
# % % % d%
C
& & dt

+
#
# 2
# 2 # 2 2 # #
# # # # #
inA
d%
% % #
dt C & & & C &C
_
+ + +

,
.hen sum currents at =2
2 , -
i i i +
2 # 2 2
2
2 !
inB
% % % % d%
C
& dt &

+
2
# 2
2 2 2 2 2 ! 2 !
# # # #
inB
d%
% % %
dt C & C & C & C &
_
+ +

,
# # # # # 2 2 2
2
! 2
2 2 2 2 ! 2
# # # # #
"
, ,
#
# # #
"
inA
inB
&C # % C & & & C
# %
& C
& C C & & C
1 _ 1
+
1
1
1 1
,
1
1

1 1
1
1

] ]
+ 1
1
1 ]
]
in
" A B "
[ ] [ ]
#
2
2
" # " #
inA
out inB
inB
# #
# # #
# #
1 1
+
1 1
] ]
[ ] [ ] " # , " # C D
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
#$ree %oop !C Circuit Exaple
(rite the state )ariable equations for the following circuit.
:ssume that the output is the )oltage across the resistor
2
&
, so
# 2 out
# # #
Solution
It is easy to see a pattern start to emerge
# # 2 #
# #
# 2
in
# # d# # #
i C
dt & &

+
! 2 2 # 2
2 2
2 !
# # d# # #
i C
dt & &

+
&.# Introduction #2/##/2"#! &
! 2 !
! !
!
d# # #
i C
dt &

.a1ing the # s as the state )ariables
#
# 2
# # # 2 # 2 # #
# # # #
in
d#
# # #
dt C & C & C & C &
_
+ +

,
2
# 2 !
2 2 2 2 2 ! 2 !
# # # # d#
# # #
dt C & C & C & C &
_
+ +

,
!
2 !
! ! ! !
# # d#
# #
dt C & C &

# # 2 # # #
# # # #
2 2
2 2 2 2 ! 2 ! 2
! !
! ! ! !
# # #
"
#
# # # #
"
"
# #
"
in
&C & C &C
&C # #
# # #
& C & C & C & C
# #
& C & C
1 _

1
1
,
1
1
1 1
1
1
_
1 1
1
+ 1

1 1
1
1 ,
1 1
1 ] ]
1

1
1
]
1
]
&
&
&
[ ]
#
2
!
# # "
out
#
# #
#
1
1

1
1
]
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Soe of t$e !easons for &sin' State Space Analysis
#. 5igher order differential equations can be written as a system of first order
differential equations.
2. .he parameters themsel)es often ha)e physical significance. >y 1nowing the state
parameters, we 1now the ?state@ of the system.
!. >y formulating the problem in matrices, we can bring to bear the methods of linear
algebra. Auch of the math and science literature is formulated using linear algebra.
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Exaple (#)o *asses Attac$ed +y #)o Sprin's
Bescribe the following system in states space using y#, y2, and their respecti)e
deri)ati)es as the state )ariables. %.his is ta1en from page 2" in Crajic'
&.# Introduction #2/##/2"#! 3
.he symbols that loo1 li1e resistors are actually springs so the 's are spring constants.
.he symbols
#
B
and
2
B
represent speed dependent resistance.
Solution
First of all, we ha)e to find equations to describe the system. In a system that in)ol)es
mo)ing masses, the 1ey equation is often
a m , .
>egin by thin1ing about all the forces on mass #
( ) ( )
( )
2
#
# # # 2 # # 2 # 2
d y t d
F ' y y B y y m
dt dt
.
.he abo)e terms are
:pplied force D Spring force + Friction E mass x acceleration.
I will rewrite this as
( )
( ) ( )
2
#
# # 2 # # 2 # 2
d y t d
m B y y ' y y F
dt dt
+ + ,
and finally we get the traditional form of a 2
nd
order B4
( )
( ) ( )
2
# # # #
# 2 # 2 2
# # #
d y t B ' F d
y y y y
dt m dt m m
+ + .
2ow loo1 at the forces on mass 2
( )
( ) ( )
( )
2
2 2
2 2 2 2 # # 2 # # 2 2 2
dy t d y t d
F ' y B ' y y B y y m
dt dt dt
+ +
2ow the terms are
:pplied force D spring D friction F spring force that wants to pull m2 towards m#
F friction that pulls m2 to m# E mass x acceleration
&.# Introduction #2/##/2"#! 8
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
2 2
2 2 2 2 # # 2 # # 2 2 2
d y t dy t d
m ' y B ' y y B y y F
dt dt dt
+ + .
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
2 2 2 2 # # 2
2 # # 2 # 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
d y t dy t ' B ' B F d
y ' y y y y
dt m m dt m m dt m
+ +
.o write these equations in the state space formalism, choose the following
# # 2 #
x y x y &
,
! 2 - 2
x y x y &
.
.he abo)e equations become
# # # # #
2 # 2 ! -
# # # # #
' B ' B F
x x x x x
m m m m m
+ + &
,
( ) ( )
# 2 # 2 # # 2
- # 2 ! -
2 2 2 2 2
' ' B B ' B F
x x x x x
m m m m m
+ +
+ + &
.
In matrix form, this becomes
( )
( )
# # # # # #
# # # # # 2 2 #
2 ! !
- - 2 # # # 2 # 2
2 2 2 2
" # " "
" "
#/ "
" " " " " #
" #/
x x ' B ' B
m m m m F t x x m
F t x x
x x m ' B ' ' B B
m m m m
1
1
1 1 1
1

1 1 1
1 1
1 1 1
+
1 1
1 1 1
]
1
1 1 1
1
+ +
] ] ]

1
]
&
&
&
&
%8.#-'
If the outputs of the system are
#
y
and
2
y
,
#
# 2
2 !
-
# " " "
" " # "
x
y x
y x
x
1
1
1 1
1

1 1
1
] ]
1
]
.
Suppose we were interested in the total energy of the system. .he total energy is the sum
of the potential energy stored in the springs and the 1inetic energy of the masses
( )
2
2 2 2
# # 2 ! # # 2 2 -
# # # #
2 2 2 2
Ener(y ' x ' x x m x m x + + +
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Exaple %8.#- in Cajic' Find the system output response for t G #, due to the initial
condition at t E #, for
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
#
- ! ", # 2.
t
dy t
y t y d y
dt
+ +

Solution
Choose the state )ariables as
&.# Introduction #2/##/2"#! 9
( ) ( ) ( )
# 2 #
#
,
t
x t y d x y t x

&
.
( )
( )
# # #
2 2 2
# " # "
,
# ! - 2
x x x
x x x
1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

] ] ] ] ]
&
&
Since the x# state )ariable starts at #, ob)iously it )alue is *ero.
( ) ( ) ( ) - ! # ! s s s s s + + + + I - A
( )
( ) ( )
#
- #
#
! # !
s
s
s s s

+ 1

1
+ +
]
I - A
.he initial condition is specified at t E #, but it is easier to sol)e for tE" and then shift the
answer.
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
$
2
# !
- # "
#
! 2 2 # !
# !
zi
s s
s
s s s s
s s
1
1
+ +
+ 1 1
1

1 1
1 + +
] ]
1
+ +
]
x
.
.he output response is ( )
2
y t x
, so
( ) ( )
$
2
# ! # !
zi
s A B
y
s s s s
+
+ + + +
( ) ( )
# !
2 2 2 &
#, !
! 2 # 2
s s
s s
A B
s s



+ +
( ) ( ) ( )
!
$
t t
y t e e u t

+
.
2ow we shift it o)er to correspond to the initial condition at tE #
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
# ! #
#
t t
y t e e u t

+
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
)nputs *it" multiple deri#ati#es
So far weH)e been loo1ing at finding the state space representation from
differential equations of this form
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
! 2
" " "
" ! 2
- & 2 ,
" ", $ " 2, $$ " #
d y t d y t d y t
y t f t
dt dt dt
y y y

+ + +

%&.#.#"'
which we transformed to the state space formulation by the p"ase #ariable canonical
form$
( ) ( )
# #
2 2
! !
" # " " "
" " # " , " 2
2 & - # #
x x
x x f t
x x
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
+
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
] ] ] ] ]
&
&
&
x
,
&.# Introduction #2/##/2"#! #"
( ) [ ] [ ]
#
" 2
!
# " " , "
x
y t x
x
1
1

1
1
]
D
. %&.#.##'
In the case of the two spring system in the pre)ious example, we had two inputs, but that
was a straight+forward extension. 2ow we would li1e to consider an equation of the form
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
! 2 2
! 2 2
- & 2 2 ! .
d y t d y t dy t d f t df t
y t f t
dt dt dt dt dt
+ + + + + %&.#.#2'
6ur approach to the solution is to find the solution to 4q. %&.#.#"', and then construct the
total solution by superpostion. First, the following theorem
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
#$eore 6.1.1.
If yt! is the *ero+state solution to ft!, then , then y+t! is the solution to f+t!.
Iroof
I 1now there is an impulse response that characteri*es the system,
( ) ( ) ( )
"
t
y t " f t d

.
In the 0aplace domain the con)olution becomes multiplication
( ) ( ) ( ) Y s , s F s
.
.he response to the deri)ati)e of the input, f+t! is
( ) ( ) ( ) , s sF s sY s
.
(hen I ta1e this bac1 to the time domain
( )
( )
( )
"
t
dy t df t
" d
dt dt

,
which pro)es our theorem.
7emar1 In general,
( ) { } ( ) ( )
$ " y t sY s y

L
.
>ut we are tal1ing only about the *ero+state response, so all ICs are *ero.
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
For 4q. %&.#.#"' assume that the response to an input of just ft! is ( )
"
y t
. .hen the total
response to the right hand side of equation %&.#.#2' is
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
" " "
2 ! y t y t y t y t + + && &
.
(e define the state )ariables using phase )ariable canonical form
&.# Introduction #2/##/2"#! ##
# "
2 "
# "
,
,
.
x y
x y
x y

&
&&
.he output can be expressed by
( ) [ ]
#
2
!
! 2 # .
x
y t x
x
1
1

1
1
]
In the unli1ely e)ent that the input has as high an order deri)ati)e as the un1nown y, e. g.,
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
! 2 ! 2
! 2 ! 2
- & 2 2 ! ,
d y t d y t dy t d f t d f t df t
y t f t
dt dt dt dt dt dt
+ + + + + + %&.2.-'
we ha)e to ta1e one more step. .he solution is
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
" " " "
2 ! y t y t y t y t y t + + + &&& && &
%&.#.#!'
(e do not ha)e a state )ariable for ( )
"
y t &&&
, but I can write
( )
! ! 2 #
- & 2 x x x x f t + &
,
so 4q. %&.#.#!' becomes
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
! 2 # ! 2 #
! 2 #
- & 2 2 !
! - ,
y t x x x f t x x x
x x x f t
+ + + +
+ +
or ( ) [ ] ( )
#
2
!
# - !
x
y t x f t
x
1
1
+
1
1
]
.
In our matrix formalism, we write
( ) [ ] [ ] , # - ! , # t + y Cx Df C D
.
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Exaple
(e pre)iously wrote the following differential equation
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
! 2 , " #, $ " 2
d y t dy t
y t f t y y
dt dt

+ +
in the state space form
( )
( )
( )
# # #
2 2 2
" " " # #
,
" 2 ! 2
x x x
f t x x x
1 1 1 1 1 1
+
1 1 1 1 1 1

] ] ] ] ] ]
&
&
.
( )
"
% ', " , t & x Ax +Bf x x y Cx
#
"
2
" # " # #
, , , ,
2 ! # 2 "
x
x
1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

] ] ] ] ]
x A B x C
.
&.# Introduction #2/##/2"#! #2
[ ]
#
2
# "
x
y
x
1

1
]
.
Find yt! for
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
2 2
2 2
! 2 , !
d y t dy t d f t df t
y t f t
dt dt dt dt
+ + + +
Solution
If ( )
# o
y t x
is the solution for input ft!- then the new solution is
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
" " " 2 2 #
# 2 2 #
# 2
, ! , !
2 ! , !
2
y t y t y t y t x x x
x x f t x x
x x f t
+ + + +
+ + +
+ +
&& & &
[ ] ( )
#
2
# 2
x
y f t
x
1
+
1
]
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Exaple. %8.! in Cajic'. :n antenna model is represented by the transfer function.
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
#
& ##., 8 2,&
. s
, s
s s s s s
+

+ + + +
Find state space matrices for the phase )ariable canonical form, i.e, A- B- C- D matrices.
( )
( )
& , - ! 2
#
2& -&, ,"!2 #3&&-
. s
, s
s s s s s
+

+ + + +
Solution
First write the transfer function as
( )
( )
& , - ! 2
#
2& -&, ,"!2 #3&&-
. s
, s
s s s s s
+

+ + + +
.
(e 1now that the basic differential equation has the form
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
& , - ! 2
2& -&, ,"!2 #3&&- y y y y y f t + .
%7emember, we assume the input is ft! and then include factors and deri)ati)es in the C
matrix.'
( )
( )
( )
#
#
2 #
2
! 2
,
& ,
...
x y
x x y
x x y
x x y

&
&
&
&.# Introduction #2/##/2"#! #!
( )
& & , - !
2& -&, ,"!2 #3&&- x x x x x f t + &
" # " " " " "
" " # " " " "
" " " # " " "
, ,.
" " " " # " "
" " " " " # "
" " #3&3- ,"!2 -&, 2& #
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1

1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1

] ]
A B
From our theorem
( )
# 2
y t .x .x +
,
so
[ ] [ ] " " " " , " . . C D
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
!eferences
#. >. I. 0athi, 0inear Systems and Signal, 2
nd
4d., 6xford <ni)ersity Iress, 2ew ;or1,
2;, 2"",.
2. J. Cajic, 0inear Bynamic Systems and Signal, Irentice+5all, <pper Saddle 7i)er,
2K, 2""!.
Exercises
&.#.#. Find the matrices :, >, C and B for the state space representation of the circuit
shown. <se
#
#
and
2
#
for the state )ariables.
A
%
and
B
%
are input )oltages. 7emember
that the current across a capacitor is gi)en by
( )
#
# #
d# t
i C
dt
. Sum the currents into the
nodes to form your state equations.
&.#.2 : continuous system is describe by the following coupled equations
&.# Introduction #2/##/2"#! #-
( ) ( )
% '
2
d* t
* t y t
dt
+
( ) ( ) ( )
% '
! 2
dy t
y t * t f t
dt
+ +
.he input to the system is ( ) f t
and the output is ( ) y t
. .he initial conditions are
( ) ( ) " ", " # * y
. (rite a state space formulation of this system and sol)e using the
state space methods for an input ( ) ( ) f t t
.
&.#.! (rite a set of state )ariable equations for the following circuit using the method of
mesh currents, as shown. .a1e the )oltage across the inductor 0# as the output.
&.#.- Find the step response for the ! loop 7C circuit from section &.# using
diagonali*ation. :ssume the output is
# 2
# #
. <se the following )alues
# 2 !
# , , , # , & ' & ' & '
,
# 2 !
# , , "., , 2 , C F C F C F
# # 2 # # #
# # # #
2 2
2 2 2 2 ! 2 ! 2
! !
! ! ! !
# # #
"
#
# # # #
"
"
# #
"
in
&C & C &C
&C # #
# # #
& C & C & C & C
# #
& C & C
1 _

1
1
,
1
1
1 1
1
1
_
1 1
1
+ 1

1 1
1
1 ,
1 1
1 ] ]
1

1
1
]
1
]
&
&
&
[ ]
#
2
!
# # "
out
#
# #
#
1
1

1
1
]
&.#., : system is described by the transfer function
( )
2
!
9 2"
s
, s
s s
+

+ +
.
Find the step response using state space methods.
&.# Introduction #2/##/2"#! #,