Chapter Five: Constructing Arguments

In order to make an effective argument, you must understand the rhetorical situation, the goals for argument, and the medium. The Composition Process is characterized by the following steps: 1. Defining your topic: It is important to understand the difference between a topic and a subject. While the subject of a paper may be anthropology research, the topic may be the specific ethical problem of the relationship between the anthropologist and the people he or she is studying. The topic is narrowed to exactly what will be discussed in the argument, and nothing more. Some important questions to ask yourself when defining your topic are: Do I know what my specific topic is? Is the topic suitable for the assignment or situation for which I am writing? Do I have an opinion about this topic? What is that opinion based on? On what grounds might anyone disagree with my opinion? Can I hope to persuade others to agree with my opinion? Can I support my opinion with evidence? 2. Considering Audience: The audience for an argument will influence every aspect of that argument, so it is important to identify your audience early on. In some situations, your audience is already well-defined. Sometimes, however, your argument is targeted toward large and diverse groups of people, and your argument should be tailored accordingly. As you work through the process of composing your argument, try to identify what you know about your audiences interests, views, and knowledge of the topic you are addressing. Once your audience has been identified, it is important to recognize that those members of the audience who disagree with your views are not inherently wrong. Making concessions when they are due is an important step in the composition process and is a good way to build credibility with a wide range of people. A better understanding of your audience will allow you to tailor your remarks to what your audience expects to hear (not what they want to hear). However, you should always tell the truth as you see it, even if the evidence you present may be limited to that which your audience will find most convincing. 3. Defining your terms: Make sure that any potentially unfamiliar words or terms are defined satisfactorily in your argument. Avoid defining a word by using the same word or a word that is equally complex. The following are methods that can help you to define your terms in a clear and understandable way: Give synonyms. Compare the term with other words with which it is likely to be confused, and show how your term differs. Define a word by showing what it is not. Provide examples.

Structuring an Argument Structure: Classical Introduction, statement of background, proposition, proof, refutation, conclusion To urge audience to consider case Used to urge an audience to take a proposed course of action about which you feel strongly Helps to generate ideas for argument, requires background information, used when your audience shares your basic values Rogerian Introduction, summary of opposing views, statement of understanding, statement of your position, statement of contexts, statement of benefits To state problem you hope to resolve Used to reconcile conflicting parties and achieve a compromise Emphasizes working toward solutions, good for when people are deeply divided by perceptions/values, best for when you hold no strong views

Introduction: Purpose/Use:

Key Elements:

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning Definition: Considerations: Inductive Drawing a conclusion based on presented evidence Arrange evidence to lead to conclusion, consider how evidence will affect readers, decide how much evidence, analyze evidence for audience Evidence+evidence=conclusion Deductive Beginning with a generalization and working to a following conclusion Identify your conclusion, examine your reasons carefully, formulate your premise Premise => Conclusion

Elements:

Classical vs Rogerian vs Toulmin Purpose: Classical To urge an audience to take a proposed course of action about which you feel strongly Political discourse Writing for those who share your basic values Rogerian To reconcile conflicting parties and achieve a compromise Reconciling members of divergent religions Writing for those whose basic values differ Toulmin To prove a claim using data and a warrant Arguing against building a meat plant Writing to persuade, inquire, or assert (anything, really)

Scenario: Rule of Thumb: