Astronomy Final Exam Overview: Earth is in the Milk Way Galaxy- located in the Disk of our universe- 1 of the

2 largest galaxies Local Group- group of about 40 galaxies Solar System, Milk Way Galaxy, Local Group, Clusters of Galaxies (50-1000 gals) Nearest Cluster- Virgo Voids of space between Super clusters Stars form inside clouds of gas/dust by the collapsing of gravity Nuclear Fusion: 4 H -> He _releasing a lot of energy After stars die, the blow out most of the material they are made of and it is recycled to form new stars Solar System is made of recycled material Early Universe contained only H, He, and Li (98% H & He and 2% other). _ all other elements got there because of supernova explosions The Universe- 14 billion years old If something is 12 bill ly away- we see it 12 bill years ago ** when it was only 2 bill years old ** THE FURTHER AWAY WE LOOK IN DISTANCE, THE FURTHER BACK WE LOOK IN TIME **** Milky way- 100 billion stars All of the galaxies are moving away from each other- the universe is expanding because of Hubbles Law. In the past- galaxies were closer together! **** Beginning of the expansion- Big Bang Theory **** THE DISTANCE OF STARS IN GALAXIES DOES NOT CHANGE BC BOUND BY GRAV Accelerating charges produce light- electromagnetic radiation because light has both electric and magnetic fields **** Photons- energy in light waves transported by particles **** Light has: wavelength (distance between two peaks), a frequency (number of waves passing each second), a speed (300,000 km/s, always the same), an energy (depends on wavelength of frequ). **** Speed of light is always constant c = wavelength x freq **** As wavelength ^, frequency v **** E = Hubbles constant x frequency **** Light with a SHORTER wavelength carries MORE energy **** Electromagnetic spectrum- light colors distinguished by frequency and wavelength The Sun- energy from THERMONUCLEAR RxN in the core: energy slowly moves outward through processes - cool dwarf star: spherical ball of hot gas - sunspots - Photosphere- visible layer of the sun, the surface, cant see passed the photosphere Limb darkening- looks darker at the edge than in the middle

Central Layers- core, radiation zone, convection zone Outer Layers- photosphere chromosphere and corona Core- nuclear fusion occurs here Radiation zone- energy is transported by radiation. Convection zone- energy transported by convection Photosphere- outer layer of the sun, we see this layer Chromosphere- very little light Coronoa0 very hot due to magnetic fields Solar Wind- 10,000 km above photosphere- can escape suns gravity Sunspots- low temperature regions in the photosphere, appear dark because cooler than surroundings, come and go in a few days, linked and produced by pairs of magnetic field lines, rotation of the sun drags magnetic field lines around with it cause kinks- 11 year sunspot cycle BUT really 22 years because they switch from northern to southern hemisphere every 11 years Magnetic field- produces solar activity Luminosity- total energy per second emitted by an object= power Solar flare- large explosion on suns surface emitting energy but in seconds rather than days like sunspots Solar corona- larger and irregular than sunspot peak, hotter than photosphere Coronal mass ejection- emits charged particles that can affect the earth Solar wind0 escapes sun through CORONAL HOLES seen in XRAY IMAGES Hydrostatic equilibrium- when gas pressure = gravity, the star is stable, reason why the sun does not collapse or expand When gas pressure > gravity expands Gas pressure < gravity contracts Gas Temp- measure of moving atoms in random directions Gas Pressure- force of the atoms in their surroundings via there collisions Temp ^ - Pressure ^ Tem v Pressure v Gravitational Contraction- keeps the sun shining for 40,000,000 years Luminosity- energy radiated by the sun Nuclear Fusion- light nuclei into heavier nuclei and energy is produced as well, **** NEED temp of at least 10 million K E = m c ^2 ( c = speed of light ) Law of conservation of mass and energy-mass and energy converted must always remain constant- you cant loose mass/energy, it just converted into the other Particles created in Fusion- Deuterium (P & N), Positron (antiparticle of E- (+)), and Neutrino (charge-less and massless). Proton-proton chain- 4 H -> He + 2 neutrinos + energy Missing mass turns into Energy because of law of conserve. Of mass and energy** Neutrinos are hard to detect Fundamental Properties of Stars- Size - Luminosity - Temperature

- Mass - Distance - Velocity Stars can range from .01 R to 1000 R IN SIZE **** Magnitude Scale- system of ranking stars by brightness Luminosity- energy emitted by an object each second (total power), in Watts or J/s **** BIG HOT objects have GREATER LUM than SMALL COOL OBJ **** Brightness- how bright a source appears ** BRIGHTNESS depends on DISTANCE ** **** TO MAKE A STAR HAVE A GREATER LUMINOSITY 1. Make the star BIGGER in size or 2. Make the star HOTTER. **** To measure Luminosity-> we measure brightness with a CCD camera, records how much energy strikes its surface each second Measuring Temperature- Look at its color Red- cool Blue- Hot Reddening- scatter away blue light, appears red but is really blue Blackbody radiation- opaque object that has a temp of 0k that produces radiation in the form of a continuous spectrum ** the shorter the object the higher the temperature ** Temperature is related to its peak wavelength. The SHORTER the peak of light emitted by the object, the HIGHER the objects temperature Hot objects emit light that peaks at SHORT/BLUE wavelengths **** Cool objects emit light that peaks at LONG/RED wavelengths **** GOOD BLACKBLODIES are not transparent Peak of BLACKBODY- tells us temperature Three types of spectrum- (Kirchhoffs laws) 1. Continuous spectrum- hot/dense energy source (full rainbow) 2. Emission line spectrum- hot low density cloud of gas (Black background with colored lines) 3. Absorption line spectrum- Hot/dance energy source (rainbow with black cutouts) Atoms- P & N, E- surrounding the atom, atoms are mostly empty space Isotopes- same number of protons different number of neutrons Electron- distribution of probability around the nucleus that behaves like a point particle on a fixed circular path Ionization- when an electron absorbs enough energy to escape the atom. It jumps off Photons- absorbed by an atom when an electron moves from LOWER to HIGHER energy level. EMITTED when electron moves from higher to lower energy level Neon- red/orange Sodium- yellow ** All stars produce dark line absorption spectra because the outer layers of stars are cooler than the core ** Hydrogen- all absorption lines come from n=2

Spectral type- refers to the types of lines in the spectrum/temperature. (oh be a fine guy kiss me ) O B A F G - SUN K M ** They all depend on temperature ** O = hottest (T~25000k) , M = coolest (T~4000k) ** Cooler stars would have weaker lines HR Diagram- luminosity and temperature of stars Main sequence- stars larger than white dwarfs but smaller than giants Red giants- cool, very bright, dont emit lot of light, huge- no pattern of mass White dwarfs- faint, hot, small- Mass less than 1.4 M of the sun **** ALL star have a mass between .1 M and 150 M of the sun **** ** BRIGHTER stars have HIGHER masses **** HR Diagram- 80 closest stars to use Main sequence stars FUSE H to He- MOST stars here! (90%- 9% RG and 1% WD) Red and Blue giants- more luminous than the sun Brown dwarfs- minimum mass is .8 M of the sun. Cant start H fusion because too small of a mass. Cores made of degenerate electrons- start exerting own pressure because so packed together Maximum mass- 150 M of the sun ** IF ANY LARGER- the star would be blown away by radiation pressure ** Once start H fusion- on the main sequence- takes millions of years for star to be born and reach main sequence. MASS **** is main determinant for star on the main sequence MASSIVE STARS- live shorter Smaller stars- live longer ** MORE SMALLER STARS than larger stars HIGHER MASS- core with; - higher gravity - higher pressure - higher temperature - consumes H faster in fusion Suns life expectancy- 10 billion years High mass star- high luminosity - short lived - large radius - blue

low mass star- low luminosity - long lived - small radius - red Leaving the main sequenceLow mass stars go quietly, high mass stars go out with a bang! Shell burning- H is fusing outside of the core Evolution of a star - 7-8- sub giant Phase: No fusion in core, Shell H-> He in the shell OUTTER LAYERS EXPAND - 8-9- red giant: NO core fusion, Shell: H -> He CORE SHRINKS, OUTTER LAYERS EXPAND - 9 Helium flash- CORE STARTS H -> HE, Electron degeneracy pressure CORE SHRINKS still, He Fusion occurs, He flash - 9-20- He Fusion- He is fusing - 10- horizontal branch- Core: He -> C and Shell H -> He - 11- back to red giant- He burns faster and faster, Core : He-> C ENDS ANOTHER SHELL IS CREATED Shell 1: He-> C Shell 2: H -> He, OUTTER LAYERS EXPAND, CORE SHRINKS - 12- planetary nebula (outer layers that expanded formed a plan. Neb)- outer layers drift away by stellar winds, 2 parts: dense core, envelope size of solar system - 13-14- white dwarf- core made of carbon and electron degeneracy pressure, gets dimmer and dimmer, and finally stops glowing White dwarfs- same size as sun = same size as earth HIGHER MASS WD ARE SMALLER **** more mass of white dwarf, smaller it is. Nova- star that flares up very suddenly and returns slowly to its former luminosity Accretion disks- mass that falls into a white dwarf has angular momentum so it orbits the white dwarf as an accretion disk, friction between the rings of matter cause the disk to glow, temperature eventually hot enough for fusion to occur, which causes a nova! White dwarf Supernova- NO star remains after WD supernova, occurs when C fusion reaches the WD limit Supernova explosion- luminous, little or nothing left when it happens Different types of supernovasType 1- White dwarf Type 2- Death of a high mass star 8 solar masses fuse elements far beyond C Leave main sequence when no more H in core H He C O Ne Mg Si Fe _____________________> As you go down the list, they fuse faster! H- 10 mill years Fe- 1 day Fe cant be combined into heavier elements and DOES NOT release energy****

During a SUPERNOVA- neutrons have own pressure Neutron degeneracy pressure Supernova 1987A- in Large Magellanic Cloud Remains after the Supernova Explosions1. Neutron Star- 1 to 3 solar M, dense - pulsars - neutron star binary - gamma ray burst - Magnetic Field- really strong after the collapse - Rotation- neutron core spins fast, angular momentum Pulsar- neutron star that beams radiation along a magnetic axis thats not aligned with rotation axis, spin really fast due to conservation of angular momentum. SPEED increase because MOMENTUM conserved. Radius INCREASE VELOCITY decrease X-ray bursts- matter eventually can become hot enough for fusion, which produces a burst of x-rays Globular clusters have x-ray sources 2. Black hole Can form from a collapsed neutron star Black hole- object with gravity strong that even light cant escape it Escape Velocity- enough energy to escape earths gravitational pull- depends on mass and starting distance. LARGER for larger mass and smaller distance! If escape velocity is greater than the peed of light than it is a BLACK HOLE Schwarzschild radius- radius which the escape speed from the black hole = speed of light Event horizon- surface where escape velocity = speed of light Orbit wouldnt change of earth is it was replaced with a black hole ** Black holes have strong gravitational forces ** Tides- for low mass black holes youll be ripped apart before entering but for high mass black holes you will be ripped apart after entering Black holes- > 3 M of the sun, lots of gravity which causes material to orbit, sometimes its so close it just cant escape then after falling in it gets heated up usually to x-ray emitting temperatures and we can see the bursts or scream of matter as it falls in. How to find a black hole1. Observe gravitational objects orbiting the black hole 2. Observe matter before it falls into black hole Measure mass of black hole by1. Using orbital properties of a companion star 2. Measure the velocity and distance of orbiting gases Cygnus X1- strong BH candidate- visible partner about 25 solar masses XRAYS should be emitted by material falling **** ** Search for objects near VISIBLE stars. Material from companion could fall into the BH and create an X-ray source Proof of BH: Supermassive BH- more certain/Stellar Mass BH- less certain Neutron stars have a surface black holes dont!

Gravity is strong close to a BH! ** TIME SLOWS for someone close to a black hole! = produces a Gravitational Redshift : photon escaping from the vicinity of a BH will use up a lot of energy doing so- cant slow down so wavelength gets longer and longer. REDSHIFT= longer WAVELENGTH Blackholes bend light so much that it cant escape and falls back into the BH 1. Special theory of relativity- Einstein 1905- improved understanding of objects relative to each other 2. General theory of relativity- 1915 Einstein- Describes how space time can determine the behavior of how mass and light interact- how gravity works! Brought gravity into modern understanding 3. Isaac Newton says gravity is a mysterious force. Absolutes of Relativity1. Laws of nature are same for everyone 2. Speed of light is the same for everyone Einsteins theory of relativity1. Speed of light is max possible speed and has same value for all observers 2. No absolute frame of reference 3. Space and time are not independent Special Relativity1. No object can travel faster than light 2. IF NEAR LIGHT SPEED- time SLOWS, length CONTRACTS in direction of motion, and mass INCREASES! 3. Whether two events are simultaneous depends on perspective SPEEDS NEAR LIGHT SPEED- Length of object will appear shorter- (LENGTH CONTRACTS) - Time runs slower (TIME DILATION) - Mass will INCREASE Motion is NOT absolute ** Measure speed of object relative to another

TIME DILATION-

At First, Jackies path is parallel But then from my point of view her path is curved. This means its a LONGER PATH which indicates TIME IS SLOWER- the actual time it is slowing depends on her speed relative to you. The FASTER she moves- the more slanted the path and GREATER diff on her clock. FASTER MOVING- SLOWER clock Length ContractionLESS TIME, SHORTER LENGTH Mass IncreaseSLOWER TIME, FEEL PUSH FOR SHORTER TIME, SMALLER EFFECT ON THAT PERSON ONLY IF THAT MASS IS GREATER THAN THE OTHER MASS General Relativity Key Concepts1. Gravity arises from distortions of space time 2. Time runs slowly in gravitational fields 3. Black holes can exist in space time Universe has NO BOUNDARIES and NO CENTER but has a FINITE volume Space and time are NOT absolute **** = Space time 4D combo- FABRIC of our universe

Space is different for different observers Time is different for different observers Spacetime is THE SAME for everyone ** MATTER WARPS SPACETIME ** Greater mass, more spacetime warps, stronger gravity becomes Rubber sheet analogy (ONLY SHOW 2d)- On a rubber sheet, free falling objects move in a straight line, Mass of sun curves space time so free falling objects near sun have curved path PLANETS orbit because they follow the straightest path of spacetime around them ** Mass causes spacetime to curve which determines path of freely moving mass Suns mass curves spacetime near surface ** ** Shrink sun- curvature would be greater near surface (think of a funnel). ** EVENTUALLY too much shrinkage of the sun would make the curvature so great it would be a bottomless pit BH! (steep funnel)- cant escape! ** Curvature so great near a BH nothing can escape. Event horizon- point of no return, 3d, Equivalence principle- gravity=acceleration Gravitational lensing- bends light NEAR BLACKHOLES1. Gravitational Redshift- hoton escaping black hole cant slow down so wavelength gets longer, due to gravity NOT Doppler shift! 2. Time slows down 3. Gravitational lensing- distorts the light from objects behind it 4. Spaghettification- stretches and squeezes tidal forces causing matter to heat by friction The Parsec- unit of distance- distance a star WOULD have if its parallax angle were 1 ** LARGER THE DISTANCE, SMALLER THE PARALLAX ** Parrallax- caused by movement of earth around sun and our changing line of sightfinds DISTANCES TO NEAREST STARS! ** 1 P= --------d (pc) Mass of stars- .08 to 150 M of the sun Brown dwarfs- M , .08 M sun Measure Stellar Mass- NEED BINARY STARS ** Binaries1. Visual Binaries- can be seen (measure period of orbit and separation) 2. Spectroscopic Binaries- too close and light is bended, (measure orbit by watching how their velocities change in absorption lines) 3. Eclipsing Binaries Stationary objects- will have same wavelength Moving objects- different observer will have different wavelengths Doppler Effect-

- Light is moving AWAY from observer, wavelength will increase = REDSHIFT - If moving toward, BLUESHIFT Interstellar Medium- gas and dust floating in space between the stars- Created by death of stars but also ingredients to make new stars ** Stars behind large piles of dust will be reddened Protostar- rather than collapsing to form just one star, most clouds scatter into clumps, which then collapse to form stars- conservation of ANGULAR MOMENTUM causes the material to spin rapidly- as a result the material collapses into the disk ** AS rotating clouds of gas contracts, its angular spin must INCREASE because of angular momentum (think of an ice skater, as they contract inward, there spin increases). FOR FUSION- must have a temperature of about 100,000,000 K Thermal Pressure- depends on heat content- main form of pressure in most stars Degeneracy pressure- particles cant be in same state in same place Brown dwarfs- emit infrared light because heat is leftover from contraction, degeneracy pressure, luminosity declines ** Infrared observations can reveal Brown dwarfs ** stars more massive than 150 M sun would blow apart Star Clusters- ALL are the same distance from us and ALL are the same age 1. Open Clusters- few thousand, loosely packed 2. Globular Clusters- millions of stars, densely packed Main sequence turnoff point- highest mass stars that are still on the main sequence, after 1 billion years main sequence turnoff point is much clearer, TELLS US AGE! ** ^^ USUALLY after 10 million years all of the high mass stars have already left the main sequence Main sequence- young if its a full main sequence Interstellar Medium- makes new star systems, clouds obscure visible light Milky Way Galaxy- Spiral Galaxy - 400 billion stars - Bulge, Disk, Halo - Bulge- Center, many stars- stars random motion - Disk- stars, gas, dust- stars orbit in same direction, up and down motion, thickness of 1000 ly, 1 bob up and down takes a few tens of millions of yrs - Halo-200 globular clusters, old stars- stars orbit in random motion - Milky way is on the disk 28,000 LY out of center **** - 200 million years for sun to orbit the galaxy - Gravity of disk stars pull them toward the disk, bobbing causes by gravity pull of the disk - Barred Spiral Galaxy- motion in and near the bulge Shape of our galaxy- Map out globular clusters - Map our cool H gas Cepheid Variable Stars- stars that vary in brightness with brightening and dimming periods arranging from a few months, very luminous, lie on INSTABILITY STRIP=

Ionization Nebulae- found around SHORTLIVED high MASS stars, signifying active star formation Reflection Nebulae- scatters light from stars Most common form of gas in the DISK of the Milky Way- Atomic H Halo- NO ionization nebulae since there are no YOUNG stars (short lived for ionization nebulae), no star formation, no BLUE stars, formed first, stopped forming, .02% heavy elements, only old stars Disk- Ionization Nebulae, BLUE stars, star formation, formed later, kept forming, 2% heavy elements, stars of all ages Spiral Arms- much of star formation, in the DISK of spiral arms, they are waves of star formation, stars move in and out of spiral arms ** Squeezing of clouds trigger star formation and clouds get squeezed in the spiral arms so thats why theres star formation in the spiral arms- young stars flow out of spiral arms Disk component- stars of all ages, gas clouds Spheroidal component- bulge and halo, old stars, few gas clouds Open clusters- gravitational attraction between the stars is not strong enough to hold tem in the same areas so the stars escape and the cluster disappears **** **** KNOWING the stars distance allows us to determine the luminosity of each type of star **** Globular Cluster- so many stars, gravity is strong enough to keep stars from wandering. **** MAIN SEQU TURNOFF POINT is at G or K very old Star-gas-star cycle- recycles gas from old stars into new star systems, recycled by dying stars in the interstellar medium, which slowly cools and are let out into space Molecular Clouds- stars form here **** happens in spiral arms Formation of the Milky Way1. Galactic stars and globular clusters (halo stars) formed first- random motions 2. Remaining gas settled into a spinning disk 3. Stars form in disk Find out whats in the galactic center- measure the motion of objects close to the center and derive the mass inside that distance Stars orbit something invisible- BH Mass of central Object- Newtons version of kepler law A^3 (AU) Mtotal= ---------------P^2 (yr) A= semimajor axis (radius) P=perod of orbit M= total mass of the central object Supermassive BH- very strong object in center of the milky way galaxy with a mass of 4 MILLION solar masses - 40 nearby galaxies have supermassive BH in center of galaxy Cosmology- study of structure and evolution of the universe 3 types of galaxies-

1. Elliptical- all spheroidal, no disk component, RED YELLOW color = older stars, most like galaxies halo, found in clusters usually, 2. Spiral Galaxy- usually found in groups of galaxies 3. Irregular Galaxy- BLUE WHITE color indicates ongoing star formation, wide variety of shapes, interact with other galaxies Lenticular galaxy- disk like but less duty gas Dark Matter- undetected form of mass that emits no light (23%) Dark Energy- name given to whatever might be closing the expansion of the universe to accelerate (73%) ** LIGHT doesnt show you all of the matter ** ** Visible light from stars is blocked by dust ** Observing stars from other galaxies tells us - most of the mass is concentrated near the center - most light in the center, so most mass in the center HOWEVER TELLS US DIFFERENTLY ^^^^ ********************* Flat rotation curve- Milky way is rotation too fast compared to the predicted rotation curve So to fix this mismatch we must ADD MORE MASS **** ** The extra mass must be evenly distributed everywhere in the Milky way to match with the rotation curve = must be a lot of mass in the outer regions of the galaxies that we just cant see known as DARK MATTER ** Spiral galaxies all have flat rotation curves - All galaxies have dark matter - MACHOS- brown dwarfs, M type stars, black holes- too hard to detect at large distance - WIMPS- neutrinos with a mass- exotic particles we havent discovered yet Measure Distances to galaxies1. Determine size of SOLAR SYSTEM using RADAR 2. Determine DISTANCE OF STARS using PARRALAX 3. MAIN SEQUENCE FITTING- for apparent brightness of a star cluster tells us distance 4. Cepheid variable stars with longer periods have greater luminosities 5. White dwarf supernovae used as standard candle- same lum due to same mass, brightness tells us distance to its galaxy 6. Tully Fisher Relation- standard candle because lum is related to rotation speed 7. Hubbles Law : Velocity- h0 x distance Universal Recession- all galaxies seem to be moving away from us, with the redshift of their motion correlated to distance ** Galaxies further away are moving faster ** ** Galaxies are moving away from us ** ** Size and shape of galaxies never change just the space between them, (like a balloon with dots on it) ** ** Universe is expanding ** Orbital Velocity LawR x v^2 M = ------------G

Measure amount of Dark Matter- measure distribution of mass in the solar system though analysis of the rotation curve (velocity at which planets at different distances rotate) How to measure dark matter1. Use speeds of galaxies in a cluster to find the cluster mass 2. Measure speeds of x-ray emitting particles in hot gas 3. Use gravitational lensing- angle of bent light depends on the mass of the object Universe has no center and no edge ** Cosmological Principle- universe looks about the same no matter where you are within it Lookback time- difference between current age of universe and the age of the universe when the light left an object Active Galactic Nuclei- unusually bright center of the galaxy QUASARS are the most luminous ** Characteristics of AGN: - can have large luminosities - lum can vary - emit energy over a wide range of wavelengths - jets of plasma near light speed AGN in 3 groups1. Seyfert galaxies- normal spiral galaxies but their cores are thousands times more luminous and compact 2. Radio galaxies- emit strong radio waves, invisible to optical telescopes, perp to the plane of the galaxy 3. Quasars- star like in appearance but are AGN, enormously redshifted, most luminous objects, visible over enormous distances AGN- have jets, show signs of interactions with other galaxies, appear disturbed by collisions, cause bursts of star formation Jets- comes from twisting of magnetic field in the inner part of accretion disk **** BLACK HOLE SURROUNDED BY ACCRETION DISK- strong magnetic field lines around BH channel particles into jets perp. to the magnetic axis ** Nearby galaxies have supermassive black holes at the center- dormant AGN ** ALL GALAXIES may have passed through a quasar-like stage earlier in time AGN are powered by the central supermassive BH IF NOT ENOUGH FUEL then the galaxy will not be seen as an AGN When we view AGN, looks like the host galaxy is absorbing another galaxy AGN can run out of fuel, less gas is available because stars are forming and using up the material. If no more material around the supermassive BH, the AGN will no longer be active and then will be a regular galaxy Era of Quasars- quasars were a thousand times more common when the universe was 2 billion years old- galaxies were also closer together - Universe must have been smaller in the past- hot, dense, tiny Big Bang Theory- universe began- must have been must hotter and denser - Photons converted into particle-anti particle pairs and vice versa - E = M C^2

- Radiation because of high temperatures High Temperatures that Forces unify1. Strong Forces 2. Electromagnetism 3. Weak Force 4. Gravity Stages of Universe forming1. Planch Era 2. GUT era- Inflation- freezing out of strong and electroweak forces 3. Electroweak era- electromag. and weak forces still together but gravity and strong forces separate, particles appear from energy and transform back into energy rapidly 4. Particle Era- matter and antimatter equal 5. Era of nucleosynthesis- matter annihilates antimatter, nuclei fuse into heavier elements, nuceli begin to fuse 6. Era of Nuceli- He nuclei form, (3 minutes), photons bounce from one electron to the next, universe cools to 3000 K, nuclei and electrons are bound, photons freely streaming in form of cosmic microwave background radiation 7. Era of atoms- atoms form, mixture of neutral atoms and plasma 8. Era of galaxies- galaxies form at age of universe- 1 billion years Evidence of Big Bang theory1. Leftover radiation from cosmic microwave background radiation 2. Abundance of He and other lighter elements Cosmic Microwave Background radiation- radiation from Big Bang streamed across universe until temperature of 3000 K, which dropped to 2735 K today CMBR supports- Universe was one hotter, denser, smaller - Times where light couldnt travel through space - Universe began from big bang - Universe approximately 14 bill yrs old right now ** BIG BANG did not produce heavier elements than H and He Matter density is only about 25% critical density - The brightness of distant white dwarf supernovae tell us how much the universe has expanded since they exploded Geometry of the Universe1. Flat- Density=critical 2. Closed- Density > Critical 3. Open- Density < Critical H and He in clouds formed the first stars - Gravity of dark matter is what caused protogalactic clouds to contract early in time * Dark matter cannot radiate orbital energy Dark Matter halo- luminous matter in each galaxy is nestled inside a large cocoon of dark matter that initiated galaxies formation Galaxies look different because1. They began with different conditions in pro-galactic clouds

2. May have begun their lives similarly but changed due to interactions with other galaxies Protogalactic CloudSpin- angular momentum could determine the size of the disk Density- elliptical galaxies come from dense protogalactic clouds Collisions of galaxies are frequent- MUCH more likely EARLY ON because they were closer together ** Collisions trigger bursts of star formation ** ** 2 spiral galaxies can collide to form an ELLIPTICAL ** - Collisions may explain why elliptical galaxies tend to be found where falaxies are closer together - Elliptical galaxies seem to have consumed lots of smaller galaxis - Dark matter is the primary force holding the galaxies together - Virgo cluster is attracting the Milky Way and the entire Local group - Dark matter pulls things together - Super clusters- density is high - Large structures- chains, sheets, voids TelescopesRefracting- uses a lens to concentrate light Reflecting- use mirrors to concentrate starlight First refracting telescope was the eye * Magnification- focal length of objective Focal length- distance between objective (mirror or lenses) and place where image forms Chromatic aberration- light of different color reaches different focus points ** As refractors got bigger, it was harder to form and hold the lenses- too heavy ** Disadvantages of refractors1. Limits size of aperture- too heavy 2. Chromatic aberrations- different wavelengths of light focus different point so the image is distorted ** So Isaac Newton invented the REFLECTING telescope3 Main functions of a telescope1. Gather more light- makes objects appear brighter 2. See Fine detail- resolution 3. Magnification- least important Light gathering power- larger the telescope, better the image! DEPENDS ON THE AREA OF COLLECTING SURFACE Angular Resolution- ability to see fine detail to objects that appear close together in the sky as two distinct objects - the larger the telescope, the better the angular resolution - the shorter the wavelength, the better the resolution Angular Resolution of Telescopes- Blue shorter wavelength better resolution - Red longer wavelength worse resolution

Obstacles of viewing objects with telescopes1. Difference in temperature and density cause passing starlight to change direction making stars twinkle- known as SEEING 2. Artificial lighting also hinders astronomy 3. Not all EM radiation can penetrate Earths atmosphere The Solar System: Asteroids- fragments of rocky material Meteorides- fragments of rocky material Comets- icy, but some rocky material Kuiper belt- objects outside orbit of Neptune ** Pluto is no longer a planet because - Composition is more similar to comets - Orbit is titled by 17 degrees - Orbit overlaps with the Kuiper belt - 25 times smaller mass than mercury Definition of a planet1. orbits a star 2. large enough for own gravity to make it round 3. dominates its orbital region Structure of the Solar System- 4.6 billion yars old - all the planets orbit the sun counterclockwise - orbits of planets are nearly circular - highly differentiated- terrestrial vs. jovian different characteristics - asteroids are old and not similar to planets - most moonds revolve around their planet in same direction - Kuiper belt objects are icy and asteroid size - Oort cloud- spherical cloud of coments Inner planets are different than outer planets in terms of SIZE and MASS Inner Planets1. Mercury- smallest planet, no atmosphere, largest temp. variations than any planet, no moons, sheets of ice, heavily cratered because of impact craters as a result of objects penetrating a planets atmosphere 2. Venus- closest twin of earth, causes greenhouse effect, hottest planet, spins backwards and slowly, no moons, thick atmosphere, Magellan penetrated atmosphere, fewer impact craters, no water vapor 3. Earth 4. Mars- 2 moons, colder because far from sun, thin atmosphere, has had lakes and seas, liquid water present 4 billion years ago which now frozen in PERMAFROST: layer of ice beneath the surface (2008 dug into Martial soil and found water), visited often NO CRATERS ON EARTH BECAUSE1. Our atmosphere makes rocks burn up before they hit the earth 2. Earth is active. New rocks are constantly being formed and older rocks erode so overtime craters disappear Characteristics of INNER planets-

- small - rocky - close to sun - few moons - moderate atmosphere - slow rotation - no rings Outer (Jovian) Planets: 5. Jupiter- several dozen moons, largest planet, GREAT RED SPOT: huge storm larger than the earth, 4 large moons discovered by Galileo, 1 ring 6. Saturn- dozens of moons, rings made of pieces of ice and ice coated rock, bright because ice reflects sunlight, distance from inner to outer ring is distance between earth and moon, largest moon, 7. Uranus- many moons, featureless, tilted axis, 8. Neptune Characteristics: - Large - Gaseous - Far from sun - Many moons - Many rings - Thick atmosphere - Fast rotation Gas Mass- gases that are lighter (like H and He) escape the planets gravity more easily Gas temperature- if the temperature is higher, the gas particles are moving faster and can escape the planets gravity Planets mass- higher mass exerts more gravity and can hold the atmosphere more easily Characteristics of the Solar System- Flatness of the solar system - All of the planets orbit in same direction - Separations of Terrestrial and Jovian planets - Decrease in planet densities with distance from the sun History of AstronomyGeocentric model- earth is at center of FINITE universe. Sun and planets orbit the EARTH ^^^^ FALSE! ^^^^ Heliocentric model- sun is in the center of the solar system. All planets revolve around the sun 5 Planets visible to naked eye- Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn- Motions= 1. Share the daily motion of the sun and stars 2. Over long time, move slowly eastward compared to stars, they get BEHIND stars 3. Occasionally, show apparent RETROGRADE motion (stop their eastward motion and move westward)

4. Retrograde always occurs when the planet is brightest 5. Mercury and Venus are different from the rest- never seen far away from sun Retrograde motion- planets would stop moving across the sky, reverses direction and resume course (stop moving eastward, go westward). TOPrograde Motion- apparent west to east motion of objects Copernicus- known for first sun centered model of solar system- HELOICENTRIC model, failed because he assumed circular orbits Retrograde motion is an apparent motion caused when one planet moves from begin behind another to being in front of the other planet Tycho Brahe- designed instruments to observe sky Johannes Kepler3 laws of Planetary Motion#1- Orbit of a planet about the sun is an ellipse with the sun at one focus Eccentricity- measures how elongated the ellipse is, under 1 (sun is at one focal point, nothing at the other). #2- A line joining a planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals - Orbital speed isnt constant for an ellipse only for a circle - Planets move faster when near the sun #3- Size of orbit determines the orbital period a^3 (AU) = P^2 (years) a = semi major axis p= period