5/21/2013

Lectures delivered at National Mathematical Centre (NMC), Abuja, Nigeria, on

May 19 24, 2013
National Mathematical Centre Kwali, Abuja, Nigeria
National
Mathematical
Centre,
Abuja,
Nigeria
LECTURE NOTES FOR WORKSHOP ON
NUCLEAR REACTION THEORY AND
CROSS SECTION DATA
DETERMINATION USING COMPUTER
CODES
2

WORKSHOP ON NUCLEAR REACTION THEORY AND CROSS SECTION
DATA DETERMINATION USING COMPUTER CODES

PROF. S.A. JONAH (FNIP)
Centre for Energy Research and Training, Ahmadu Bello
University, Zaria, Nigeria
And
Prof. M .N. AGU
Nigerian Atomic Energy Commission Asokoro Abuja, Nigeria

Lectures delivered at National Mathematical Centre (NMC), Abuja,
Nigeria on May 19 24, 2013
National Mathematical Centre (NMC), Abuja, Nigeria
ISBN: 098-8141-19-6

3

Table of Contents
WORKSHOP ON NUCLEAR REACTION THEORY AND CROSS SECTION DATA DETERMINATION USING
COMPUTER CODES ........................................................................................................................................ 2
Report No.NMC/STP/1/2013 ........................................................................................................................ 5
COURSE CONTENT..................................................................................................................................... 6
List of Contributors ....................................................................................................................................... 7
Foreword ....................................................................................................................................................... 8
Preface ........................................................................................................................................................ 11
NUCLEAR REACTION ................................................................................................................................... 13
The Atomic Nucleus ................................................................................................................................ 13
Nuclear Force .......................................................................................................................................... 13
Nuclear Radius and Nuclear Mass .......................................................................................................... 14
Nuclear Mass and Binding Energy........................................................................................................... 14
NUCLEAR REACTION ................................................................................................................................... 16
Why do we study nuclear reaction? ....................................................................................................... 17
TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS .............................................................................................................. 17
Elastic Scattering ..................................................................................................................................... 18
Inelastic Scattering .................................................................................................................................. 18
Radiative Capture .................................................................................................................................... 18
Breakup Reaction ........................................................................................................................................ 18
Direct Reaction ........................................................................................................................................ 19
Many Body Reactions and Spallation Reactions ......................................................................................... 19
Fission ..................................................................................................................................................... 19
Photodisintegration ................................................................................................................................ 19
High Energy Reaction .............................................................................................................................. 20
CONSERVATION LAWS IN NUCLEAR REACTIONS ........................................................................................ 20
Conservation of total energy .................................................................................................................. 20
Conservation of Linear Momentum ........................................................................................................ 20
Conservation of Mass Number ............................................................................................................... 20
(i) Conservation of Proton and Neutron Numbers .............................................................................. 21
(ii)Conservation of Angular Momentum ................................................................................................. 21
ENERGETICS OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS ................................................................................................... 22
4

Analysis in the Centre of Mass Frame of Reference ............................................................................... 25
NUCLEAR REACTION CROSS-SECTION ..................................................................................................... 26
INTRODUCTION TO THE THEORY OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS ....................................................................... 28
Scattering and Reaction Cross-Sections ...................................................................................................... 28
MODELS OF NUCLEAR REACTION ............................................................................................................... 31
Part II ........................................................................................................................................................... 34
1.0 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 34
2. THE OPTICAL MODEL (OM) .................................................................................................................... 36
DIRECT REACTION ....................................................................................................................................... 39
2. THE STATISTICAL COMPOUND NUCLEUS REACTION MODEL ................................................................. 40
PRE-EQUILIBRIUM REACTION MODELS .................................................................................................. 43
DETERMINATION OF CROSS SECTIONS ....................................................................................................... 47
COMPUTER CODES FOR THEORETICAL MODEL CALCULATIONS ................................................................ 47
2. EXAMPLES WITH THE EXIFON CODE ....................................................................................................... 48
APPLICATIONS OF NUCLEAR REACTION DATA ............................................................................................ 52
2. REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................ 57
RECOMMENDED BOOKS ............................................................................................................................. 58
EXECUTION AND RETRIEVAL EXERCISES ..................................................................................................... 59
PART 111 ..................................................................................................................................................... 62
Study Papers ............................................................................................................................................... 62







5

Report No.NMC/STP/1/2013
National Mathematical Centre, Abuja, Nigeria
WORKSHOP ON NUCLEAR REACTION THEORY AND CROSS SECTION DATA
DETERMINATION USING COMPUTER CODES





Edited by
PROF. S.A. JONAH (FNIP)
Centre for Energy Research and Training, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria,
Nigeria
And
Prof. B O. Oyelami
National Mathematical Centre, Abuja, Nigeria



6


WORKSHOP ON NUCLEAR REACTION THEORY AND CROSS SECTION
DATA DETERMINATION USING COMPUTER CODES
COURSE CONTENT
Introduction: The atomic nucleus, types of reactions (i.e. mechanisms);
kinematics of nuclear reactions; elastic collisions (relativistic and non-
relativistic); non-elastic collisions; threshold energy, Q-value; nuclear
reaction cross sections and nomenclature: Models of nuclear reactions;
optical model; compound nucleus model; direct reaction model; pre-
equilibrium model: Determination of nuclear reaction cross sections:
experimental techniques; calculational methods and data retrieval from
IAEA Nuclear Data Centre; computer codes (EXIFON 2.0, EXFOR data
library): Applications of nuclear reactions












7

List of Contributors
1. PROF. S.A. JONAH Centre for Energy Research and Training, Ahmadu Bello
University, Zaria, Nigeria
2. Prof. M .N. AGU, Nigerian Atomic Energy Commission Asokoro Abuja, Nigeria
3. Prof. H. Kalka (Studied papers) Technishe Universitat, Dersden, Germany
















8

Foreword
The National Mathematical Centre Abuja, Nigeria is
building a critical mass for Nigeria in the area of
Theoretical Physics and training of scientists on nuclear
reaction theory which is one of the fertile grounds for
research in the Theoretical Physics in the recent times.
The Centre has been organizing workshops to contribute
towards meeting the increasing needs of researchers,
scientists and engineers for application of knowledge in
diverse areas of human Endeavours.
The Centre, under the ambit of its mandates, is trying as
much as possible to provide conducive learning
environment to participants and allow interactions
between them and the resource persons. The Centre also
offers facilities to researchers in the Mathematical Science
Library and the Computer laboratory
The objectives of the Workshop on the use of computer
codes for nuclear reaction cross section determination and
data retrieval exercises (19-24 May, 2013) are threefold.
Firstly, to expose the participants to basic concepts and
models for determination of nuclear cross section.
Secondly, to expose them to the use of EXIFON software
and applications to nuclear reaction and finally, the
participants were given research papers published by Prof.
9

H. Kalka to study. The aim of this is enable them to know
how to use codes to analyze data. Moreover, learn how to
generate questions and proffer solution to problems in
area of cross section determination.
Furthermore, at the end of the workshop we hoped that
value will be added to the research competence of the
participants. The Centre will continue to organize more
workshops on nuclear research for some years until we
have so many young scientists nurtured to research
maturity.
Professor A.R.T. Solarin
The Director & CEO
National Mathematical Centre, Abuja, Nigeria








10


















11

Preface
This booklet contains the notes of lectures given at the workshop entitled Workshop on
Nuclear Reaction Theory and Cross section Data Determination using Computer Codes
held at the National Mathematical Centre (NMC), Abuja, Nigeria, May 19 to 24, 2013.
In the first part, the workshop focused on theoretical background of nuclear reaction
and covered most and fundamental physics including the mechanisms of the subject
matter. The second part of the workshop was devoted to an exhaustive survey on
calculational codes based on the theoretical background provided in the first part.
Furthermore, relevant experimental data and evaluated data were retrieved from
nuclear data libraries and were used to validate calculated data with applications in
wide variety of fields.
This collection should present a useful reference for researchers interested in this topic.
Specifically, graduate students of nuclear physics, nuclear engineering and
computational physics/ engineering will find the collection useful for their works. The
workshop was organized by the National Mathematical Centre (NMC), Abuja to provide
a platform for enriching the knowledge base of upcoming nuclear scientists and
engineers in Nigerian Universities, vis--vis the intention to add nuclear energy to the
energy mix of the country in the near future. The editors are grateful to the
management and staff of the NMC. Thanks are also due to the resource persons for
their excellent lectures and preparation of lecture notes presented here.








12



















13

Part 1
NUCLEAR REACTION
Prof. M .N. AGU
Nigerian Atomic Energy Commission Asokoro Abuja

The Atomic Nucleus
The atom was thought of as an indivisible part of an element. Its discovery, in 1803, is
associated with a British Chemist known as Dalton. This definition was much later
(almost a century) discovered to be false. It was discovered by Rutherford in 1911, that
an atom consists of a nucleus surrounded by a cloud of electrons. The nucleus is very
dense and contains the protons and neutrons. Since the mass of an electron is small
compared to the masses of proton and neutron, then we can say that the mass of an
atom is approximately equal to the mass of the nucleus. Electrons carry negative
charge while protons carry positive charge; the neutrons are neutral. Since the number
of protons in an atom equals the number of electrons, thus the charge of an atom is
neutral.

Nuclear Force
Since the protons and neutrons are contained in the nucleus and the nucleus is not turn
apart by the repulsive forces acting between the protons in the nucleus, then there
must be a strong force holding the nucleus together. This force which holds the protons
and neutrons together in the nucleus is called the nuclear force. This force has the
following properties:-
(i) It has short range
(ii) It is charge independent
(iii) It saturates
The protons and neutrons are sometimes called the nucleons because they are seen as
two different quantum states of the same particle.

14

Nuclear Radius and Nuclear Mass
The radius of the nucleus is one of the important parameters in the description of the
nucleus of any particle. Measurements performed show that the radius of the nucleus is
proportional to the cube root of the mass number (A) of the nucleus.

1
where R is the radius of the nucleus, A the mass number and

= 1.25 fm
(

In arriving at the above equation, an assumption was made that

shape of the nucleus is spherical. Thus we refer to the radius above as the radius of the
mass distribution.
The atomic number, Z, which defines the nuclear charge parameter, has been found to
be approximately proportional (linearly) to the mass number A. The nuclear charge
density is also approximately the same throughout the volume of the nucleus. Thus the
nuclear charge distribution +Ze follows the pattern of the mass distribution. Thus the
mass distribution and the charge distribution are approximately the same.
We define the mean square radius as

2
For a nucleus of uniform charge distribution, = constant, and of radius R, then

, note that for r>R, =0 3

4

Nuclear Mass and Binding Energy
As we mentioned earlier, the nucleus consists of protons and neutrons called the
nucleons. Thus the mass of the nucleus ordinarily should be the sum of the masses of
the constituent nucleons. However, measurements made revealed that these two differ
by an amount called mass defect, where
5
Where M (A, Z) is the measured atomic mass.

15

The mass defect could also be expressed in terms of the Packing Fraction, f, for each
nuclide as

7
Thus the mass defect is the packing fraction per nucleon.

Fig.1: Graph of packing fraction Vs Mass number
To understand better the strength of nuclear interaction, let us consider the so called
binding energy of the nucleus. This is defined as the energy required to separate the
nucleus into its constituents. Consider a nucleus of mass M and consisting of A nucleons
(Z protons and N (= (A-Z)) neutrons), the binding energy is

=931.5

MeV 8
The average binding energy per nucleon,

, gives a good indication of the stability of a

given nucleus.
Calculate the binding energy and average binding energy per nucleon for the following
nuclei:

. Plot the graph of the binding energy and binding energy per
nucleon against the atomic mass and comment on your results.

16


Fig.2: Binding Energy per nucleon Vs Atomic mass

From the graph of the binding energy per nucleon against atomic mass number, we
observe that:
(i) The binding energies of some light nuclei are small
(ii) For the nuclides with 4<A<28, we observe that the nuclides with equal
number of protons and neutrons have higher binding energies than their
neighbours. This gives rise to the occurrence of peaks at the positions of
these nuclei.
(iii) The average binding energy per nucleon increases as the mass number
increases. Thus the higher the average binding energy per nucleon, the more
stable the nucleus is.

NUCLEAR REACTION
A nuclear reaction occurs when a nucleon or a nucleus collides with another nucleon or
nucleus. In other words nuclear reaction is said to occur when a nuclear particle comes
into close contact with another during which there is an exchange of energy and
momentum. Nuclear reactions are characterized by the incoming nuclei and the
outgoing reaction products. Thus after the reaction, the product nuclei which are the
17

residual nucleus and the ejectile leave the point of contact in different directions.
Besides the incoming nuclei and the outgoing reaction products, other properties of
interest are the incident and outgoing particle energies as well as the scattering angles.
The changes produced in a nuclear reaction usually involve strong nuclear force.
Why do we study nuclear reaction?
The study of nuclear reactions in Nuclear Physics is very important in many ways.
(i) The dynamical process which results in transmutation and scattering makes a
good and interesting study.
(ii) It enables one to understand better the internal structure and properties of
the nucleus such as the energy levels, the spins, the parity etc.
A nuclear reaction is represented by an equation of the form:

9
Where X is the target, x the incident particle also referred to as the projectile particle,
Y is the product nucleus also called the residual nucleus, y is the emitted particle. Q is
called the Q-value of the reaction. It is the difference in the energies in the incident and
outgoing reaction channels. We shall discuss this in more detail later.
The above equation could be written in a more elegant form

9(a)
In a nuclear reaction, it is possible for more than one particle to be emitted if the
energy to do this is available in the nuclear reaction. Such a reaction is called Spallation
reaction. It is important to mention that in some cases the incident particle and the
emitted particle could be like particles, e.g. protons, electron

, gamma ray,
deuterons

, alpha particles

.

TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS
There are various ways of classifying nuclear reactions. Some of these are:
(i) Energy of the incident particle
(ii) Type of incident particle
(iii) Nature of the ejectile
(iv) Type of reaction induced
18

Consider again the reaction given by

; if the projectile and the

ejectile are identical, then the reaction is said to be an elastic scattering. In this case
the internal structure of the nucleus is left unchanged. However, if the nucleus is left in
an excited state, then the reaction is said to be an inelastic scattering. We shall discuss
briefly below the various reaction types under two broad headings: - elastic and
inelastic scattering.
Elastic Scattering
An elastic scattering is said to occur when there is no change in the internal structure of
the nuclei after the interaction. The ejected particle and the product nucleus are the
same as the projectile and the target nucleus respectively. Thus we can indicate the
reaction as

. A typical example of an elastic scattering is

.
Inelastic Scattering
In an inelastic scattering, the residual nucleus is left in an excited state. This implies
that there is a change in the energy and angular momentum of the particle. An inelastic
reaction is of the form

, example

. The asterisks mean that

the residual nucleus is in an excited state. This excited state is an unstable state. It
decays after some time to a more stable state and finally to the ground state.
Radiative Capture
In radiative capture, the incident particle is absorbed by the target nucleus X leading to
the formation of a compound nucleus (C
*
) which is in an excited state. The nucleus
eventually decays to the ground state through the emission of gamma ray(s). This
reaction is of the form

. Finally we have the decay of C

*
. An example of
such reaction is

10
In compound nucleus reaction, the system forms a quasi-bound intermediate complex
which occurs in a time scale greater than the transverse time of the projectile across
nucleus (

. Thus the projectile and target merge briefly for a

while for complete sharing of energy before the ejectile is emitted.
Breakup Reaction
In this type of reaction, one or more particles are emitted from the target nucleus. The
incident particle may not necessarily be present in the final state.

19

Direct Reaction
In direct reaction, the incident particle interacts primarily at the surface of the target
nucleus. This type of reaction is often referred to as peripheral process. It is important
to mention that as the energy of incident particle is increasing, its de Broglie
wavelength is decreasing. A time will come when it becomes possible for the particle to
interact with a nucleon-sized object than with a nucleus-sized object. Thus direct
reactions involve one or very few valence nucleons near the surface of the target
nucleus. Direct reactions occur very rapidly in a time of the order of 10
-22
seconds. In
direct reaction the incident particle may enter the target nucleus and pull out one of the
nucleons of the target nucleus by the so called pick-up or stripping reaction. On the
other hand, if the incident particle is composed of more than one nucleon, it may lose
one of the nucleons to the target nucleus by stripping reaction. An example of such
reaction is

11

Many Body Reactions and Spallation Reactions
If the kinetic energy of the incident particle is high enough, it can give rise to the
emission of more than one particle from the compound nucleus. An example of such
reaction is

. If the number of nucleons emitted is high (3-21), then the

reaction is called spallation reaction.
Fission
When the compound nucleus formed when the target absorbs a projectile, breaks up
into two nuclei of approximately equal masses the reaction is said to be a fission
reaction. Fission reaction is of the form

12
Fission reaction could also be considered as spallation reaction.

Photodisintegration
If the target nucleus is bombarded with energetic gamma ray, the target nucleus may
be excited to a higher energy level by the absorption of the gamma ray. If the energy
of the gamma ray is high enough, the compound nucleus may liberate one or more
20

particles. This type of reaction is called photodisintegration. An example of such
reaction is

13

High Energy Reaction
At very high energy, spallation reactions give way to another type of reaction in which
new kinds of particles, called elementary particles, are produced along with protons and
neutrons. An example is

14


CONSERVATION LAWS IN NUCLEAR REACTIONS
There are certain laws which are obeyed in nuclear reactions. These are:
Conservation of total energy
This states that in a nuclear reaction, the total energy mass energy and kinetic energies
of the particles plus the energy involved after reaction must equal the total energy
(mass energy plus kinetic energy of incident particle) before the reaction. Consider the
reaction depicted simply by ; the law of conservation of energy states that

15
We shall discuss this equation more when we deal with the Q-value of the reaction.
Conservation of Linear Momentum
This states that the total linear momentum of the incident particle and target
nucleus must equal the total linear momentum of the product (residual nucleus and
ejectile). Considering the reaction in (i) above, we have

16
Conservation of Mass Number
The total number of protons and neutrons taking part in a nuclear reaction remains
unchanged after the reaction. In the reaction given in (i) above, this simply becomes

17
21

Where Z
i
and N
i
are respectively the proton and neutron numbers for the
particle/nucleus i.
(i) Conservation of Proton and Neutron Numbers.
Here we conserve proton numbers and neutron numbers. The total numbers of protons
before and after the reaction are equal. In other words

. Since mass
number is also conserved, it implies that the neutron numbers are also conserved,
i.e

. Thus both the proton and the neutron number and the neutron
number remain unchanged in a nuclear reaction.
(ii)Conservation of Angular Momentum
In a nuclear reaction, the total angular momentum (the intrinsic angular momentum
and the relative orbital angular momentum,

) of the products must equal to that of the

incident particle plus target nucleus. Consider again the reaction in (i) above, we have

18
Thus conservation of angular momentum helps to relate the spin assignments of the
interacting particles and the orbital angular momentum carried off by the outgoing
particles.
(ii) Conservation of Spin
This states that spin character is conserved in a closed system. Thus the spin remains
the same before and after the reaction.
(iii) Conservation of Parity
Parity is conserved in a nuclear reaction. That is the parity before reaction

must be
equal to the parity after the reaction

. However, it is important to note that parity is

conserved only in strong interaction and does not appear to be conserved in weak
interaction. Considering the reaction above, conservation of parity requires that

,
that is

19
(iv) Conservation of Isotopic Spin
This states that in a nuclear reaction isotopic spin or isospin for short is conserved
except in an electromagnetic reaction.

22

ENERGETICS OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS
Let us consider the reaction , from the law of conservation of energy, we obtain

20
Here, T represents the kinetic energy =

, v the velocity of the particle.

Note: we are considering non-relativistic case.
In the above equation, we can re-write it as:

21

22
That is

23
= 24
This is known as the Q-value of the reaction.
Deductions:
(i) If

, the reaction is said to be exoergic or exothermic.

In this case nuclear mass or binding energy is released as kinetic energy of
the final product.
(ii) On the other hand, if

, then the reaction is said to

be endoergic or endothermic and the initial kinetic energy is converted into
mass or binding energy.
(iii) If , the reaction is elastic scattering and

.



23

Let us consider the reaction given above. For simplicity, we assume that the target
nucleus is at rest, thus

. From the law of conservation of linear momentum, we

obtain the following equations by resolving vertically and horizontally;

(Along the X-axis) 25

(along the Y-axis) 26

From the conservation of energy equation we obtain

27
i.e.

28
From the conservation of momentum equation, we obtain

29
From the law of conservation of energy, we have

. Now the
product nucleus is hardly observed and as such we eliminate

as well as the angle .

Substituting

into the energy equation and solving the quadratic equation yields

30
Equation (30) could be written in the form

30b
Equation 30b is called the Q-equation.


Remarks
(i) There is a minimum value of the kinetic energy of the incident particle,

, for
which the reaction is not possible. This is called the threshold energy and occurs
when . This is given by the expression

; 31
(ii) For Q>0, there is no threshold energy. The reaction goes on even for very
small energy.
24

(iii) Double-valued function situation occurs when the incident particle kinetic
energy lies between

and

for Q<0.
(iv) The maximum value of for at which double-value behavior occurs is given
by

32
If

, then double-value behaviour occurs at lying between

and

(v) For Q>0, there is no threshold condition and no double-value behavior

Let us re-call the expression above for the Q-value given by

Q=

33
If the reaction reaches the excited state of Y, then the Q-value equation should
include the mass energy of the excited state. In this case we obtain

34
This gives

35
Where Q
0
is the Q-value corresponding to the ground state of Y and

is the
excitation energy.
We can re-write the

equation making Q the subject of the formula to obtain

36
The above derivation was done in the laboratory frame of reference. We can also treat
the same problem using the centre of mass system.




25

Analysis in the Centre of Mass Frame of Reference

If a particle of mass, m, and velocity,
1
strikes a target of mass, M, and velocity
2
,
then the C.M. is

37

Where

position coordinate of particle m

i
Velocity of C.M. is

38
In the lab frame, v
2
= 0

39
In the C.M. frame,

, thus,

40
But

41
Using eqn (39) gives

42
From eqn (42) the K.E. of the lab frame and the C.M. frame are related by

43
Let us define

44
26

where

is the reduced mass

The energy of the centre of mass in the lab frame now becomes

45
This remains constant and is thus not available for the reaction.

NUCLEAR REACTION CROSS-SECTION
Nuclear reaction cross section is one of the most important quantities which we
encounter easily in nuclear reactions. It can simply be defined as the probability of
interaction. Thus given a reaction of a given type, the cross section for that reaction is
the probability that that reaction will take place or simply the probability of occurrence
of the said reaction. We can define the cross section for absorption, called absorption
cross-section, or for scattering called scattering cross section, or fission called fission
cross section. Bearing the above in mind, we now define the cross section, of any
reaction as simply



46
Cross section could be calculated in terms of the effective area which the nucleus
presents to the beams of the bombarding particles (projectiles). Therefore we can say
that it the geometrical,

, area which the target presents to the incident particles. It

is measured in barns ( 1 barn= 10
-28
m
2
).
Consider a flux,

, of homogeneous particles impinging

on a target of cross-sectional area A and atom density
N
a
(atoms/ m
3
). The change in the flux,

could be defined in terms of the reaction cross
section as

47
The negative sign indicates that the flux decreases as it passes through the target due
to the reaction of the particles with the target atoms.
Thus
27

. 48
Integrating gives

49
If the target has a cross-sectional area A, then the total number of reactions, in a
time t is

50
If the target is thin, then

and hence

. The above equation

reduces to

51
where is the volume of the target. If

is the number of atoms in the

thin target, then

52
The above expression is independent of the geometry of the target. It depends only on
the number of atoms in the target.
The cross-section defined above is called microscopic cross-section. We define
macroscopic cross-section, (in m
-1
),as

. In reality most targets consist of

compounds or alloys or elements which contain impurities. In this case the projectiles
are removed by the target of interest as well as the impurity atoms. We can evaluate
the macroscopic cross-section as

53
Here

is the percentage occurrence of the element i in the sample.

28

INTRODUCTION TO THE THEORY OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS
There are many types of nuclear reactions, namely, the compound nuclear
reactions and the direct reactions. Many theories have been developed for the
treatment of nuclear reactions. We shall concern ourselves here with only three (3) of
them: the compound nucleus and statistical model, the optical model and the direct
reaction model. We shall discuss each one of these in details.

Scattering and Reaction Cross-Sections
Consider the reaction X(a,b)Y, such a reaction could be elastic scattering (a=b, X=Y),
inelastic scattering (b=a, Y=X), disintegration, capture, etc. the total cross section for
the reaction X(a,b)Y,

, is the sum of the scattering cross section,

, and the reaction

cross section,

. Thus,

54
In deriving expressions for

and

, we shall first of all concern ourselves with

neutrons as the incident particle. This will help us eliminate coulomb interaction.
Consider an incident beam with unit density and flux, v, described by a plane wave,

, then the partial wave expansion gives

55
where

(kr) are spherical Bessel functions which are the solution of the radial part of
the Schrodingers equation and

(cos ) are the Legendre polynomials.

P
0
(cos ) = 1
P
1
(cos ) = cos
56
P
2
(cos ) =

. . .
When the wave is far from the nucleus,

(kr) becomes approximately

; kr >> 57
=

58
29

Using this in the expression for e
ikz
gives

59
Here, the first term e
-ikr
represents an incoming spherical wave and the second term
e
+ikr
represents the outgoing spherical wave.
The above equation therefore contains the incoming as well as the outgoing spherical
waves. However, in nuclear reactions and scattering, the amplitude of the outgoing
spherical wave component of the plane wave is modified thus,

60
This wave, , represents superposition of incident and scattered waves: =
in
+
sc

where

is complex amplitude which accounts for changes in the
th
outgoing partial
wave.
=

61
where

is the phase shift of the

th
partial wave.
If

, only elastic scattering takes place
If

, both elastic scattering and nuclear reaction take place.
Note:
If the incident particle is a charged particle, the exponential term in equation (60) must
be replaced by appropriate coulomb wave function. We define the elastically scattered
wave function
s
as

.
Thus,

62
The scattering cross section,

, is defined as

63
Where

no. scattered into d

30

64
where m = mass of the particle
r
0
= radius enclosing the scattered.
Using eqn. (64) in (63) gives

65
Using eqn. (64) in eqn. (65) gives

66
Since Y

0
is orthonormal, the total scattering cross section is given as

67
[Note:

]
If elastic scattering were the only process that could occur, then

and

where

is the phase shift of the

th
partial wave. In this case

and

68
Note:

If there are other processes in addition to scattering, then eqn. (68) is incorrect
(

). All other processes are grouped under reaction cross section,

. This is
determined by the number of particles removed from the beam by all processes other
than scattering. This is defined as:

69

) 70
31

Thus the total cross section becomes

) 71
The maximum value of

is obtained when

= -1

72

whereas the maximum value of

is when

= 0

73
From eqns. (72) and (73) it follows that it is possible to have elastic scattering in the
absence of other process. However, it is not possible to have reaction without also
having elastic scattering.

MODELS OF NUCLEAR REACTION
a) The Optical Model
This is the simple model used to account for elastic scattering in the presence of
absorption. This model is called optical model because it resembles the case of
light incident on an opaque glass sphere. In this model, we assume the potential
to be the sum of the real and imaginary parts, i.e.

74
where

the real part and W is is the imaginary part. The values of

and W
are chosen to give the potential its proper radial dependence. The real part

is responsible for elastic scattering and W, the imaginary part is responsible for
absorption. The simplest form of this potential is of the form


; for r<R
= 0; for r>R 75
Let define the cross section at low energy as

76
Here

is the total cross section,

the elastic cross section and

the
reaction cross section.
In the asymptotic region, the solution of the Schrdinger equation for scattering
is

76
In equ(76), the first term represents the ingoing spherical wave while the second
term represents the outgoing wave modified by

32

The amplitude of the outgoing scattered wave is given by

77
The differential cross section for elastic scattering is given by

78
while the cross sections are given by

79

80

81
If we now define the shape elastic cross section

and the compound elastic

fluctuation cross section

as

82

83
The shape elastic scattering cross section corresponds to direct elastic scattering
without the formation of compound nucleus.
The cross section for the formation of compound nucleus,

, (reaction cross section) is

given by

84
From equations (82)-(84), it could be shown that

33

























34

Part II
Jonah S.A.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Nuclear Physics is said to be composed of nuclear reactions and nuclear
structure. Nuclear reactions have close relationship with fundamental
properties of nuclear structure, such as: size, shape, density, spin, parity
and nuclear levels. The first observation of an induced nuclear reaction was
in 1917, when Lord Ernest Rutherford was able to accomplish
transmutation of nitrogen into oxygen at the University of Manchester,
using alpha () particles directed at nitrogen. Eventually, in 1932 at
Cambridge University a fully artificial nuclear reaction and nuclear
transmutation was achieved by Rutherfords colleagues John Cockcroft and
Ernest Walton who used artificially accelerated protons against lithium-7, to
split the nucleus into two alpha particles.

In both nuclear reaction and nuclear structure, models based on theory are
formulated due to the complexity via solving the Schrodingers Wave
Equations (SWE) of the nucleon nucleon interactions of nuclei involved.
Models are used to reduce the many-body potentials to a one-body
potential in order to solve the SWE.


Models serve to provide a convenient, admittedly over-simplified structure
from which quantitative results can be computed with the desire that they
compare well with experiment. A comparison of measured and calculated
data is often necessary in order to test the suitability of the model. The
probability of a projectile to hit a target nucleus (i.e. interact with it, such
as scatter from it or break it up) may be described by an analogous cross
section (but not the actual, physical cross sectional area of the nucleus).
The different processes (reaction channels) possible for a given particle
incident on a nucleus have different cross sections. Cross sections depend
on a variety of reaction variables and cross section measurements are
35

some of the most important (and most common?) measurements made in
a nuclear physics laboratory experiment. Other important parameters in
nuclear reactions include Q-value, threshold energy, energy and angular
distributions of emitted particles, excitation function as well as differential
and integral data. Why is a Cross Section Important? It is the meeting
ground between theory and experiment. Nuclear theory, using quantum
mechanics (QM) is used to predict the probability (likelihood) that a specific
nuclear process will occur under certain conditions (e.g. incident energy,
angle of observation, etc.).The quantitative measure of this prediction is
the cross section of the process. That is, nuclear theory is used to predict
the specific cross section of a process, which may be measured in the
laboratory, Comparison between theory and measurement is used to
evaluate the significance of the underlying theory. The sentence (above)
describes the essence of doing science.

Nuclear reactions are described by several models, which are linked
together to calculate nuclear reaction cross sections. In this process, the
basic model is the Optical Model (OM), which enables us to separate total
cross section into various components. Therefore, particle induced nuclear
reaction processes are classified according to the time scale of interaction
as direct reaction (DR) and compound nucleus reaction (CN). DR occurs on
a time scale of 10
-22
s, while CN occurs on a slower time scale of 10
-16
s or
more. In between these two is the pre equilibrium reaction (PER). All three
processes contribute to calculating particle-induced cross sections. A
schematic diagram depicting nucleon-nucleus interaction is displayed in Fig.
1.
36


The Models on which the formula for calculating nuclear reaction cross
section are based include:
1. Optical Model for DR, inelastic DR is treated by the DWBA
2. The Statistical Hauser-Feshbach Model for CN
3. Several Classical & QM Models for PER

2. THE OPTICAL MODEL (OM)
The OM is also known as the cloud crystal ball model, which means that
nuclei absorb and scatter incoming particles. This would mean that the
reaction is independent of the internal structure of the nucleus and
behaves much like the scattering of light from a crystal ball. The model is
based on the mathematical techniques used in optics in which the nucleus
is described by a potential well containing neutrons and protons. Thus,
equation for the nuclear potential consists of terms for scattering and
absorption. This potential can be used to calculate the probability for

Form elastic
Elastic scattering


Target nucleus

Compound
elastic







Incident neutron

Inelastic scattering



Pick-up; knock-out etc.



Direct reactions Charge exchange





Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of neutron-nucleus interaction processes
Equilibration Compound
Nucleus
Pre-compound
Evaporation
(n,n)
(n,n)
(n,2n);(n,o)
(n,p)
37

elastic scattering of incident particles and the angular distribution of the
scattering. The model is in excellent agreement for experiments for elastic
scattering. Unfortunately, it does not allow us to obtain much information
about the consequences of the absorption of the particles, which leads to
inelastic scattering and transmutation.

The optical model of the nucleus employs a model of the nucleus that that
has a complex part to its potential. Calling this generalized potential, U(r),
we have the definition:

U(r) = V(r) iW(r) (1)

where V (r) is the usual attractive potential (treated as a central potential
in the optical model), and its imaginary part, W(r), where W(r) is real and
positive. The real part is responsible for elastic scattering, while the
imaginary part is responsible for absorption.

The Schrodingers Wave Equation to be solved is given as

(2)

Where is the reduced mass of the system
In solving the SWE, the optical potentials are difficult to derive and instead
phenomenological optical model potentials are normally used to compare
and fit to experimental data. Over the years, a standard form of the
phenomenological optical potential has evolved, which permits the
parametrization of the scattering of a light particle (such as neutron,
proton, deuteron, triton helium-3 or alpha) from a given nucleus.
It is defined as

U
opt
(r) = V
C
(r ) (V +iW)f
V,W
(r) +(V
S
-iW
S
)f
VS,WS
(r )- d
so
l.s(V
so
+iW
SO
)h
(3)

1
st
term on the RHS is a Coulomb term
2
nd
term is a complex volume term
3
rd
term is complex surface term
4
th
term is complex spin orbit term
38

F (r 0 is the Wood-Saxon form factor often described as a smoothed step
function of the form

f(r)=

(4)

r and R are radii, a is the diffuseness of the surface
The phenomenological optical potential has been parametrized in terms of
potential strengths and geometrical parameters, which have been adjusted
to experimental data for many systems and many values of relative
energies. The potentials obtained using such sets of parameters are called
global optical potentials. Many individuals have compiled and include Perey
and Perey compilations and Reference Input Parameters Library (RIPL).
These data are available online via IAEA NDS (www-nds.iaea.org)
For nucleons, typical values of the potential strengths are

V ~ (45 55) MeV (0.2 0.3) E, (5)
W
S
~ (2 7) MeV (0.3 0.5) E (6)
V
SO
~ (4 10) MeV (7)
These are valid for E < 8 10 MeV
Cross sections are calculated by the OM using the following formula



(8)


(9)

39

DIRECT REACTION

A direct reaction (DR) involves a projectile that is energetic enough to
have a reduced wavelength, , of the order of 1 fm (i.e. a 20MeV nucleon,
for example), that interacts in the periphery of the nucleus (where the
nuclear density starts to fall off), and interacts with single valence nucleon.
That single nucleon interacts with the projectile leaving them both in
bound, but unstable orbits. This state typically lives for about 10
22
s, which
is long enough for the valence nucleon and projectile to (in classical terms)
make several round trips around the nucleus, before one of them finds a
way to escape, possible encountering a Coulomb barrier along the way.
Since angular and linear momentum must be conserved, the ejected
particle is generally ejected into the forward direction. The direct reaction
(DR) theory accepts the OM description of elastic scattering by the complex
potential well as first approximation as described above.
However, an additional direct interaction capable of giving rise to non-
elastic processes is introduced as a perturbation. The perturbation
treatment takes into account the distortion of the waves through an
interaction between particle and target. It is known as the Distorted Wave
Born Approximation (DWBA). The DWBA cross section is given below as:



(10)
Where,




40

2. THE STATISTICAL COMPOUND NUCLEUS REACTION MODEL

Nuclear reactions leading to the formation of compound nucleus are best
described by the statistical models of which the Hauser-Feshbach (HF)
model is the most widely used. In the HF model, apart from the
consideration given to conservation of energy, mass and charge, angular
momentum and parity conservation are also taken into account.
The compound nucleus (CN) mechanism conceives of a captured particle
trapped within a complex system for a long time, such that the decay
mode is independent of its mode of formation (i.e. the Bohr independence
hypothesis). Unlike DR, which occurs on the surface of the nucleus CN
involves the whole nucleus. Thus, a projectile enters the nucleus and
interacts many times inside the nucleus, boosting individual nucleons into
excited states, until it comes to rest inside the nucleus. This compound
nucleus has too much energy to stay bound, and one method it may
employ is to boil off nucleons, to reach stability. One, two, or more
nucleons can be shed. The nucleons that are boiled off, are usually
neutrons, because protons are reflected back inside, by the Coulomb
barrier.

Symbolically, the reaction is:

a + X C Yi + b (11)

The resultant light particle, b can represent one or more particles.
In this model, the reaction products lose track of how the compound
nucleus was formed.
The consequences and restrictions of this model are:
1. Different initial reactants, a + X can form the same C with the same set
of decays.
Once the projectile enters the nucleus it loses identity and shares its
nucleons with C. It should not matter how C is formed.
In Classical Mechanics (CM) based on the Rutherford Scattering, the cross
section is given in terms of the impact parameter, b, as

o t

(12)

41

In the realm of Quantum Mechanics (QM), for a particle with orbital
angular momentum, l., and wave length , then the cross section is given
as
o t

(13)

The statistical model describes the emission of the flux that is absorbed
into the long-lived compound nucleus during a collision. The contribution of
this flux to the average cross section is given by the average of the
fluctuation term in form of the Scattering Matrix (S-matrix) as follows:

<o
o|
> t

|o
o|

o|
|

(14)

Where o
o|
is the amplitude of the wave with an entrance channel | and
exit channel, o.
According to the HF statistics, the cross section for the formation of CN is a
product of factors consisting of the probability for the formation of the CN
and the probability that it decays in a given way. Thus the cross section for
an entrance channel b and exit channel a, is written as follows:

o

(15)

Where,

(16)

Pa is the decay probability via exit channel a, and Ta is the transmission
coefficients for channel a. The denominator gives the sum of transmission
coefficients of all possible exit channels.
The transmission coefficients can be defined as in terms of the S-matrix as
follows

||

(17)

In general, the angle-integrated cross section for a given reaction (a,b)
averaged over compound nucleus formation is given below as;
42

b a,
o =
2
t
) ( ) 1 2 )( 1 2 (
1 2
,
t
t
J D
T T
i I
J
l s
J
l s a
sl
J
asl
J

' '
' ' '
+ +
+
(18)
where, I and i are the spin values of the incident particles, J and t are the
total angular momentum and parity of the compound nucleus.
J
asl
T and
J
l s a
T
' ' '
are the average absorption cross sections into the compound nucleus
a, via the exit channel a' . They are also known as the transmission
coefficients, which can be specified by various physical models for different
exit channels. For the neutron, proton and other nuclear channels, the
Optical Model (OM) is frequently used to calculate the transmission
coefficients. The denominator, D(J,t ) is given as:

D(J,t )= ( )

}
' ' '
' ' ' ' ' '
' '
(
(

+ ' '
l s a
E
J
l s a
J
l s a a
l
E
E
d
m
d
T dE T I E
0
, , t
t
(19)

Where, ( ) t , , I E
a
is the nuclear level density of the intermediate nucleus
having quantum number ), , , ( t I E
a d
E is the lower excitation bound of the
continuum region and
m
E is the maximum excitation energy. Given the
angular momenta and parities involved in the transition sequence,
numerical calculation of cross section requires only the knowledge of the
respective transition coefficients. Consequently, equations (18) and (19)
are the basic expressions upon which majority of the nuclear model
computational codes are derived. The transmission coefficients are
calculated in the frame of the OM by solving the scattering problem with
the OM potential.

43

PRE-EQUILIBRIUM REACTION MODELS

Up to this point, nuclear reactions have been considered to occur on two
distinct time scales. This point of view is valid at low energies but becomes
less so as the incident energy increases. Due to the two-body nature of the
nuclear interaction, a nucleon-nucleus interaction may be decomposed as a
series of nucleon-nucleon interactions. Taking the entrance channel of a
nucleon-nucleus composite system to a 1(projectile) particle -0 (target)
hole (i.e.1p-0h) state, one can consider the result of a collision as leading
to another 1p-0h state or to a set of 2p-1h states. At energies up to 20 to
30 MeV, the wavelength of nucleon is still about 5 to 6 fm, so that the
projectile nucleon target nucleus interaction would not excite an
individual particle-hole state, but a complicated linear combination of
particle-hole states. However, in all the cases one can classify the complex
configuration in terms of the number of particles h and number of holes h.
one notes that, since the number of particles is conserved, the difference
between the number of particles p and the number of holes h, p h ,
remains constant throughout a collision. The quantity n = p + h, is called
the exciton number. There are several fundamental theories developed for
accounting for pre-equilibrium emission. The models include the exciton,
the hybrid, the multistep direct and multistep compound and others.
In this workshop, the EXIFON code will be used to perform nucleon-
induced cross section calculations. The code is based on the formalism of
statistical multistep direct and compound reaction models (i.e. MSC and
MSD). Before discussing the MSC and MSD models, it is worthwhile to
present an overview of the original exciton model proposed by Griffin.
The exciton model is a time evolution of occupation probability of n-exciton
state in energy space described by the Figures below

44





45

(20)



(21)


The multistep reaction concept was formulated by Feshbach, Kerman and
Koonin in 1980 and is known as the FKK theory. In this theory, the
interaction of projectile with the nucleons of target nucleus takes place in
stages, which can lead to particle-hole excitation analogous to the exciton
model. In a statistical MSD reaction, at least one particle is in a continuum
energy state, whereas in the MSC reaction all nucleons remain bound. At
low energies multistep reaction takes place by MSC process and as the
energy increases, the MSD process becomes increasingly important and
eventually dominates.
Others PER models include the intranuclear cascade model and the hybrid
Monte Carlo simulation, which are applicable at even higher incident
energies from about 100 MeV to 200 MeV to calculate angular distribution
and energy spectrum of emitted particles.
46

In the EXIFON code, which is based on the MSD and MSD processes, a
simple two-body interaction is assumed and the single particle state density
g of the particles (i.e. n, p, o) with reduced mass
c
is given by;

g = 4 ( )
F
E (22)

where, the factor 4 takes into cognizance the spin and iso-spin degeneracy
and


( )
F
E = ( )
2 1 3 2 3 3 3
10 8 . 4 AE r MeV fm
o

(23)


The shell structure effects are considered in the multi-step compound
(MSC) process, thus the single-particle state density g, is multiplied by
the following factor,


( ) | |
)
`

+
X
X
E
E
W

o
exp 1 1
(24)



where, = 0.005 MeV
-1
and oW is the shell correction energy.
47

The quantity
X
E = E and denotes the excitation energy of the composite
or residual systems. In principles, the shell correction energy includes
only the fluctuating, microscopic contribution to the binding energy.
DETERMINATION OF CROSS SECTIONS
Like all other nuclear reaction data, cross sections can be determined by
experimental techniques and theoretical calculations. The statistical
methods are also used to process the experimental and theoretical data
into evaluated data files. Experimental techniques are based on on-line
and off-line methods. The on-line methods include the use of neutron
spectrometers in combination with time-of-flight (TOF), telescope counter,
quadrupole spectrometers and gamma-ray spectrometers. The off line
methods are basically based on the neutron activation technique using
nuclear research reactors and other neutron sources, the use of mass
spectrometers (MS) and accelerator mass spectrometers (AMS). In this
workshop, the theoretical methods and statistical evaluation of nuclear
reaction cross section data will be dealt with. Theoretical model
calculations are important for producing complete data found in the
evaluated data libraries. They are useful for the predictions, where no
measured data exist and to extrapolate/interpolate from measured to
unmeasured regimes.
COMPUTER CODES FOR THEORETICAL MODEL CALCULATIONS
Over the years, computer codes have been developed for the
determination of cross sections based on the nuclear reaction mechanisms
that were described above. Some of the computer codes based on reaction
mechanisms (i.e. DR, CN and PER) are:
SCAT-2-
STAPRE
ALICE
48

EXIFON
EMPIRE
The experimental data are compiled and regularly updated by the IAEA as
the EXFOR data library, which can be accessed at the website, www-
nds.iaea.org. Furthermore, a number of the evaluated data libraries from
different countries and organizations, which are accessible via the same
IAEA websites include:
ENDF (Evaluated Nuclear Data Library-USA)
http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/exfor/endf00.htm
JEFF (Joint Evaluated File- Europe)
http://www.nea.fr/html/dbdata/eva/evaret.cgi
JENDL (Japanese Evaluated Data Nuclear Data Library- Japan)
http://wwwndc.tokai-sc.jaea.go.jp/jendl/jendl.html
CENDL (Chinese Evaluated Nuclear Data Library-China)
http://159.226.2.40/
In this workshop, the EXIFON code will be used to calculate particle-
induced cross sections of some reactions of interest, which will be
compared with experimental data from the EXFOR data library and
evaluated data retrieved from JENDL, ENDF and JEFF data libraries.
2. EXAMPLES WITH THE EXIFON CODE
The EXIFON code version 2.0 is a calculational code based on both many-
body theory and random matrix physics. In this example, it has been used
to calculate neutron induced reaction cross section data from 0 to 20 MeV
on an even-even, magic number nuclide
52
Cr with neutron number, N=28.
Specifically, the (n,p), (n,o) and (n,2n) reaction cross section data were
calculated as functions of incident energy of neutrons. Data obtained from
49

the experimental data in the IAEA, EXFOR data library and recommended
data libraries around the globe, JENDL, ENDF and JEFF were used to
validate the calculated data. The data indicate that the calculated data
without shell corrections are in good agreement with experimental data as
well as the recommended data from the evaluated data libraries. The
calculated results could provide useful insight into the choice of some input
parameters near closed shells using the EXIFON code.

24
52
+
0
1

24
53

22
49
+
2
4

50

24
52
+
0
1

24
53

23
52
+
1
1

51

24
52
+
0
1

24
53

24
51
+2
0
1

52



APPLICATIONS OF NUCLEAR REACTION DATA
Nuclear data in general and cross section data are of great importance with
respect to applications in a wide variety of fields from the earth crust to the
upper atmosphere. The starting point of any reliable computational
modeling of any nuclear systems is the accurate knowledge of reliable
nuclear information often referred to as nuclear data. The specific areas of
applications of particle-induced cross section data include but limited to:

Energy

Fission reactors
The design, commissioning and optimal utilization of fission
reactors (i.e. nuclear power plants, nuclear research reactors)
depend on well tested cross section data. The basic data
required in this respect are fission cross sections, capture cross
sections, scattering cross sections etc. Accurate knowledge of
53

these data means better safety and economics of reactor
construction, nuclear fuel cycle, waste management, radiation
damage etc.

Fusion reactor technology
The fusion reactor technology (FRT) also known as
thermonuclear reactor is based on the fusion of light nuclei,
which leads to the release of energy. Because of its high
positive Q-value, the D-T reaction is the most promising of all
possible nuclear reactions. The main problem with this
technology is the search for suitable materials in the design,
the tritium fuel cycle and the plasma confinement. Therefore,
data are needed areas such as the plasma fuel cycle, tritium
breeding, transmutation products and radiation protection.

Generation IV reactors
Generation IV reactors (Gen IV) are a set of theoretical nuclear
reactor designs currently being researched. Most of these
designs are generally not expected to be available for
commercial construction before 2030. Current reactors in
operation around the world are generally considered second- or
third-generation systems, with most of the first-generation
systems having been retired some time ago. Relative to current
nuclear power plant technology, the claimed benefits for 4th
generation reactors include:
- Nuclear waste that remains dangerously radioactive for a
few centuries instead of millennia
- 100-300 times more energy yield from the same amount of
nuclear fuel
- The ability to consume existing nuclear waste in the
production of electricity
- Improved operating safety
54

Therefore, the design and fabrication would require high
energy nuclear reaction data.

Energy Amplifiers/Accelerator Driven Systems
Energy Amplifiers (EA) and Accelerator Driven Systems (ADS)
are the focus of R & D in nuclear energy so as to eliminate the
opposition to the present nuclear energy programmes across
the globe. The main reasons for the opposition are due a)
association of nuclear energy with military applications and the
fear of proliferation; b) the fear of accidents as witnessed in in
the Three Mile Island accident in Pennsylvania, USA in 1979,
Chernobyl, in 1986, and Fukushima in 2011; c) the issue of the
back-end of the fuel cycle, which has to do with waste
management of spent fuel. The EA/ADS is a sub-critical nuclear
system based on U Th fuel cycle, driven by a high intensity
proton accelerator to produce energy with minimum amount
waste. Therefore, the design, fabrication and utilization of
these systems would require high energy nuclear reaction data
in the energy region of GeV.
Biomedical
Radioisotope production
Radioisotopes are often used in medicine for diagnosis,
treatment and research. The radioactive tracers which emit
gamma radiation can offer a large amount of information about
the anatomy and the proper functioning of different organs in
the human body, as they are often used for tomography
investigations (single Photon Emission Computed Tomography,
PET scanning). Also, the radionuclides (gamma and beta
emitters) have become a promising method for the treatment
of some tumors. The radioisotopes are the result of the nuclear
reactions, the interaction between a projectile particle (neutron,
proton, deuteron, alpha particle, and photon) and an atomic
nucleus. Therefore the knowledge of reaction cross section is of
55

great importance with regards to maximizing production yields
and minimization of radioactive impurities.

Dosimetry
Dose calculations are very important in nuclear medicine
because of the amount of radioactivity required for the specific
diagnostic and therapeutic applications. Specifically, neutron
therapy demands an accurate knowledge of activation cross
sections, threshold reaction cross sections as well as scattering
cross sections.

General
Astrophysics
Nuclear astrophysics aims at understanding of energy
production in sun and stars as well as the nucleosynthesis of
chemical elements. The sources of energy of stars are based on
the thermonuclear processes, which rely on the interaction of
light nuclei. For a good understanding of energy production in
stars and the thermonuclear processes leading to the formation
of elements heavier than Oxygen require an exact knowledge
of all low energy fusion reaction cross sections.

Cosmochemistry
Cosmochemistry involves the investigation of formation of
chemical elements under the influence of cosmic radiation. The
process demands the accurate knowledge of nuclear processes,
which lead to cosmogenic nuclides. Two important components
of cosmic radiation are the solar cosmic radiation (SCR) and
galactic cosmic radiation (GCR). SCR consists of charged
particles emitted in solar eruptions and are accelerated in
magnetic fields. On the other hand GCR consists of particle
radiation which is produced outside the solar system in the
galaxies, presumably in supernova explosions. Therefore, the
56

knowledge of reaction cross sections in the energy range of
100 to 30000 MeV is needed in connection with the production
of cosmogenic radionuclides.

Geosciences
Several nuclear methods are used in geology for multi-
elemental analysis, age determination, bore hole logging etc.
An accurate knowledge of nuclear reaction cross section data is
needed to optimize the applications of the nuclear methods.


57


2. REFERENCES

i. Buczko, Cs. M., Csikai, J S. Sudar, A. Grallert, S.A. Jonah, B.W.
Jimba, T Chimoye and M Wagner 1995: 'Excitation functions and
isomeric cross-section ratio of
58
Ni(n,p)Co
58m,g
reaction from 2 to 15
MeV' Phys. Rev. C. 52, 1940-1946
ii. Gopych, P.M., Demchenko M.N., Zalyubovskiy, I.I., Kizim, P.S.,
Sotnikov, V.V., Schchus A.F., 1987: Neutron cross section for tin,
tellerium, silicon and phosphorus nuclei at neutron energy 14.6 MeV,
Proceedings of Int. Conf. On Nuclear Physics, Kiev, 14-18, Sept.
1987, C 87.KIEV, 3, 295, EXFOR #41032
iii. J. M. Blatt and V. F. Weisskopf, Theoretical Nuclear Physics, John
Wiley & Sons, 1958
iv. Hauser, W. and Feshbach, H. 1952: Inelastic scattering of neutrons
Phys. Rev., 87, 366-373

v. IAEA 2003: EXFOR+CINDA, Database and Retrieval System, Version
1.10, March 2003, Nuclear Data Section, IAEA, Vienna, Austria
vi. JAERI 2002: Japan Evaluated Nuclear Data Library, Version 3,
Revision 3 (JENDL-3.3), \Nuclear Data Center, Japan Atomic Energy
Research Institute

vii. Kalka, H., Torjman, Lien, H. N., Lopez, R., and Seegler, D. 1990:
Description of (n,p) and (n,2n) activation cross section for medium-
mass nuclei within statistical multistep theory, Z. Phys. A-Atomic
Nuclei 335, 163-171

viii. Kalka, H. 1991: EXIFON A Statistical Multi-step Reaction Code,
Report, Technische Universitat Dresden, Germany

ix. C.M. Perey and F.G. Perey, At. Data and Nucl. Data Tables 17, 1-101
(1976).
58


RECOMMENDED BOOKS

i. Introduction to Atomic and Nuclear Physics. Henry Semat, Chapman
& Hall Ltd.
ii. Nuclear Physics. An introduction, W.E. Burcham, Longman
iii. L. S. Rodberg and R. M. Thaler, Introduction to Quantum Theory of
Scattering, Academic Press, 1967.
iv. The Atomic Nuclear. R.D. Evans, McGraw-Hill Book Company
v. Nuclear Physics, Irving Kaplan, Addison Wiley Publication Company
vi. Elements of Nuclear Power, Longman Group Ltd. D.J. Bennet
vii. Computational Methods in Engineering and Science: With
Applications to Fluid dynamics and Nuclear Systems, Wiley-
Interscience Publication, 1977 Shoichiro Akamura
viii. Nuclear Fuel Management, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1979 Graves,
Harvey W.
ix. Hodgson, P. E. 1971, Nuclear Reactions and Nuclear Structure,
Clarendon Press, Oxford.
x. Welton, T. A. 1963, Fast Neutron Physics Part II, ed. by J.B. Marion
and J. L. Fowler, Interscience Publisher, New York.

59

EXECUTION AND RETRIEVAL EXERCISES
This is essentially an introductory exercise which will involve the use of the
EXIFON Code version 2.0 for the calculation of cross sections of particle-
induced reactions on different target nuclei. Results obtained are to be
compared with experimental data retrieved from the EXFOR data library
and recommended data libraries (i.e. ENDF, JEFF and JENDL) at the IAEA
Nuclear data Centre website (www-nds.iaea.org)
a) How to run EXIFON
Quit Windows and go to MS-DOS by clicking on All Programs; then
Accessories
Click on Command Prompt
Change Directory to C:\EXIFON
Run the program by typing Exifon
You will be prompted to change INPUT and OUTPUT directories
Follow the instructions given by the Resource Person

b) To retrieve experimental data from the EXFOR data library
Go to IAEA Nuclear Data Centre website: on your web browser type
http://www-nds.iaea.org to log on to the IAEA nuclear data servces
On the Quick Links, scroll down and click on EXFOR
You will be taken to the page Experimental Nuclear Reaction Data
EXFOR
On this page, enter the retrieval parameters as follows:

Click on the box Target and select the target nucleus of interest
(e.g.
58
Ni)
Click on the box Reaction and select reaction of interest (e.g. n,p)
Click on the box Quality and select CS for cross section
Click on the box Energy from and input the energy range of interest
(0 to 20 MeV)
Click on the box author and type Jonah
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Click on the box submit (ensure that nothing is checked under
options except sort by publication and view by basic
You will be taken to the page Data Selection from where you can
retrieve the data in output of different formats such as X4; EXFOR;
Bibliography etc.,.
You may also wish to plot your data using the following options Quick
plot (for cross section only); Advanced plot etc.,
Select data of interest from the list displayed and click on Retrieve
This will take to the Output page containing the retrieved data and
the plot.
You can copy the plotted data into an Excel worksheet together with
the calculated data from EXIFON
Wait for further instructions from Resource Person

c) If internet connectivity is not available, copy EXFOR data files to
the desktop from a CD Rom that will be made available
d) To retrieve evaluated data from data libraries
Go to IAEA Nuclear Data Centre website: on your web browser type
http://www-nds.iaea.org to log on to the IAEA nuclear data servces
On the Quick Links, scroll down and click on ENDF retrieval
You will be taken to the page Evaluated Nuclear Data File (ENDF)
On this page, under Standard Request enter the retrieval
parameters as follows:
Click on the box Target and select the target nucleus of interest
(e.g.
58
Ni)
Click on the box Reaction and select reaction of interest (e.g. n,p)
Click on the box Quality and select SIG for cross section
Check the boxes of major libraries of interest
Click on the box submit
You will be taken to the page ENDF Data Selection from where you
can retrieve by checking the box all
You may also wish to plot your data using the following options Quick
plot (for cross section only)
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If you choose to plot the selected data of interest
This will take to the Output data page containing the plot and
plotted data.
You can copy the plotted data into an Excel worksheet together with
the calculated data from EXIFON and EXFOR data for comparison
Wait for further instructions from Resource Person


















62

PART 111
Study Papers
The follow papers by Prof. H. Kalka are study papers given to the
participants:
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