Uniforms and Organisation of

F.J. Stephens and Graham JMaddocks

ERRATA State cockades, page 47. Captions should read as follows Top line: Wrttemberg, Saxon'Duchies, Schwartzburg, Rudelstadt, Hanseatic town of Hamburg. 2nd line: Saxony, Oldenburg, Waldeck, Hanseatic town of Bremen. yrd line: as printed. 4th line: Prussia, Hesse, Anhalt, Reuss. tjth line: National cockade worn by all states, Baden, Brunswick, Schwartzburg, Sonderhausen.

The Organisation and Uniforms of

The Imperial German Army 1900-1918

by

F. J. Stephens and Graham Maddocks

ALMARK

ALMARK PUBLISHING CO. LTD. LONDON

for David Nash

Acknowledgements
We are indebted to many individuals who have willingly provided information, photographs and advice on the subject of the Imperial German Army. In particular we wish to extend out gratitude to Steven Conway; Roger M. Jay; Chris Ellis; Andrew S. Walker; Graham Freymuth; Doug Stevens; Donald Stoneman; Chris Farlowe; Major John R. Angolia; the Trustees of the Imperial War Museum; and especially to Laurie Milner of the Department of Exhibits for patiently availing himself to assist in answering many enquiries. A final word of thanks must go to David Nash, whose own works on the German infantry and artillery of the period proved immensely useful, and who provided endless encouragement from the start of the work right through to completion. F.J. Stephens Graham J. Maddocks

Contents
Organisation of the German Army Composition of the German Army Head-dress in the German Army 1870-1918 The 1910 Uniform The 1915 Uniform
7 19 55 65 76

Organisation of the German Army

In pre-1914 Germany the military life was seen as the ideal and the social scene was strictly governed by military protocol. Some form of connection with the armed forces or even the civil administration gave one a chance of improving one's social status. Thus conscription in the armed forces (Wehrpflichtig) was considered socially favourable as well as in the national interest. In peacetime, every German male between the ages of 17 and 45 was eligible for some form of duty in the Military Services. The military life for most males began at the age of 17, when they were called upon to register in the Landsturm, a form of Home Guard. The peacetime demands of the Landsturm on the population were not very great, since it was only a preparatory military force, but in the event of a war breaking out, mobilisation of the Landsturm would provide the army with a supply of semi-trained recruits. In the spring of the year in which they attained their 20th. birthdays, call up papers for full military duty were served on the likely conscripts, and all those drawn into the service were usually required to report for duty on, or about, 1st. October. Conscription was usually for two years with the standing army, during which time the recruits could offer themselves for duty in the more complex branches of the service. In most

branches of the army, the recruit served for two years. The Cavalry and the Horse Artillery, however, required three years service. Members of these branches, received greater social esteem and were thus compensated for their extra service. Upon completion of duty in active service, conscripted personnel who decided not to make a career out of military life returned to civilian life and passed into the Reserve. Duty in the Reserve lasted for four to five years, and the reservists' only obligation was attendance for duty twice annually for periods of eight weeks. Reservist duty was mainly a series of refresher courses, but the reservists were subjected to the possibility of being recalled for full time duty in the event of war. After reaching the age of 26, all men who had served conscription and reservist duty were passed automatically into the Landwehr, an armed civilian/military organisation which served, in some ways, like a second line reserve but which could be called upon for full time duty should the need arise. The conscripts served in the Landwehr and the Reserve with the same comrades for many years and consequently each unit was made up of men who had been training and fighting together for a long time. The Landwehr consisted of two parts, the

Above: Kaiser Wilhelm II on parade with his entourage. From left to right are the Kaiser. Crown Prince Wilhelm, Prince Eitel Friedrich, Prince Adalbert, Prince August Wilhelm, Prince Joachim and Prince Oscar. Left: Elderly members of the second {ineLandsturm. Soldiers passed into the Landsturm from the Landwehr at the age of 37. At this stage in their military career, soldiers were no longer required to attend annual training periods (David Nash).

major operational force and the second line which was in itself, a reserve Landwehr designed to act as a reinforcement for the operational force. Recruitment in the second Landwehr, or second Bann as it was sometimes called, was mainly restricted to the older members of the organisation, and duty was generally less active. Upon reaching the age of 37, Landwehr members were transferred to the second line of the Landsturm, the reinforcement units of the Home Guard. At this stage soldiers were no longer required to report for the statutory annual training periods. Upon reaching their 45th. birthday, men were freed from all obligations to serve in any of the peacetime or reservist forces. This of course did not apply to career soldiers who were regarded as life-long full time military personnel. Men exempted from military service were those whose training, or health prevented duty at the time of conscription. Enlistment was deferred until a more favourable time, either after completion of study, when the attainment of specific qualifications would make the enlistee more useful to the service, or upon regaining full health. The deferrment of military duty was the

responsibility of the Restanten Office. Every year those recorded on the Restanten list were subjected to a re-examination of their cases, and those who no longer qualified for deferrment were drawn into service. However, those who remained on the Restanten list for more than three years were relieved of the obligation to serve in the forces and were automatically classified as personnel for the second line of the Landsturm. The enforcement of call-up for the armed forces was governed overall by the current national requirements for military personnel. Thus, not every person suitable for duty in the services was served with call-up papers. The intake of recruits was usually balanced to off-set the numbers completing their conscription duty and the pensioning off of the old. As a result, the recruitment level varied from year to year. For example, in 1912, 240,000 men were recruited whereas in 1913,304,000 were required. As far as possible, only those who would be most suitable for duty were conscripted and many men were excluded from active duty on various grounds. These men were normally transferred directly to the Ersatz Reserve (Supplementary Reserve) and generally speaking they were persons who had

Right: A group of Landwehr infantrymen in Russia, 1916. They are wearing the 1910 pattern field sen/ice uniform with only three cartridge pouches instead of the normal six (David Nash).

only very minor physical ailments, or whose families or businesses would be harmed by their serving full-time in the forces. The Ersatz Reserve had no direct active duties during peace time. It was formed purely as a source of manpower for the Reserve troops proper in the event of a war breaking out. Personnel on the Ersatz Reserve list were classified as suitable for duty for a period of twelve years, but were only required to report for annual training for three periods while recorded on the list. Very few of the Ersatz Reserve actually went on the three training periods. Most of those who were trained were transferred into the second line of the Landwehr, while those who were untrained were called into the Landsturm. Men eligible for duty in the Ersatz Reserve were aged between 20 and 32 years. In 1914 there were approximately one million of them. The elite of any armed force is not unnaturally the Officer Corps; soldiers who generally have advantageous backgrounds both socially and educationally. The social structure of Germany prior to World War 1 was such that junior officers were treated as part of middle class society, while higher ranking officers tended to become members of the ruling class. Thus successful applicants for commissions tended to have middle class backgrounds. The working classes, however well educated, were generally excluded. There was a procedure whereby well educated men who did not wish to make the army their career could become officers. Such an applicant had to be prepared to feed, clothe and equip himself during his tenure of service, and if he fulfilled his duties competently he could, after one year of service, transfer into the Reserve as an aspirant officer. After the completion of two satisfactory annual trainings, followed by the passing of military examinations, the aspirant was graded a full Reserve officer. Officers of the Reserve who had reached their position in this manner were known as einjhrig freiwillige (one-year-volunteers). They had their state colours woven in twisted cord as the edging for their shoulderboards.
10

Wartime
The demands that World War 1 placed upon Germany were not such that the basic structure of the military hierarchy was noticably altered. It was more a case of a change in the interpretation of the existing military regulations. During the war, the annual classes called up for military service were under the age of 20, while serving troops' were not necessarily released from duty at the age of 45. Medical boards lowered their standards of acceptability for duty, and began to meet more often to review cases which, prior to 1914, would automatically have been excluded from conscription. A further development was that men were no longertransferred from category to category, but instead remained in the same branch of service. For example, a soldier could be serving in the Landwehr m 1918 and be aged 41 while another in the Reserve might only be 31. Medical health and fitness for specific duty now played a greater part in the classification of personnel, who could be categorised as follows: K.V.'(Kriegsverwendungsfahige)Fit for active service; H.G. (Garnisonverdungsfahige) Fit for garrison duties; A.V. (Arbeitsverdungsfahige/^rFit only for labouring duties; D.U. (Dauernd-untaugliche)Unfit for any duties. Some men were exempted from war service duties ifthey had key positions in industries vital to the iGerman war effort, such as employees performing important work in the steel and munitions industries. However, as time progressed,;each of these classifications of personnel came under repeated review, and those exempted from duty became fewer and fewer, particularly if replacement labour could be provided to cope with their contributions to the war effort. This was especially the case immediately after those campaigns which cost the war machine great losses in fighting men, such as the battles of Verdun and the Somme. As the call upon available men increased, so

Soldiers of Landwehr Infantry Regiment No.73 in Ostend in 1914. They are carrying the obsolescent ammunition

pouches and the Gew.88 rifle which were a characteristic of reserve troops in the early part of the war.

the civilian population improvised in the provision of labour to take over industrial duties. As in England at the time, women became increasingly employed in manual jobs which were normally done by men. During August 1914, when Germany entered the Great War, many young men volunteered, wishing to fight for their country without waiting for conscription. Of those who volunteered to fight quite a number were under the age of 20 and therefore not liable to conscription within that year. Correspondingly, there was a volunteer enlistment of men over the age of 37persons who would normally be considered Landsturm personnel. In 1915, however, there was a dramatic decrease in the numbers of volunteers. During the remaining years of the war the pre-call up volunteers grew fewer and fewer, averaging about only 5 per cent of the year's muster who joined without being conscripted.

In August 1914, the Landwehr was immediately mobilised and the pre-war reservists were brought directly into the war machine. The Landwehr presented itself as a useful and ready-trained force, although one contemporary account of its personnel states that the men were often bearded and talked and thought of home rather than of getting on with the war. The Ersatz Reserve was also altered by the commencement of war. Instead of being deployed in the intended manner of reserve supply troops for the fighting units, it was sent directly to the front line to form the basis of a new second army. Actual Ersatz divisions which were present at the outbreak of war were then filled up with Reserve and Landwehr troops to form the basis of wartime Ersatz units. Such units which were especially raised for the war from existing regiments were always prefixed "E" for Ersatz to distinguish them from regular formations. For
11

The age of conscripts and volunteers grew younger and younger as the war dragged on and the demand for soldiers increased. Compare the group of 1914 volunteers shown above with the three very young Guardsmen in the photograph on the left, which was taken in 1916. It was not only men who were in short supply by 1916, but also materials. The boys o n the left a nd centre of the picture are wearing the 1910 uniforms, while the one on the right is wearing the 1915 pattern bluse. (Both pictures David Nash).

12

Men erf the 4th,Saxon Field Artillery Regiment No.48 entraining for the front in 1914. No doubt they, like almost everyone else, expected the war to be over by

Christmas Slogans and the field artillery insignia are pain* - ted on the side of the carriage.

example, a solider might have belonged to 1st. Komp. Ersatz BatUR 138 or, in other words, 1st. Company Supplementary Battalion I, Infantry Regiment No. 138. In this sense, the word Ersatz meant supplementary, replacement, or even reinforcement, and not the popular definition: inferior substitute, which was the connotation that the soldiers of World War 2 became familiar with. Contrary to popular* expectations, the war which began in the August of 1914 did not come to an end by Christmas 1914. It dragged on far beyond the expectations of all the combatant nations, and the effect upon the German people became more and more evident. Conscription dates were brought forward so that conscription occurred before the age of 20. In 1914, themuster was made at about the right time. In 1915 . however, conscriptions were made in April and not in October as anticipated. The enlistment for

1916 was made in 1915, fourteen months before time! In May 1916, the 1917 class was called up. The demands for manpower were dramatically increased following the heavy losses in the Verdun campaign. Many of the German soldiers were under 18 years old and had less than three months military training. Between September 1916 and January 1917 the 1919 class was brought into training. The new recruits were for a period kept away from the Western front, where the Germans sustained their heaviest losses and were instead sent into action on the Russian front. They thus relieved trained German troops from the East to fight against the Western Allied Powers. The new troops were blooded against the Russians, for whom the war was not going particularly well. In the spring of 1918, the class destined for service in 1920 was recruited and swelled the numbers of available troops for the German offensive of that year.
13

The Corps
For the purposes of recruiting and normal service duties, the Second Reich was split into 24 districts, each of which was classified as a Corps. To distinguish them from normal formations, the Corps titles were always written in Roman numerals, for example, Army Corps District XV, which was Alsace. Regiments raised in each of the districts always came under the control of the Corps, and clothing and equipment issued to troops was nearly always marked with the Corps depot number. An example, of such markings, as found on headgear or clothing, is B.A.X. This stands for Bekleidungs-Amt, meaning clothing department and X, the Corps District number for Hannover. During the course of the war, the urgent need to supply clothing and equipment for the specially raised units resulted in many articles being issued with reference numbers that had no relevance to the district of the troops who received them or, in many cases, no reference numbers at all. Although in 1917 Germany was a unified nation, various states did maintain their own armies within the Corps system, and Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria and Wrttemberg also had their own Ministers of War. However, they were all put under the command of the Prussian General Staff. Bavaria alone had its own army corps, with different organisation, training, -officers and uniforms. Most of the smaller states were merged into the Prussian system, although sometimes they maintained their own identities within regiments. Apart from the 24 Corps Districts, there was also a Guard Corps, which was supposed to be composed of elite troops recruited from all over Prussia and which was stationed in Berlin. This was expanded during the course of the Great War. Prussia, as' the largest single state within Germany, contributed the most soldiers during the war. Approximately 78 per cent of serving troops were either Prussians, or from the smaller
14

states such as Baden, Oldenburg, etc. 7 per cent were Saxons, 11 per cent Bavarians and about 4 per cent were Wlirttembergers. Within the Corps areas, each regiment during peacetime had its own depot, which served as a recruiting centre for the area. For instance, J.R. 157, or the 4th. Silesian Infantry, had its regimental depot in Breslau, with smaller subsidiaries! at Brieg and Strehlin (Army Corps Depot V;I). On the outbreak of war however, these depots || also took on the role of training Ersatz formations, whenever such units were needed for duty at the front. Most regular units had two Ersatz Battalions up until 1917. Landwehr units had one! In 1917 however, the second battalion was removed from the regular units, and used as a basis for the formation of completely new units. Regiments numbering from 349 to 382 had already been formed from Ersatz Battalions during 1916. During peacetime, the normal number of regiments in the German Army was 181. After February 1915, the depot system was altered ;to cater for an expansion within the army and trench warfare. Up until this time, reinforcements, personnel on leave, or wounded men who had recovered sufficiently to take up arms again would return to the front line via the home depot. The system was now altered so that, after a short period [of training and refresher courses, men would be sent to a field recruiting depot behind the lines for the completion of their training. This scheme had various objectives. It enabled the home depot to continue unhindered with basic recruiting. It offered training in the latest methods of trench warfare to returning personnel. It allowed the conditioning of troops before their actually embarking on front line duty. It maintained substantial reinforcements for the front within a short distance of the actual combat zones.
The optimism of the opening weeks of the war was soon lost in th mud of the Western Front. This photograph of German infantry under a British artillery bombardment illustrates the complete devestation which took place in northern! France during World War I (Imperial War Museum).

C/l

The significance of this last point was clearly illustrated during the Somme offensive, when recruitment allowed only three weeks training before men were moved to the front lines from the Field Recruitment Depots. After 1915, men returning from leave, or hospital, reported straight to these depots for any refresher courses which might have become necessary during their absence from duty. The war brought about many new ideas and methods concerning training and recruiting. Completely new regiments were raised solely for duty during the war. Infantry Regiments 388-480, for instance, did not exist during peacetime and were disbanded when hostilities eventually ceased. In the early stages of the war and up to about 1916, when the pre-war, full dress headgear was still worn with field grey uniforms, the difference between the levies were apparent. Nearly all the Landsturm wore the characteristic tschako, while other service branches had their own individual

styles of headgear. When headgear was worn without a canvas cover the state badge usually carried a silver Maltese Cross. This was worn in the centre by Landwehr troops, and below centre when worn by those serving in the reserve units. The feature of this device was also worn on the state cockade on the field service caps by Landwehr and Landsturm levies. Standing Army troops displayed only the regimental numeral, woven usually in red stitching, into the canvas cover facing. Reserve units also had, in addition to the regimental number, a letter 'R' placed above it. Landwehr troops featured the letter 'L' above the numerals, and Landsturm active infantry units had a Maltese Cross, usually in green felt, placed above the regimental numbers. Guard troops were readily distinguishable from other units during the early days of the war because they had no numerals or devices on the
A pre-warmutze (undress cap) of an officer in a Prussian Landwehr regiment. The national cockade is missing, a feature; sometimes found on pre-war caps. The state cockade Shears the distinctive Maltese Cross worn by Landwehr and Landsturm units (Chris Farlowe).

Men of a Saxon Infantry regiment on the Western Front. They are wearing field grey cloth covers over their cap bands.

canvas cover. This practice was soon recognised as a useful form of camouflage so that most front line troops adopted the practice in later years. In the field however, there was little to distinguish the various levies from each other. During peacetime, some of the older elite regiments bore cyphers instead of numerals on the shoulder straps. The Oldenburg Infantry Regiment No. 91 for example, had a gothic letter 'P' with a crown above it. Home Defence, or second levy Landsturm units often wore the old style (pre 1910) blue uniform, which made them easily distinguishable. There are records suggesting that the wearing of this obsolete uniform pattern continued at the front line as late as 1915. Most -of the active Landsturm units however, were attired in the feldgrau (field grey) uniform pattern that had been introduced in 1910. These troops usually wore no shoulder straps, but

instead had unit designations on their collars. These consisted of the Corps District number in roman numerals worn above the battalion number and were normally made of matt finish brass pressings. Feldwebelleutnants however wore mass unit designations on their shoulder straps. Guard units had no numerals at all on their shoulder straps and Guard infantry units had completely blank shulterklappen. As the conflict progressed uniform details became more and more standardised and the distinguishing details were not always completely adhered to. This also applied to issue equipment which did differ slightly between the various levies in 1914, but towards the end of the war was usually standardised to a general pattern. As the war progressed to its final stages and good soldiers grew scarce, men were frequently transferred from unit to unit and the old pre-war styles and standards began to lapse. Men returning from leave would be sent from Field Recruitment Depots to whichever unit needed
17

staffing most at the time and the established system of continuity and comradeship began to break down. This state of affairs was parallel to the position of British troops at the same time, when personnel returning to the front lines were sent to whichever unit needed them most. Similarly, in 1917 and 1918 many of the old "New Army" divisions were split up or amalgamated, thus upsetting the comradeship that had existed in the British Army since 1914. The break up of the old recruiting system in Germany, the long years of being outnumbered at the front and the crushing defeat experienced in the 1918 offensive, resulted in many German soldiers losing faith in the cause for which they were fighting. The deprivations that were the lot

of the now impoverished masses contributed towards the German defeat. On June 28th. 1918, the Allied Powers signed terms governing the Treaty of Versailles which would be enacted when the Great War was finally over'; The war was finally ended and hostilities ceased when Germany accepted and signed the Treaty of Versailles on November llth. 1918. The Great War was over and it had cost Germany 27,250 square miles of territory in Europe and about 6,500,000 population. The nation lost most of those territories in Europe which were the foundation of its iron and mineral 'industries. Overseas, Germany surrendered 1,1*28,000 square miles of colonial territories with a population of over 13,000,000 people.

18

Composition of the German Army 1914-1918

The German Army was composed often separate service branches. These were: Infantry, Cavalry, "Artillery, Engineers and Pioneers, Air Service, Signals, Topographic Service; Transportation Service; Supplies; and Medical-Veterinary Service. As well as the established branches of the army there were the specialist services. Within this category were smoke troops and chemical (gas) units. Their duties were at first undertaken as experimental warfare by regular units, but in time separate services developed which were attached to regular unit groupings but which were composed of personnel specifically trained for the specialist duties. As specialists they were attached to standing army service branches, and so the generalisation of ten specific service branches remained as the basic mechanism of the functioning army.

Infantry
By far the most important and largest part of the army was the infantry. Infantrymen were organised into regiments which in 1914 contained about 3,300 soldiers. Three regiments usually constituted an infantry division during the war years, and each regiment was normally divided

into three battalions, numbered I, II, and III. Battalions were usually composed of four infantry companies, supported by one machine gun company. Throughout the regiment the companies were numbered 1 through to 12 and so a soldier belonging to Company number 7 would belong to the second battalion. The machine gun companies were numbered separately, 1, 2 and 3, but this was on an inter-regiment basis. Each company was then organised into platoons which in turn were numbered 1, 2 and 3 within each company. The platoon (zug) was then further sub-divided into four sections for administrative purposes. Three of these were particularly for practical field purposes, each of them in turn producing two groups or gruppen of eight men under the command of a lance corporal. In the usual chain of command, a Colonel (Oberst) would normally be in charge of a regiment; a Major, a battalion; a Captain (Hauptman), a company; a Lieutenant (Oberleutnant), a platoon; a Corporal (Unteroffizier), a section; and a group would normally be commanded by a Lance Corporal (Gefreiter). Under war conditions however, the chain of command became fluid in application, and junior officers often found themselves taking care of duties normally considered the roles of senior personnel. Similarly the numbers of soldiers in a
19

Infanterie Regiment

I Battn.
\

II Battn. l
l

III Battn.
l

5 Komp.

6 Komp.

7 Komp.

8 Komp.

Machine Gun Komp.

l Zug. l 5 Korp. \ 6 Korp.

2 Zug. l

3 Zug. (Platoon)
l 8 Korporalschaft (Section)
l l

7Korp.

Gruppe (8 men and one lance corporal)

Gruppe

regiment fluctuated with the demands of the war, and a regiment which in 1914, had battalion strengths each of about 1,050 conscripted men might by 1917 be limited to only 800 men per battalion. In 1918, in preparation for the final offensive all regimental strengths were increased as far as possible, bringing the numbers up to about 850 per battalion exclusive of the machine gun company. These changes were particularly noticeable with regard to machine gun troops. Apart from those infantry companies which fulfilled the machine gun role in 1914, there were also eleven separate detachments (Abteilungen) which were highly mobile and operated probably with more efficiency than their infantry counterparts. During 1915 and 1916 several more sections along these lines and known as Feldmaschinengewehrzuge and Maschinegewehr were formed. These were S u p p l e m e n t a r y M.G. Sections (Ergnzungszuge) and were used to strengthen the line where required. In some cases
20

they formed a second machine gun company for the unit to which they were attached. During 1916 several new sections were formed to act as marksman units, specifically to be used in an attack. These M.G. ScharfschtzenTruppen (literally: Machine Gun Sharpshooter Troops) were used to especially good effect at Verdun. Similarly Musketen battalions, armed with special automatic rifles were raised purely to provide rapid fire power in defence. First used in the Champagne area in 1915, they were later employed on the Somme, but without much success. By the end of 1916 the machine gun sections in the German Army employed approximately 16,000 men, compared with a 1914 total of 1,600. By 1917 every infantry regiment on the Western Front had at least three light machine gun sections, and some had six. By 1918 there were 32,000 heavy, and 37,000 light machine guns in service. Other specialist infantry troops were Jger and Schtzen. These, organised in battalions, were

, equivalent to the light infantry regiments in the British-Army, and were designed to be highly mobile. Pre-war they were organised into six companies; four rifle, one machine gun and one cycling. The latter later formed the basis of cycling battalions used as a mobile reserve. In wartime, however, Jger and Schtzen organisation was virtually the same as for an infantry battalion. As the war progressed most of these units were amalgamated or expanded into regiments, although they still retained their individuality by being given specialist tasks such as fighting as mountain troops.

A section of the Machine Gun Company of Infantry Regiment No.79. The gun is a 1908 model machine gun on a sledge mounting (David Nash).

Cavalry
The German High Command relied on cavalry to make small, 'rapid, forays into enemy lines to harms and "soften up" the enemy defences. Iheir function was also to determine the actual fighting power that lay unseen beyond the lines.

In these operations the cavalry were supported by strong cover from field artillery and machine gun detachments. This strategy had been perfected and developed from the war of 1870. It had proved to be a suitable tactic during the early days of World War 1, but on the Western Front, with its long lines of trenches, the usefulness of such aggressive manoeuvres became very limited. The cavalry, in consequence, functioned in the way it was trained mainly on the Eastern Front. Duty in the west was principally dismounted service. Some use was made of the pre-war cavalry strategy in March 1917 however, when it gave effective cover in the successful retreat to the Hindenburg,line, and fulfilled a role similar to that of the mobile cycle units. Although they were all similarly armed and equipped, cavalry units in the Imperial German Army were still classified in terms applicable to
21

Crown Prince Wilhelm, the Kaiser's oldest son, in the full dress uniform of an officer of the 2nd. Cuirassier Regiment. >

A dragoon trooper on manoeuvres. The field grey cloth coyer of hispickelhaube has a coloured band to identify which side he belongs to on manoeuvres (R. J. Marrion).

non-mechanical warfare. As such, they were unable to function properly as an integral service of the army in the conditions that evolved. Their traditional ; uniforms also reflected their obsolescent situation. The old heavy cavalry was represented by the cuirassier regiments, which in the past had been protected by body armour, principally the "cuirass" or breast plate. They were armed with a heavy sabre, carbine, and pistol. Their role had always been to fight at close quarters and to hack their way through all opposition, clearing a way for the more vulnerable infantry formations. During the war years there were 14 cuirassier units: 10 Prussian, 2 Bavarian, and 2 Saxon. The most famous of the cavalry regiments was the
22

Gardes du Corps probably because of their grand and picturesque uniforms, which included distinctive lobster tail helmets with the spread winged Prussian eagle on the crown. The Kaiser was often seen wearing this uniform. King George V of England, who prior to the outbreak of the war had been an honorary colonel of the 8th. regiment, at times wore the uniform when he was the guest of Wilhelm of Prussia. Dragoon regiments had, by tradition, existed in a capacity that was something of a compromise between the mobility of cavalry, and the fire power of infantry. They were usually armed with infantry weapons (i.e. riflesas opposed to the shorter carbinesand bayonets) and served in combat as light horse units. They usually

A Squadron of Jger zu Pferde (Mounted Rifles) formed up f or an attack. The Jager zu Pferde, originally raised as

, despatch riders in 1895, performed courier and reconnaisance duties.

dismounted after entry into battle and fought like the infantry. The advent of modern weapons such as mortars limited the occasions on which dragoons could be suitably deployed. As a result the dragoon regiments ended up working purely as cavalry units. The special Jger zu Pferde regiments of the army still carried out the basic dragoon role, but combined the dragoon tactics with reconnaissance and messenger missions, although they still wore the style of uniform adopted by the cuirassiers. There were 28 regular d.ragoon regiments in service from 1914 to 1918. Like the dragoons, the hussars were also formed up' like light cavalry. Their function was principally, to make swift penetrating attacks

upon small isolated pockets of enemy resistance. There were 21 Hussar units employed throughout the war, the most famous of which were the Death's Head Hussarsthe 1st. and 2nd. Hussar regimentswho wore a distinctive skull and crossbones device as a busby emblem. This emblem dated from the time of Frederick the Great. The lancer units or medium cavalry of the army were known as the Uhlans. Originally used for the rapid routing of enemy formations, the lancers were armed with a 10 foot lance, a sabre, a pistol, and a carbine. Often considered to be the most flamboyant of all the cavalry regiments, the lancers wore the stylish tschapkacup first made famous by the heroic Polish lancers. The name
23

Uhlan is reputed to be an old Tartar word alluding to the hoof. It first came into use in the German services in the early nineteenth century. There were 26 of these regiments, two of which were Bavarian. Most of the Bavarian cavalry was provided by a special force of light cavalry regiments known as Chevaulegers. Apart from these regular army units, there were also 39 reserve cavalry units raised especially for the war. Three of these were Bavarian. One was Jger zu Pferde. Four were heavy cavalry. Twelve were dragoons. Ten were hussars and nine were lancers. Before the war, cavalry units were organised on an army corps basis with two or three brigades to a corps, but upon mobilisation these 110 regiments were formed into 11 divisions. Each regiment had five squadrons initially, but one of these remained at the home base to serve as a depot squadron. Extra squadrons were formed in the field, one of which would always be a machine gun squadron. Thus, a cavalry division (as distinct from cavalry used to support an infantry division) was organised in the following manner. Cavalry Division

As well as the mounted units, there were also attached one/agerbattalion, cyclist and machine gun troops, pioneers, horse artillery and signal troops. The final war strength of a division amounted to approximately 283 officers, 4,995 other ranks, 5,590 horses and 216 vehicles. As the war progressed, and the practical utility of mounted troops diminished, mounted formations were gradually removed from 'their positions to ones in which they could serve in some more useful capacity. By 1918 most cavalry units had been restyled to fight as foot soldiers alongside the infantry in the trenches.

Artillery
Artillery in the German Army was divided into foot and field regiments. The latter, were mobile artillery used to support infantry in the field. Foot artillery however, manned heavy siege and fortress guns, and the larger pieces of field artillery. They were organised and uniformed differently. Field Artillery: Before the outbreak of war in August 1914 there were 642 batteries of field artillery in the army. Throughout the war years the dependence on artillery became more acute, and by January 1918 the number of field batteries had risen to about 2,900 which was slightly more than the number of infantry battalions. Field artillery units also contained elements of horse artillery, which were attached solely to cavalry divisions, whereas infantry support artillery was formed almost exclusively from the field artillery. These were usually armed with the 7.7 cm field gun (Feldkanone! or the 10.5 cm light field howitzer fliehte Feldhaubitze). Usually the 2nd. battalions of field artillery regiments fulfilled the howitzer role, using four howitzers per battery in 1914, while the 1st. battalions were normally furnished with six field pieces. Upon mobilisation in 1914, field artillery was

Cav. Brigade Cav. Brigade Cav. Brigade

Cav. Cav. Regt. Regt.

Cav. Cav. Cav. Cav. Regt. Regt. Regt. Regt.

1st 2nd

r ITT

3rd 4th sqdn. MG sqdn

24

organised into a brigade system, commanded by a Major General (Generalmajor), which was then sub-divided from the brigade into regiments, detachments (abteilungen), and batteries. Three batteries to a detachment, or battalion, and two detachments to a regiment. The detachments were numbered I and II in Roman numerals and the batteries numbered in Arabic numerals from 1 to 6. Field Artillery Brigade I ~~1 Field Artillery Regt. I Field Artillery Regt. II
.

However, new units formed after the outbreak of the war were organised on a slightly different basis. The number of abteilungen were reduced to three per brigade and these were organised into one field artillery regiment. The 3rd. Battalion of each abteilung then became the howitzer detachment, which means that about one third of *he artillery was equipped with these weapons. Prior to the war this ratio had been about one-eighth as it had been general practice only to arm one abteilung in a corps with light field howitzers. Field Artillery Regiment I Abteilung II Abteilung III Abteilung

r~

r~

r~
I Abt.

~i

I Abteilung II Abt.

II Abt.

I
Batteries
1 2 3

I
Batteries
4 5 6

I
Batteries
1 2 3

I
Batteries
4 5 6

!
Batteries 1 2 3

I
Batteries 4 5 6

I
Batteries 7 8 9

Men of the 26th. Foot Artillery Regiment load a 15cm heavy field howitzer.

25

This new arrangement meant that brigades were no longer used, and only artillery detachments came under the auspices of a division artillery headquarters. This system for new units was extended to all field units during 1917, thus releasing batteries which could be used as the nucleus of reserve formations which could be switched to areas where the situation most demanded their use. As early as 1915 the number of guns in a field battery had been reduced to four for similar reasons. This permitted the raising of about one hundred new independent field artillery batteries which were mostly employed on the Eastern Front. Foot Artillery: In 1914 each of the 24 Army Corps Districts had one foot artillery regiment which was designed to act as corps artillery alone. This meant that there were about 400 batteries available, mostly equipped with 15cm field howitzers (feldhaubitzen) and 21cm mortars. Each regiment was organised into two battalions which contained four batteries. The battalions which were equipped with the 21cm mortars had however, only two batteries.

Foot Artillery Regiment I I I Battalion (15cm Field Howitzer) II Battalion (21cm Mortar)

Batteries 1 2 3 4

Batteries 1 2

The chart above details the basic system as it existed and functioned when initially conceived. It did, however, become rather more complex as the war progressed.
26

Because of the way the war developed the demand for heavy guns steadily increased. The foot artillery was relatively small in 1914 and it was enlarged to cope with the expansion required by other sectors of the service. This meant that the Reserve, Landwehr, Landsturm, and later the Ersatz .battalions, were brought into front line service with increasing rapidity. As second line or reservist troops, or as units raised for the duration, these sections of the army were often equipped with obsolescent weapons, captured guns and in some cases with long range naval guns. In addition to these reserve formations, new batteries were formed for war service in 1915 and 1916 and a new series of battalions of four batteries each were raised at the same time. Ultimately, the foot artillery increased in size about 5.5 times between 1914 and 1918. Battery organisation during the war also depended upon the calibre of the armaments used. By 1916, foot artillery units began to be allotted to zones where they were most urgently needed, and not according to the established system which had previously been based on Corps or Division strength. This system of allocation by sector (i.e. combat zone) brought the foot artillery under] ;the control of the divisional artillery commander within whose sector they were now placed.; As a result, different types of batteries had different types of organisation. For example, a battery equipped with the 10.5cm gun would contain four guns in all, whereas one equipped with the 15cm type would be armed with only two. At the same time a battery equipped with the 21cm howitzer would have three of these weapons and so on. By 1918, about 75 per cent of foot artillery were equipped with howitzers, and the remainder had direct fire guns. The dispersion of the armaments, and the allocation of the troops employing them, was determined by the course of the warsand the combat conditions. The howitzer, for instance, is a close range weapon, firing a shell upwards to bombard a target close at hand, yet at the same time out of sight and out of the operable range [f a long range piece. It was therefore, ideally j suited for trench warfare. Generally

jr.*

Above: The 38cm SK L/45 Lange Max. This huge weapon was mounted on a steel and concrete emplacement. Narrow Gauge railways were used to carrv the

shells to the gun. Below: Foot artillery troops manhandle a 21cm Mrser (howitzer) (Roger Jay).

27

speaking, the Germans referred to all howitzers of 21cm calibre and over as mortars. Mountain artillery units, such as those employed for service in the Balkan regions and Alpine fronts, were recruited from personnel whose training made them more suitable for service in mountainous terrain. These units were mainly recruited from areas such as Baden and Wrttemberg, where mountainous countryside predominates. The most suitable types of armament for these troops were the light field guns, such as the 7.5cm calibre, which were transported by mule trains on those passes and slopes which would have been hazardous to the mechanical transport of the day. Mountain artillery batteries normally functioned as independent sections, or in support of, or with the cooperation of,.Jager infantry groups.

Engineers and Pioneers

Duties which would have been carried out by the Royal Engineers in the British Army came under the jurisdiction of three separate branches of the Imperial German Army. These were: The Engineer Corps (Ingenieur-Korps), the Fortress Construction Officers (Festungibau-Offizier), and the Pioneer Corps (Pionier-Korps). All of these three branches were under the overall command of th Inspector General of Engineer and Pioneer Corps. ! The Ingenieur-Korps and the FestungibauOffiziere consisted of officers only. Their duties were the design, construction, and maintenance of fortress fortifications. The Pionier-Korps provided the actual man power. Officers for the pioneers and engineers underwent roughly the same training, whereas fortress construction officers were recruited from experienced pioneer N.C.O.'s who then had to undergo specialised advance training. There were eight battalions of fortress engineers dispersed throughout the whole of the 'army.
28

In peacetime, each army corps had one battalion of pioneers, consisting of four companies., On mobilisation however, each pioneer battalion was expanded, by the inclusion of reserve! troops, into two battalions of three companies each. One of these went to the front' while the other two were allotted to the Reserve Corps: These battalions rarely existed as separate and independent units in the field, and by 1917 all pioneer units were re-grouped for use as divisional pioneer battalions. The eight fortress battalions at Knigsberg, Posen, Cologne, Ehrenbreitsten, Strasburg, Metz, Mainz and Graudenz were similary expanded into ten pioneer regiments, numbered 18, 19, 20, 23, 24, 25, 29 30, 31 and Bavarian. These troops were used at the front in technical roles such as mining or electrical work, while the original battalion troops were used exclusively for work on field tasks. ' ; By 1917, with the troops from the Reserve Divisions, and increases made by Ersatz, Landwehr and Landsturm formations, the number of companies of pioneer troops in the field was nearly 700. This amounted to about two companies per division, as opposed to three companies per corps in the pre-war period. This was then stabilised at two per division, the surplus! being used to establish back lines at this stage. pioneer field company consisted of four officers', one medical officer, one paymaster and 262 other ranks. Personnel transportation was of the order of twenty horses and seven vehicles. The horses and drivers were provided by the train battalions. Pioneers in the field were equipped along much the same lines as the infantry, except that they carried long handled spades, and bayonets with serrated teeth on the blades. These bayonets were in all other respects the standard Gew 98 and the subsequent modified patterns as issued to all other rank and file,, units. The serrated teeth on the back edge were intended to serve as an efficient saw for cutting wood for entrenchments and so on. One point regarding these bayonets is worth mentioning. Namely the propaganda accusations that these bayonets were

A pioneer bridging train, equipped with pontoons on horse-drawn wagon, moves down a cobbled road in France (Imperial War Museum), terror weapons, designed to inflict vicious wounds and cause unnecessary suffering to the victims. Belief in this propaganda was so strong that the French troops announced at one stage that they would liquidate without question any prisoners found to be carrying such 'inhuman' weapons as these. In point of fact, serrated blade bayonets are totally impracticable for bayonet fighting, and likely to lessen the chances of achieving successful bayonet thrusts in the event of close combat. The French issue Lebel bayonet,

with its spiked cruciform blade, was in fact a more efficient weapon for the melee using cold steel. The basic technical duties of Pioneers came under five heads: mining, bridging,'searchlight duties, trench mortar duties, and fiamethrowing and gas duties. Mining: This was a military science which had fallen into abeyance. The static form of trench war however, became the ideal situation for the revival of this form of battle. Initially the jobs of tunnelling under the enemy's lines were given to
29

trained miners drawn from the infantry, but by 1916 Pionier-Mineur-Kompagnien were introduced, and by 1918 there were over 50 independent Pioneer Mining companies. These were normally controlled by the division sector commander, but the situations in which they were brought into action were more usually determined by the officer on the spot. The task of tunnelling under enemy lines, counter-mining the enemy's own tunnels, or engaging in a furious race to mine penetrations and blow up target areas .before the enemy had a chance to attack your own base command in the same manner, was often one of the most dangerous jobs in the army. It was not unknown for tunnels to break unexpectedly into mines being excavated by the enemy, and for hand to hand combat between the

troops ,to take place in these subterranean battlefields. The problems of mine warfare, the unexpected hazards and the ever present natural disasters of flooding, suffocation, and earthfall, . were a constant pressure on the minds and nerves of those who undertook this deadly game. An average field company of miners in 1918 consisted of four officers, and approximately 250 other ranksJ Bridging. Bridging was carried out by the bridging train units of pioneer formations. These were organised from.divisional to corps level, and consisted of personnel and equipment recruited from the train which supported the pioneer
Pioneers^ operating a light searchlight mounted on a wagon.j ;

*
' ' ' "*' "*

30

troops, and which was equipped with steel pontoons and trestle waggons of various sizes, capable of being improvised into bridging structures of up to 460 yards sectionally. Obviously, for the rapid transport of heavy weapons and troops, the kind of skills employed by the bridging trains were essential. The galvanised steel pontoons could be used as rafts and floating bridges, capable of ferrying heavy guns and armoured transport across gaps far too wide to be bridged with a permanent structure. The establishment of a corps bridging train was 56 Pioneers, 142 Train soldiers, 1 Medical Officer, 1 Veterinary Officer, 1 Paymaster, 239 horses and 39 vehicles. They would carry 26 pontoon wagons and 2 trestle wagons. They could bridge a gap about 185 yards wide in three hours.

Searchlight Duties. A searchlight section consisted of 2 officers, 38 other ranks* 25 horses and 7 vehicles. These sections carried heavy, light and * portable searchlights. An anti-aircraft school was established at Hannover which trained special sections (Flak-Scheinwerferzuge} for antiaircraft duties. These were then attached to anti-aircraft artillery guarding fortresses and munitions factories. Each section consisted xof three N.C.O.'s and ten men, with a searchlight capable of projecting a light 1,500 metres. Trench Motor Duties: Trench Mortar Units or Minenwerfer units as they were known, were the responsibility of pioneer formations. They must be distinguished from trench guns which were
A pioneer from a Minnenwefer (mortar) company operating a grenade launcher. .

31

usually served by artillery men. Many of the smaller weapons however, were fired by personnel drawn largely from the ranks of the infantry. By 1916 every division had a Minenwerfer Company permanently allotted to it, which formed pari of the divisional pioneer battalion. These companies were numbered in a special fashion so that they could be easily identified in the field. Each active division had a Minenwerfer company bearing the same number as the division. For instance 7th. Division had 7MN coy. Each Reserve Division had the divisional number plus 200. For instance, 7th. Reserve Division has ,207th.-Minenwerfer Company. Landwehr Divisions had the MN company designated with the same number plus 300, 7th. Landwehr Div, 307 MN coyand in the case of Ersatz Divisions it was the number 210,7th. Ersatz Division, Minenwefercoy. 217. A Minenwerfer company consisted of three sectionsone heavy and two light. Each section (zug) was organised into sub sections or truppen. A company consisted of eight officers, 41 NCO's and 201 men. These men were distinguished by an oval badge worn on the left sleeve which bore the company number, 'MN' and the prefix 'S' (schwereheavy) or 'L' (leichtlight) denoting their particular role. For example, the heavy section of the MN company of the 221st. Ersatz Division would have the letters SMN431 on the badge. Similarly a member of the light MN company from the 7th. Landwehr Division might have 'LMN207' on his sleeve badge. In addition to the normal MN units, there were also a few mountain Minenwerfer units nurn-' bered 170-175. They were mainly employed in the east, with suitable supply columns and transport. In addition, there were 13 MN battalions which formed a reserve at the G.H.Q. and were used to train new crews and supply reinforcements for the lines when necessary. The weapons used by the Minenwerfer varied from the huge 25cm heavy piece to the comparatively light Granatwerfer, and fulfilled a variety of roles from bombardment with anti-personnel shrapnel to high explosive shells ideally suited for
32

fortress demolition. Included in this new armoury for modern warfare were gas shells. The tactical value of the trench mortars cannot be denied. Their accuracy and destructive power made them greatly feared by the enemy and they became popularly known among the British troop's as 'Flying Pigs'. It is not known just how popular trench mortar crews were in the Imperial German Army. As far as the British trench mortar crews were concerned they were not a popular form of support, as they often brought concentrated retaliation from the German crews with the inevitable losses and casualties to the men a;t the front. Flamthrowing and Gas Duties: Flamethrowing dutiesi a comparatively tricky form of warfare even in 1918, were undertaken by the four companies of the specially raised Guard Reserve Pioneer Regiment.' These men were trained exclusively for this role, and then under the orders of G.H.Q. allotted to the specific areas where they were needed. Th Flammenwerfer was first used with devastating effect against the French at Verdun, in February 1918. A few months later British troops had the unnerving experience of coming face to face with this disturbing form of warfare. The physical appearance of the flame thrower in action created more fear than longer range and deadlier weapons. A special insignia was worn by flamethrower troops to distinguish their particular duties. This was a white skull and crossbones on a b'lack oval ground worn sewn to the forearm of the left sleeve. Gas warfare was the province of two other units especially trained for the purpose, the 35th. and 36th. both of which were armed with a variety of gas weapons ranging from gas cloud dispersion cylinders to gas emitting projectiles. Each of these regiments consisted of two battalions, each of which was organised into three companies and a park company. Specifically raised to be trained in theiexploitation of gas warfare, each battalion was normally capable, of handling 5,600 gas cylinders, or 1,000 gas shells.

Apart from the park companies already mentioned, there were also Pioneer park companies raised* from the levies of the armed Landsturm. Their duties were usually the handling of pioneer stores at rail junctions and large depots, and they were mostly attached to various armies as required by current commitments. By 1918 the British intelligence services had noted the existence of 55 of the Pioneer park companies.

Air Service
Before the war all German aircraft troops formed part of the communications service, but in November 1917 an army order established the Luftstreitkrfte, or air force, as a separate branch of the army. By 1918, there were 17 training squadrons in Germany and seven more special Bavarian flying schools. Here the trainees were taught flying, observing, mechanics, and the basics of discipline and drill. Initially the air service was concerned with flying, static balloons, anti-aircraft defence, and airships. In the field, aviation and balloon duties were controlled at Army level initially, and at Corps level by a Group Aviation Commander. Air units were sent to areas where the situation most demanded them. The standard aviation unit consisted of six aircraft. A flight carried about 120 men of all ranks. A bombing flight would have theoretically, 12 machines while a fighter unit would be equipped with 18. Due to war conditions however, these numbers were not usually up to standard. The strength, of bomber and fighter units was more usually about ten and fourteen machines respectively. The proportion of officers and other ranks worked out differently from that employed by other flying services, such as the Royal Flying Corps. In the German units, observers in reconnaissance units were usually officers, while their pilots were N.C.O.'s. This

An einjhrig freiwillige (one-year volunteer) of the Air Service, wearing the Iron Cross, first class, and the air observer's badae. He is dressed in the 1915 pattern bluse (Maj. J. R. Angolia collection).

33

Left: A lieutenant of the Gardes du Corps Cuirassier Regiment in Ga/awachanzugDuty Dress for Palace Festive Occasions, 1890 flight: A dragoon of the 19th. Oldenburg Dragoon Regiment in Service Dress, 1892.

34

Left: A General-Major of the General Staff in Kleiner Dienstanzug (Undress Uniform for Duty Occasions). 1892. Right: A lieutenant of the Saxon Schtzen Regiment No.108 1895.

35

r'l

was also the case in bomber wings, although gunners were always N.C.O.'s. Fighter units, however, carried both officers and N.C.O.'s as pilots. The flying branch of the air service was organised into six separate parts, depending on the role of the machines used. Bombing flights, or bombenstaffeln were first seriously organised in 1916 when they were called kampfstaffeln. They were grouped in six battle squadrons or kampfgeschwader each of six flights, and allotted when required. This idea fell apart during the battle of the Somme, when flights were transferred independently from one army to another. During 1917 these were largely reformed as long distance bombing formations, and in December 1917 they changed their name to bombenstaffeln grouped in bombengeschwader. During 1918 a uniform establishment of three flights of 12 machines per squadron was introduced.
36

An Air Service anti-aircraft gun crew sight on enemy aircraft .(Imperial War Museum).

Pursuit flights, or Jagdstaffelnabbreviated to Jastafirst appeared during the Somme battle and w.ere equipped with single seat fighters. Before their arrival, small numbers of fighters had been attached to reconnaissance units. Pursuit flights were under the direct command of the Army Aviation Commander, and were attached to the H.Q.'s of armies on active fronts. During 1917 Jagdstaffelngruppen consisting of four flights were formed, but these were replaced in 1918 by the organisation of four pursuit flights into squadrons or Jagdgeschwader. There were cases however, where two or three flights allotted to a Corps worked independently under the Group Aviation Commander. This was usually where the line was stretched however, and only a temporary expedient. By \1918 there were 56 Army pursuit flights on active service.

An Air Service officer, standing beside anti-aircraft gun, mounted on a truck.

Reconnaisance flights, or Fliegerabteilungen were under the command of the Group Aviation Commander for divisions and corps, and under the Army Aviation Commander for flights attached to armies. Their duties were trench photography, artillery observation, and patrol work at divisional level. At Army level they were largely employed on long distance reconnaisance and photography missions. Many reconnaissance units were protected by flights of fighters called Schutzstaffeln or Schusta for short. In principle these protective units worked within a division or corps. More often however ; these Schusta worked in the ratio of orte to three with reconnaissance flights. Sometimes, in unusual circumstances several Schustas were grouped together for the purpose of attacking ground targets.

Zeppelins: The dirigible which was, by comparison, among the more reliable forms of flying craft of the day, was soon seen to be totally unsuitable for warfare. Zeppelins did have some practical value in the early stages of the war, being able to reach great heights and stay aloft for days at a time if need be. They could for instance cross the Channel and bomb England but their slowness and bulk offset their long range advantages, and they became an easy target for fighters when they dropped below 20,000 feet. Improved aircraft design began to diminish the practical warfare value of airships, which had originally been designed for peaceful use. Most of the airships in army service were broken up in 1917 or transferred to the navy where they could operate with less danger of being attacked by enemy fighters. Despite the limitations of the dirigibles, some developments had occurred. Versions with a capacity of 2,000,000 cubic feet and six engines were
37

Left: A lieutenant of the 1st. Guard Uhlan Regiment in Parade Dress, 1900 Right: A pre-war infantryman of the 6th. Rhenish Infantry Regiment No.68 in Service Dress

Left: A pre-war private of the 10th. Jger Regiment in Service Dress. Right: A pre-war artillery private of the Lower Silesian Foot Artilley Regiment No.5.

39

produced. Design modifications reducing the excess weight had also been attempted, with the result that -such craft could fly with payloads of up to 3,5001bs of bombs. However, these innovations arrived too late to affect the course of the
war.

ranks. They used the standard 08 machine gun, mounted on specially built platforms, or sometimes on specially modified vehicles. Barrage and observation balloon detachments: The former were for home defence, especially for the protection of industrial zones such as the Rhrend the Saar. The observation balloons were organised in detachments (FeldLufischiffen-Abteilungen} and were operated from Corps headquarters. Each of these headquarters controlled two or three balloon sections (Ballonzuge). Normally a section had two balloons, one of which was kept aloft, and the other retained in reserve. Each section had three officers and 110 other ranks. Duties ranged from
An Air i Service anti-aircraft gun detachment using a "Masch Flak" gun. They are wearing 1916 pattern gas masks: ;

, Anti-aircraft artillery, although under the control of the Commander of the Air Forces, was usually manned by artillery personnel. In the field, the 'Archie' units, as they became popularly 'known by-the pilots of the Royal Flying Corps, were placed under the control of an officer at the field H.Q. This was also the case for the anti-aircraft searchlight and aircraft reporting crews, who at group level were organised into Anti Aircraft Groups, or Flakgruppen. In 1917, anti-aircraft machine gun units were formed which had a complement of about 80 men of all

'i '

40

Above: Air Service troops winch an observation balloon to the ground (Roger Jay). Right: A 1908 model machine gun on an anti-aircraft mounting (Roger Jay).

if'

photography and topography to signalling and artillery observation. The latter activity was the most common and the observers were usually i artillery officers. Parachutes were issued to balloon personnel enabling the occupants to make an escape from their craft in the event of it being attacked and damaged. Aviation personnel were not issued with parachutes, there being no room for such bulky equipment in their craft. In consequence the fatality rate among flying personnel was always high, while the men of the balloon detachments stood a much higher chance of survival in the event of a disaster. Attacks against balloons were quite frequent, the pilots of both sides considering it something of a sport to destroy such obvious and easy targets, despite the concentration of anti-aircraft guns which surrounded them. The provision of parachutes was thus a most welcome innovation to the balloon personnel.
41

Left: A pre-war officer of the 1st. Guard Foot Regiment. Right: An infantryman of the 4th. Silesian Infantry Regiment No.157 in 1910 Field Service Uniform (1914).

Left: An infantryman of the 9th. Lothringisches Infantry Regiment No.173 in 1916. He is wearing a tunic which is a combination of 1910 and 1915 patterns together with a steel helmet and puttees. Right: A pioneer of Landwehr 1st. West Prussian Pioneer Battalion No.17 (1914).

43

Signal Service
During peacetime all signalling requirements in the German Army were carried out by the Telegraphentruppen, of the technical branch of the forces. These troops were dressed in the basic pioneer type uniform, but with the distinctive features of wearing a tschako and not a pickelhaube, and the identifying letter "T" on the shoulderbo'ards. The officer corps of the Signal Service was mostly drawn from the officer ranks of the pioneers and engineers, and sometimes also from the officer complement of the infantry and railway battalions in those instances where serving officers applied for transfer. The military importance of signalling as a means of communicating vital intelligence had long been recognised in the German Army. By January 1917 it was 'considered sufficiently worthwhile for signal troops to be organised into separate corps under the overall guidance of a Director of Signals. In July 1917, the signal corps troops were re-organised once again and given the new title of Nachrichtentruppen. Their scope was expanded so that they controlled not only telephones and telegraph systems, but also other systems such as visual and sound signalling, message carrying projectiles, carrier dogs and pigeons, and so on. Signal troop units were established at all FLQ.'s of Army corps, at depots and so on right down to regimental level. In an infantry or artillery regiment the signalling detachment was composed f about 150 men and one officer, and was organised into telephone and camp communication's sections. Apart from the normal telegraphic services, which were not usually used in formations ahead of the army- H.Q.'s, each army H.Q. had two telephone detachments. These consisted of several sections each carrying 25 miles of cable, which they!were trained to lay out at the rate of 2,000 yards per hour. Both fibre and rubber surfaced cables were used, linking units to brigades, then to divisional headquarters, and finally connecting through to the Corps.
44

Although they could be easily destroyed or disturbed by shell fire, fixed lines worked efficiently and provided a valuable and secure means of communications within the army. German signalling detachments also employed earth current telegraphy, using sets designed by Arendt whose name was used to describe their detachments, Arendt Abteilung, or A.R.A. for short. These were listening sets attached to the divisional telephone detachment and power buzzer stations, each including both transmitting and receiving apparatus. They had a limited range of about 200 yards with an amplifier. Two were usually allotted to each regiment. As the war became more technical, wireless sets, albeit primitive ones, became more widely used by the German army. They were allotted to all formations down to divisions, in both fixed and portable roles. Each corps H.Q. had a Group Wireless Station (sometimes known as Gruista) with a range of about 60 miles. The large trench sets had a range of about 5,000 yards, medium ones about 3,000 yards, and small versions about 1,000 yards. There were also facilities developed that enabled communication between aircraft and H.Q. The conditions imposed by trench warfare naturally lessened the usefulness of the wireless sets, which were not totally reliable or effective even under ideal conditions. In consequence, more primitive and traditional systems of signalling were maintained. In the forward trench areas, lamp signalling was very common, and both large and small lamps were used for communication with aircraft, observation balloons, and other formations of infantry and artillery. These lamps, which were powered mainly by dry batteries, were carried by men of the regimental signalling detachments, and usually operated with one N.C.O. and between four and six men per signalling station. Carrier pigeons were extensively used. Each Corps had a training loft which was sometimes mobile, with homing lofts established at the divisional H.Q. Smaller stations (Abflugitellen) were maintained at command posts of infantry

and artillery, and quite often the pigeons were dyed the colour of their army for recognition purposes. The 6th. Army, for example, had red pigeons. Alsatian dogs were used quite extensively by signalling detachments. In some instances they were employed to assist the laying of telecommunications cables between outposts in heavily besieged areas. In other instances they were used as message carriers, some even being fitted with specially designed gas masks. Six dogs were usually allotted per battalion, each with its own handler and an assistant who ,was drawn from the signalling detachment. The messages were usually contained in metal cylinders secured around the animals' necks. Their speed of delivery was fairly fast, about eight minutes to cover the mile or so between battalion and company H.Q. Towards the end of the war, the Germans introduced message carrying projectiles to augment their signal service. These were most usually fired from the front line to battalion H.Q. and consisted of a hollow rocket-type projectile which fitted into a hollow steel tube with a rifle firing mechanism in the base. This also had a spike at the bottom to fit it into the ground. The propellent charge and percussion cap were housed in the rocket, and it operated rather like the medium small mortar. For signalling between battalion, regimental and brigade H.Q.s a specially designed message shell was sometimes used, which was fired from the light Minenwerfer.

Survey Corps
In peacetime the Survey Corps was divided into three departments: Trigonometrical, Topographical, and Cartographical. In war time this Landesaufnahme also included sections dealing with geology, scientific computation, general mapping services, and photogrammetry. Most of the officers and N.C.O.s were artillery specialists.

For service duty the corps was divided into field survey companies with a map printing section, which was attached to an army. Some armies, such as the 2nd. and the 6th. had two of these companies, 27 of which were in existence by early 1918. Qualified draughtsmen normally made up the companies who were usually issued with a lithographic press to overprint trench maps with the latest information details at the fastest possible speed. The varied duties which were handled by the survey detachments were: (1) all forms of reconnaissance; (2) interpretation of aerial photographs; (3) partial re-surveys and topographical surveys to correct and modify existing maps; (4) preparation of barrage maps for artillery; (5) re-sectioning of sound ranging and observation posts; (6) geological research to help mining units; (7) reproduction of maps at field level; (8) inspection of captured maps; (9) photography and photogrammetry for technical purposes; (10) preparation of relief maps and models for simulated attacks. The survey units were also responsible for enemy artillery location both by observations (Artillerie-Messtrupps/ and by sound ranging ISchall-Messtrupps). Although these counted as survey troops, they were really an integral part of the artillery set-up, wearing the artillery uniform, but having the letters 'AM' and 'SM' respectively beneath the foot artillery grenades on their shoulder straps. Their duties were to locate enemy batteries in their different sections. They were usually positioned in the ratio of one per divisional sector, and by 1918 there were 175 observation and 125 sound ranging sections on the Western Front. Information gathered by these troops was usually sent to the Army Survey Department. The German Army used a scale of 1/80,000 for general purposes, and 1/25,000, 1/10,000 and 1/5,000 for trench maps. In addition to these sections, the survey corps was also responsible for meteorological reports, and three men in each regimental sector at the front would help compile the reports, which would then be issued twice daily from the H.Q. of each army in the field.
45

Field Service Caps

War-time cap of a Brandenburg N.C.O. of Train Battalion No. 3.

War-time cap of an N.C.O. of the 9th. Rhenish Infantry Regiment No. 160.

War-time cap of an N.C.O. of the 2nd. Bavarian Foot Artillery Regiment.

War-time cap of an N.C.O. of the Magdeburg Jager Battalion No. 2.

War-time cap of an N.C.O. of the Guard Schtzen Battalion.

Pre-war cap of an officer of the Magdeburg Cuirassier Regiment No. 7.

Pre-war cap of an N.C.O. of the 2nd. Bradenburg Dragoon Regiment No. 12.

Pre-war cap of an officer of the Bodyguard Hussar Regiment No. 1.

Pre-war cap of an officer of the Westphalian Cuirassier Regiment No. 4.

War-time cap of an officer of the 1st. Guard Uhlan Regiment.

War-time cap of an officer of the 2nd. Baden Dragoon Regiment No. 21.

Pre-war cap of an officer of the Brunswick Hussar Regiment No. 17.

46

State Cockades

National cockade worn by all states.

Baden

Brunswick

Schwartzburg Sonderhausen

Prussia

Hesse

Anhalt

Reuss

Bavaria

Mecklenburg

Lippe

Hanseatic town of Lbeck

Saxony

Oldenberg

Waldeck

Hanseatic town of Bremen

Wuttemberg

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha

Schwartzburg Rudolfstadt

Hanseatic town of Hamburg

47

Transportation Services
The transportation services of the German Army were formed by the Communication Troops (Verkehrstruppen). These, under the direction of the Quartermaster General, were divided into two partsthe .Railways Service (Feldeisenbahnwesen), and the Mechanical Transport Service (Feldkrafifahrwesen). Railways movements were controlled by a Militr-General-Direktion office which for the Western Front was situated in Brussels. Its branches included military, interior economy, finance, construction, transportation, locomotives and medical. Each army had a railway representative attached to it. In peacetime the railway troops (Eisenbahntruppen) of the German army consisted of three Prussian regiments, each of eight companies, one Prussian battalion of four companies, one Prussian battalion of three companies and three railway traffic companies, who worked the military railway from Berlin, to Jteberg.
48

Men of, a Railway Regiment constructing a light railway behindithe front lines.

When war broke out, railway personnel were < organised into about 160 construction companies of which 80 were active, and the rest representative of the other bann or levies of the army. In addition there were about 110 railway traffic companies, five railway workmen battalions, nine supplementary battalions and.twenty-three railway store companies. There were also a number of armoured trains in existence. Railway troops wore a Guard litzen on collar and cuff, and had a Roman "E" on the shoulder straps. Normal! duties allotted to these soldiers were also the control and movement of troops, the loading and maintenance of goods trains, dealing with breakdowns and repairs, and constructing light railways within twenty miles of the front for supply, purposes. Mechanical transport in the field was controlled; by the Director of Mechanized Transport. Each army had a mechanical transport park, a pool of cars and trucks, a postal vehicle park, a^

Although World War I saw the beginnings of mechanised war, horses were still an important means of transport for men and materials.

motor cyclist detachment, a motor ambulance convoy, and an army artillery tractor park. Early in the war, mechanical transport columns were allotted to corps, but in 1916 these were split up and converted into divisional units. Largely because of the effectiveness of the British blockade, the Germans suffered heavily from a shortage of rubber and petroleum. The restriction of supplies such as these severely curtailed the amount of mechanised vehicles that were available for service, and in consequence horse drawn transport was by far the most common. Motor vehicles were most usually used in situations where the railway system was insufficient to cope with the requirements. Troops engaged in the mechanised transportation service of the army wore a uniform similar to that of the railway troops, but with the distinguishing feature of the Roman letters "IT" displayed on their shoulder boards. Special emblems signifying car drivers and motor cyclists

depicting a car or a motor cyclewere instituted for wear on the collar patches of such personnel. These emblems were made out of bronze pressings, and although designed and produced, the limited quantities of them manufactured resulted in the majority of the personnel not bearing them on their uniforms.

Supply Service
Each army in the field had its own "Intendent" responsible for supplying the troop's needs and using the occupied country's resources to the full. At Corps level, the Intendent was responsible for supplying his Corps both from local sources and through the lines of communication. He also had jurisdiction over supply columns, field bakeries, Corps supplies and field pay. All personnel of supply units were formed from the train battalions. In some ways this system was
49

similar to the British Army Service Corps, as they provided horses, vehicles, and transport for supply movement and non-skilled personnel for mechanical units. They were also responsible for the horses and men needed for transporting pioneer bridging trains. Normally based as sector troops, train units operated as echelonstwo to each divisional sector and one to each corps. Each one had a staff of five officers and -fifteen other ranks who supervised the working of columns. Rations supplied to the troops consisted of a field ration (Kriegsportion) and an inn ration (eiserner bestand). This latter in peacetime, consisted of biscuit, German sausage, dried vegetables] coffee and salt. The whole pack weighed about 26 pounds. Because of the effect of

the allied blockade, all rations were seriously and drastically reduced after 1915. Apart from the reduction in portion sizes, and the,substitution of certain items, in 1916 a further limitation, in the fornVjOf one fasting day per week without meat rations was introduced. It naturally demoralised front; line soldiers of the Germany army, to discover on foraging sorties into the enemy lines that their opponents were supplied with better food jn greater quantity than themselves. The supply services were responsible for ensuring that enough food was available to feed troops during a battle. Usually at least five day's supplies were ordered to be carried by each man, and ||these were not necessarily in rations. Hot
Two [supply service cooks in a kitchen behind the front lines Kit is far too dirty to have been in a barracks (David NasH!):

50

food could be produced when conditions permitted it, and this was cooked, on hastily assembled field pattern solid fuel stoves. These were very similar in design to the British "Tommy-cookers", and they were referred to colloquially as "Hindenberg Lamps". Ration parties were also equipped to carry hot food in special containers to front line troops. The delivery of these warm food supplies was, however, dependent upon the amount of enemy activity at the front. Water, as a necessary dietary supply, was also the responsibility of the Supply Service. Its delivery was an ever present problem. Most of the water supplies were intended for drinking purposes, and continual attempts were
A mobile field kitchen provides hot food to technical troops at the front.

made to establish small reservoirs in front line regions. The increasing activity 'along the front lines, and the changing positions of no-mans lands resulted in a high incidence of unburied dead. The predominance of disease, the rotting of corpses, made every waterhole an unfit place for the storage of water for drinking, and unless vast quantities of water could be boiled or sterilised it was never wise to drink from reservoirs. In the early stages of the war the supplies services commandeered all the local supplies such as wells, springs, and reservoirs and piped the water directly to the front line areas. These lasted successfully until the heavy bombardment of the Somme battle in 1916, during which water supply systems were disrupted and in most cases destroyed. The result was that water had to be

51

carried to the front areas by water carts, and this again was only possible if enemy activity did not disrupt the services. The Germans overcame the problem in the most part, by taking over the existing French mineral water factories, and issuing the mineral water to their troops, usually at the rate of two bottles per man in the trenches. This had been recorded as being a great source of curiosity and amusement to British troops, who first became aware of these supplies when entering captured dug-outs on the Somme front.

Medical and Veterinary Services

Medical Services. The German Army Medical Service was made up of a corps of medical officers (Sanitts-Offizier-Korps), the Sanittsmannschaft or the medical rank and file in the field, and [the hospital orderlies (Militrkrankenwrter). These were augmented by the regular establishment of regimental stretcher bearers and ambulance personnel. In the field the German medical system was closely organised from the front line trenches right back to the "safe" areas. Each battalion had two medical officers, five company medical N.C.O.s, sixteen stretcher bearers and the total regiment had a number of senior medical officers, surgeons and so on. The stretcher bearers, who were non-combatants, wore red cross armbands. In the front line there was a medical aid post usually located in the shell proof dug-out or cellar, which fed the large regimental aid post or field hospital station. The battalion medical officers were normally to be found here, as provision for the treatment of severe wounds or for operations was usually installed. Wounded personnel who could not be treated at the front line medical aid post were brought to the field hospital where emergency operations were carried out. Hospitalised personnel, or those requiring complex or specialised treatment were then evacuated to the rear zones by the stretcher
52

bearer company, who were assisted by the transportation services for the removal of injured personnel. The field ambulance, consisting of two sections of 104 stretcher bearers each commanded by an Oberstabsarzt originally formed .part of each division. Because of the high number of casualties resulting from the Somme offensive of 1916 however, the number of field ambulance companies was doubled, and in 1917 independent companies were established to reinforce the overstrained sections during battles. The bearer company first set up reception centres for collecting the wounded by ambulance waggon. From there they were transported to the main dressing station which was usually some six or seven miles back in a safe village. The wounded who were capable of walking were usually marched there leaving all available transportation free to cope with more serious casualties. At these dressing stations each man was examined and given treatment according to the nature of his j injuries. Extensive medical supplies were normally available at the stations to cope with immediate emergencies, and water sterilising. equipment was also to be found there. Men who were; only slightly wounded were treated, and then 'collected for transportation to the nearest entraining station. TjHe badly wounded were taken to field hospitals. There were normally two hospitals per division, equipped with about 200 beds to cater for cases unfit for further transportation. These were normally situated in back areas and established in immediate battle areas ready to increase in size should the situation warrant it. After treatment in the field hospitals, the wounded were then transported, usually by rail, to the war hospitals. An ambulance convoy was formed as a special unit to take care of them en route. Consisting of seven medical officers and a nuniber of other ranks, its function was to establish reception shelters, dressing stations and refreshment centres at places where the wounded or sick would stop, and to ens ure their comfort on the journey back.

Once at the war hospitals, which were established as permanent premises, the wounded would receive complete medical attention. They were staffed and equipped from local depots of medical stores, and the nucleus of their personnel was formed by the War Hospital Detachment (Kriegslazarettabteilung}. Each of these detachments had a strength of nineteen medical officers, three pharmacists and a dentist, and were concerned with permanent and continuous treatment of special classes of injuries and wounded which were not sent back to Germany.

Right: A stretcher-bearer carries an infantryman wounded in the feet, back to a field hospital station. The wounded were given treatment there and then sent back either to war hospitals behind the front or to Germany for further treatment and convalescence (Roger Jay). Below: A hospital group with doctor and- nurse in the middle. Some of the patients are wearing the normal striped hospital dress of the Germany army, while others are wearing their uniforms (David Nash)

I, ' ' v ;;%

' ; i-T f A*

'A'

53

The Veterinary Service consisted of veterinary officers and veterinary surgeons who, like the medical personnel, held non-combatant rank but were to all intents and purposes officers. Their duties were mainly confined to the cavalry and horse artillery, although the dependence of the army on horse drawn transport gave them further scope. They also dealt with the dogs, which were used for such activities as guard duty and wire laying etc. Under inormal peacetime conditions each cavalry or field artillery regiment had a strength of three veterinary officers. There were also hospitals at Corps Army and Divisional level to treat injured and sick animals.

A hunde-lazarett or "dog hospital". Dogs were used by both sides during World War I to carry messages, lay telephone vvires and for guard duties (Roger Jay).

The corresponding ranks in the Medical and Veterinary Services were as follows: Medical Generalstabsarzt Lieutenant General Obergeneralstabsarzt (Army) Major General Generalarzt (Corps) Colonel Generaloberstarzt (Division) Lieutenant Colonel Oberstabsarzt (Regiment) Major Stabsarzt (Battalion) Captain Oberarzt Lieutenant Assistenzarzt Second Lieutenant Veterinary Gerieralveterinr Colonel Kofpstabsveterihr Major Obrstabsveterinr Major Stabsveterinr Captain . i ' ... Obervetennar Lieutenant Vetennar Second Lieutenant

54

Head-dress in the German Army, 1870-1918

The Pickelhaube
The spiked helmet, fpickelhaube), is the form of head-gear most commonly associated with the Inperial German Army. It was first worn, in modern times, in 1842, but was probably copied from an earlier style when a spear head, or spiked top ornament, was worn by ancient armies in an attempt to make the warriors appear more frightening. The German Army adopted the spike purely for decorative purposes, and not as a form of weapon as is sometimes supposed. Under the Empire, the spiked helmet consisted of a leather shell, state badge, state and national cockades, chinstrap, and spike. There was usually a metal lip to reinforce the edge of the peak, and a rib of metal for reinforcement down from the crown of the helmet to the rear edge. The helmet was made to many different patterns. The war caused many modifications and apart from different state distinctions on the helmets there were also differences adopted by various regiments. As the war of 1914 progressed, modifications in the pickelhaube were brought about by limitations of materials, and by the need to conserve valuable raw material, such as brass. By 1918, the bodies of helmets were made of such varied materials as leather, grey or green

felt, steel painted green or black, and even such emergency substitutes as cardboard and papiermache. Wartime expediency also brought about the introduction of fixed canvas helmet covers and removeable spikes. Bare or painted base metals and alloys were used to replace the more valuable brass or nickel plated emblems and fittings that had been common prior to 1914. The chin strap, which at the turn of the century had been of scaled brass links mounted on leather for all ranks was now produced only in leather, with the quality brass work reserved for officers. By the end of the war however, even officers had to forego this luxury on their head-dress and made do with simple leather chin straps. Usually officers had better quality head-dress than did the other ranks because their uniforms were privately purchased. Even widely used materials, such as leather, were of better quality when privately purchased. Tailor-made headdress manufactured and finished by hand to the individual requirements of each customer was common. Fittings on the helmets, the badges and the brass work were superior in every respect. Fine detailing of badges, hand finishing, gilding of portions and highlighting by frosting of other areas were commonplace. Colours were enamelled into the state and national cockades, while the rank and file of the line had to make do
55

A Wrttemberg infantryman's pickelhaube. The base is made of black leather. The fittings and the arms of Wrttemberg are brass. The cockade is in the state colours of black, red and black.

A Prussian infantryman's pickelhaube. The base is made of pressed.steel, enamelled black and the fittings are brass. The cockade at the side is in the national colours of black white and red.

with paintwork. The chin straps of the officers' helmets were almost universally made from metal-scaled 'links which fastened in the middle at least until 1916and these were fastened to the sides of the helmet through ornamental cockades with specially designed pins. The decoration- on the officers' helmets was also larger and better made than the standard issue material. Artillerymen wore the basic pickelhaube, but featured instead of the usual spike a ball-shaped attachment (kgel). This was first introduced in 1846 and was intended to represent a cannon ball. Except for this, the pickelhaube was in all other respects identical to other basic patterns.
56

The! Cuirassier Helmet

Cuirassier troops in the German army, in keeping with their original role, wore a metal version of the pickelhaube. Manufactured usually out of steel, but sometimes finished with plating or high polishing, these helmets normally had the spiked top although for parade purposes some more ornate devices were occasionally used. All types of cuirassier helmet included an extended portion at the back designed to give greater cover and protection to the nape of the neck. This feature was generally known as the "lobster tail". The design stemmed from the days of hand to hand combat when effective neck protection was

A Cuirassier other ranks' helmet. It is fitted with the silver eagle, as worn with the full dress uniform by the Gardes du Corps Cuirassier Regiment on ceremonial occasions (David Nash).

A Prussian tchapska or lancer's cap. The skull of the cap is made of black leather. The hook on the top of the "mortar board" is for the attachment of a cap cord. (David Nash).

invaluable-against the thrust and parry of an opposing swordsmen. War economy did not affect the Cuirassier helmets as drastically as it did the others. The finer details of the finish did suffer however, painted helmet shells being introduced in place of polished and plated types, and the enlisted ranks of cuirassier regiments were obliged to make do with leather chin straps during the war.

The Tschapka
Lancer troops in the German army wore a lancer's cap or tschapka. Lancer regiments were raised by the Germans in emulation of the heroic

Polish lancers of the Napoleonic period. The raising of lancers was accompanied by the adoption of uniforms which were based in many ways upon those worn by the Polish units. The tschapka head-dress became widely known, together with the impressive reputation gained by the German lancers (Uhlans) on the battlefield. The tschapka consisted of a leather skull with a section on the top like an academic's "mortar board", together with a state badge, chin strap, field badge in state colours and a cap cord. This latter portion was attached to the right hand side of the tschapka with a metal loop, and then fastened to the uniform jacket. The purpose of this device was to prevent loss of the tschapka in
57

the event ot it being knocked from the head during combat. On some of the earlier tschapkas a reinforced section of steel plate was fitted under the leather skull, to give greater protection from sword cuts. Officers' tschapkas were easily distinguished from other ranks' patterns by t.heir more graceful shape, and the use of a field badge made of bullion wire rather than cloth. As with the pickelhaube, officers' chin straps were normally of scaled-metal links, the shape of which was slightly curved in keeping with the style worn by horse units. When on parade, a decorative cover (rabatte) was worn over the "mortar board" of the tschapka together with a white horsehair plume. The colour of the rabatte varied from unit to unit amongst lancer regiments.
58

Another ranks hussar pe/zmutze (busby) of the 2nd. Life Hussar Regiment. The busby is made of seal skin. The Deathfs Head and the scroll are in white metal and the chin scales are brass (Chris Farlowe).

Like the head-dress of the rest of the army during, the war, the lancers' tschapka was modified. Most commonly grey felt was used for the basic skull.

The Pelzmtze
Hussr regiments in the German army wore a type offur busby(pehmiltze). This was in fact the traditional hussar cap offur, together with a state badge, a field badge in the wearer's state colours and a chin strap. On the top of the pelzmtze was a flap of coloured cloth, which hung down on the

left hand side. Usually known as the busby bag, it varied in colour from unit to unit. As with the lancer's cap, decorative coloured cords were attached to the side of the busby which looped around the neck of the wearer, and served the same function as those on the tschapka. Officiers' busbies were usually made of otter skin, while those of the other ranks were of seal skin. They appeared similar since they both had chin straps. Substitute materials for both patterns were adopted during the war. Busbies made from felt and composition cardboard covered in imitation fur were issued. The field badges of the officers' busbies were usually made out of bullion wire, while the other ranks were issued with woven cloth. The national cockade worn on the right side under the chin scales^ was also of inferior quality on the other ranks' busby. Chin scales were often worn in an inverted 'V', fastened under the field badge for dismounted duties.

The Tschako
The tschako was introduced to the German Army in 1854 for Jger and Schtzen troops. Unlike the contemporary shakoes of other armies, the German version was characterised by having an elongated curved back with a small circular top. It had leather peaks front and back, but did not have any metal reinforcing lip. The decoration of the tschako consisted of state badge, field badge, state cockade, and chin strap. The body of the tschako was covered in grey-green cloth and the top, bottom, and peaks were made of black polished leather. In the case of machine gun detachments these leather portions were tan coloured. Saxon Jger units wore a special kind of tschako which lacked the rear neck peak, while the overall shape was somewhat squatter. The whole of this tschako was covered in black cloth, as opposed to the normally issued grey-green. Officers' tschakos were distinguished by their

A Jger off i ce r's tschako of Jager Battalion No. 10 (David Nash).

more ornate badges, and their better workmanship. The regular rank and file leather chin strap was replaced by the officers' metal chin scales. With all types of head-gear, the field badge (feldabzeichen) was intended to represent the state colours, in which case a separate Landeskodarde was superfluous. On tschakos of the period however, the ruling on this appears to have been ignored. Possibly this was for the sake of achieving a better looking and more balanced head-dress, as both field badge and cockade were worn. Similarly, the cockade rim was of the same pattern as that issued on other types of headdress. It had a toothed (or deckled) rim edge,
59

whereas the official tschako cockade was supposed to have a smooth edge to the rim. The tschako is the only true item of Imperial German head-dress that survived the period, and emerged during the Third Reich as a form of head" gear for the Shutzpolizei, in both black leather and grey-green felt.

Above: A officer's mutze. (David Nash). Above right: A mixed group of soldiers, both officers and other ranks, photographed outside an inn behind the front. It can be seen that,' although the mutze was almost universal, it had many different forms.

The Grenadiermtze
A grenadier type cap was worn for parade purposes by certain elite units, namely. 1st. Guard Foot Regiment, King Alexander's Guard Grenadier Regiment No. 1, and the Prussian Palace Guard Company. The style of this head-dress closely resembled the sugar loaf type
60

head-dress that was worn by a number of English regiments during the Hanoverian period. The cap itself was mitre shaped with a large metal plate on the front. Above the "plate was a woollenjpom-pom, coloured red and white for the 1st. Guard Foot Regiment, and black and white for the other two. The body of the cap was made of scarlet felt with white facings. The chin strap for all ranks was made from metal scaled links, in brass for Emperor Alexander's Guard Grenadier Regiment No. 1, and in silver for the other two. The link facings were domed, or slightly curved in appearance.

The Mtze
Stemming from the period of the Napoleonic wars, a special form of service cap was used by the German forces. By the end of the nineteenth century this cap had developed in style to the form that became familiar during the great War. This service cap (dienstmiitze) was a peaked cap with the body in coloured cloth. The colours corresponding to those of the dark blue peacetime uniform. It was worn by all ranks when off parade, and had a leather chin strap and two small cockades. The upper of the two cockades was the national or Deutschekokarde and was coloured red, white and black. The lower cockade Landeskokarde displayed the state colours. As with the cockades that appeared on the helmets, the officers cockades on the dienstmiitze were generally of better quality and finish than those

normally found on the enlisted ranks' version. The peak of the cap was usually in black polished leather,-for wear by all ranks. A special version without a peak was developed however, for issue to the other ranks for service as a field duty cap. The further development of field uniform equipment was extended when in 1910 the peakless cap was added to the newly introduced field uniform. During the war, and especially in the trenches, when dress head-gear was proving to be rather impractical, the field service cap became widespread. It was known as thefeldmiitze (field cap) after 1910 when the feldgrau (field grey) uniform had become issue wear. Officers and N.C.O.s were issued with a feldmutze, but like the dienstmiitze, this had a peak. The distinction between that and the pre-1910 version was that this cap, like the field uniform, was field grey. The miitze displayed the service branch of the
61

wearer by the colour choice of the cap band and the piping,around the brim. The cockade system established the state as indicated above. For security precautions when in the field, or on .front line duty, field grey cloth covers were issued for wear on the cap band to prevent identification of units by enemy observers, the colours of the cap bands normally being distinguishable from a considerable distance. These cloth covers varied considerably in style. Some were sewn permanently on to the caps. Others were fixed temporarily with a buckle fastening device. When the 1915 'blue' was introduced, a universal peaked cap for all ranks was adopted at the same time. The course of the war forbade this venture getting under way, so that by the time hostilities ceased only a few units were equipped in this new head-dress.

The Stahlhelm
One lesson quickly learned from trench warfare was that there was not any really suitable form of head-dress for combat conditions where firepower by the enemy outweighed the more traditional forms of waging battle. The head-gear which had been worn hitherto had been produced basically with a sense of tradition and style, while the more functional requirement of protecting the head from shot, shrapnel, and high powered projectiles had never really been given any serious consideration. The slaughter in the trenches, and the fact that battles were won or lost purely by long range tactics regardless of the decisive manoeuvres of hand to hand combat, decreed that war was now to be fought under new rules and conditions. New measures had to be employed to deal with the situation. In January 1916, assault troops at Verdun went into the attack wearing a helmet pattern that had never been seen on the battlefield before. It was the steel helmet (Stahlhelm) a
62

modern piece of armour that dispensed with any prtentions to glamour. It was strictly functional, and ideally suited to the role it was to play. Constructed out of steel plate, it was a pressing of circular shape that enveloped the head from the bro'w to the nape of the neck. Far heavier than the traditional pickelhaube, and somewhat more uncomfortable, to wear, the steel helmet was immediately recognised as an indispensable addition to the uniform. Its value as protective armour was more important than its blunt and brutish looks. Some attempt to make the helmet as comfortable as possible to wear was made. A leather skull liner was included, which together with the chin strap enabled the helmet to be worn in a fairly rigid position. This gave the wearer good all round vision and gave some protection against,penetration from missiles while alleviating the shock to the head in the event of a direct hit. Nicknamed the "coal scuttle" by allied troops', ithe steel helmet began to be worn by troops on both sides. A shallow version with a broad jrim was produced by the British, and in later years by the Americans. The French and Belgians began producing their own emergency patterns utilising the dies that had in pre-war days produced the brass helmets for fire brigades. The German issue Stahlhelm, distinctive with its round peak and angular neck projection, represents to most people the total image of German military force. High up on the sides of the helmet two projecting ventilation lugs were fitted. These facilitated air circulation to the interior' and also acted as supports for a steel reinforced visor that was worn for additional protection by snipers. Snipers, who were obliged to lie in stationary position in the course of duty, were also issued with body armour. This compensated to some degree for their inability to move freely about the field of battle. Following the adoption of the steel helmet for front line troops, a number of variations were tested and issued to meet the requirements of various situations. A special pattern for cavalry personnel with a cut away section at the sides of

the peak was produced. This feature was included to give the horsemen fuller all round vision. For personnel engaged in communication details at the front a special variation was put into limited production. This pattern had a particular modification that, enabled headphones to be worn under the helmet. The paint finish of the steel helmet was usually a field grey colour. However, the increasing demand for helmets for both front line troops and rear divisions resulted in a wide variety of paint finishes, all close to field grey. This was the result of the paint being applied by different ordnance departments. The techniques devised for trench warfare introduced to the field of battle a new system of
The 1916-model steel helmet was nicknamed the "coal scuttle" by Allied troops. The lug on the side of the helmet served as a ventilation hole and as means of attaching a sniper's visor. (David Nash).

colouring. This was camouflage. It had been appreciated for a long time that bright colours, distinctive schemes and reflective metals were easily observed by enemy formations. The disadvantage of such colours became all too evident when snipers began to claim increasing numbers of victims. Thus, a method of concealing troops by choice of colour came into being. Generally speaking, camouflage colours were the creation of the troops in the field, who would paint their equipment in natural colours that blended with the surrounding terrain. Mottled colours, ones that would match in with backgrounds of varied colour were tried out. Helmets camouflaged in a variety of paint finishes, which were all a mixture, of reds, greens, blues, blacks, browns and yellows were produced by the troops in the field, and succeeded in blending- naturally with the surroundings.

63

Cockades and Field Badges

Each soldier in the Imperial German Army wore on all forms of head-dress (apart from the steel helmet) two sets of distinctive colours. These signified both his membership in the German army on a national scale and his attachment to a particular state or town. One of these sets of colours was always red/white/blackthe national colours of the Reich. The other set was that of the state or town, -and the combination of these colours naturally varied considerably among the states which constituted the army. Observation of these colours made it possible to identify the home area of the bearer, and in some cases the army Corps. The method of wearing these colours differed according to the head-gear pattern in wear, and sometimes the order of the colours varied slightly, but generally speaking each state adhered rigidly to its own particular scheme. On the pelzmutze, tschapka and tschako the state colours were worn on an oval piece of cloth mounted on wood, and supported by wire so that it was raised above the top of th head-gear. This field badge as it was called, was produced in coloured cloth for other ranks, while officers used more expensive materials such as felt, silver or gold wire, and velvet. On the miitze, the state and national colours

were worn together. Each was made up in the shape of circles or cockades, the state or Landes kokarde always being worn on the band of the cap. The Deutcheskokarde or National Cockade was worn immediately above it. These cockades worn by other ranks were usually made of one-piece stampings of steel (though sometimes light alloy metals were used), and were affixed to the cap by sewing through two small holes drilled in the facing of the cockade. The colours were painted onto the metal surface. Officers tended to wear more ornate forms of cockade, superior in materials and finish, often made of two or more pieces and coloured by enamel inlay and sometimes silver or gold electro-plating. On the pickelhaube both state and national colours were worn fixed to the sides of the helmet, under the chin strap fastenings. The national colours were always worn on the right hand side, and the state colours on the left. These colours were a true cockade in form, being circular and having spiked, or dog-tooth, edging. Those made for the other ranks' helmets were one-piece stampings, with a hole cut in the centre to enable fitment over the chin strap lug mounted on the side of the helmet. They were painted in the appropriate colours for the state. In the case of states which featured yellow or white in their colour sceme, such as Baden or Bavaria, brass or white metal was sometimes inlaid into the cockade in preference to yellow or white paint.

64

The 1910 Uniform

The uniform most commonly worn by the German Army during the years 1914-1918 was the pattern that was first introduced in 1910. The growing appreciation of tactics and camouflage brought about a uniform that was unobtrusively coloured. The 1910 uniform pattern dispensed with the bright colours that had previously been used, and in their place introduced a colour that was officially known as field grey (feldgrau). This was, in fact, more green than grey. Large scale production and the eventual introduction of composite materials in war time, caused the colour to vary considerably in shade. Although developed as a field service uniform, the 1910 pattern retained the cut and style of its full dress predecessors. Distinctions such as those shown on cuffs and skirts were retained to mark unit origins. Cavalry uniforms, for example, followed almost exactly their pre-1910 style but were manufactured in feldgrau. The pre-1910 dark blue uniform was retained for ceremonial and walking out duties until 1915. Jger. Schtzen, Jger zu Pferde and machine gun units wore their service uniforms in grey green (graugrn) material, which was of a lighter green than that of the rest of the army. This was intended to distinguish such units from the rest of the forces, and to emphasise their elite light role. Certain units, such as those of the Guards, or

old and distinguished regiments, had the right to wear patches of braid on their collars and cuffs. This litzen was in white or yellow cloth for officers, and followed on the cuffs at least the pattern of the buttons which the bore the imperial crown. If a "Brandenberg" cuff were worn, for example there would be litzen for each button, whereas a "Swedish" cuff would have only two. Trousers were of the same material as the tunic, but with a coloured stripe down the side. Equipment in 1914 for regular troops was dark tan coloured leather, and the infantry, at least, were issued with six ammunition pouches, three to be worn on each side of the belt buckle. Other troops and Reserve, Landwehr and Landsturm .soldiers had the earlier, and by 1914 largely obsolete, black leather equipment with two large ammunition pouches. They continued to be used throughout the war period. Shoulder straps on the 1910 uniform were approximately 60mm wide, being slightly smaller than those used on the old dress tunic. The elite regiments, with the exception of the Foot and Horse Guards, bore cyphers or monograms on their shoulder straps usually in scarlet. The rest of the Army had scarlet numerals in woollen chain stitch. Reserve, Landwehr and Ersatz formations usually bore the same unit number as
65

their parent units, but where active battalions wore a monogram, they wore only the regimental number in the order of battle. The shoulder straps were normally piped in a colour pertaining to the individual Army Corps, but in the field the piping was quite often dispensed with altogether. Greatcoats, which were normally a lighter shade of actual grey, usually bore shoulder straps without piping. Piping for the 1910 uniform was as follows: White Piping: 1st., 3rd., -5th. Foot Guard Regiments, 1st., 5th. Guard Grenadier Regiments; Infantry Regiments of I, II, IX, X, XII Army Corps Districts; Infantry Regiments 109, 110,116; Field Artillery Regiments off, II, IX, X, XII Army Corps Districts; All Foot Artillery Regiments except Saxon; All Independent Machine Gun Units. Scarlet Piping: 2nd. Foot Guard Regiment, 2nd. Guard Grenadier Regiment; Infantry Regiments of III, IV, XII, XV, XIX Army Corps Districts; Infantry Regiments 111, 115, 168, 169, 171, 172 and 2nd. Battalion JR 89; 2nd. Guard Field Artillery Regiment; 1st. Guard Field Artillery Regiment (worn plus own inner white piping); Field Artillery Regiments of III, IV, XI, XII, XIV, XV, XIX Army Corps; Field Artillery Regiments 25, 61; All Pioneer Units; Saxon Foot Artillery Units; All Bavarian Units. Yellow Piping: 3rd. Guard Grenadier Regiment, Guard Fusilier Regiment; Infantry Regiments' 112,118,142; Infantry Regiments of V, VI, XVI, XVII Army Corps Districts; 3rd. Guard Field Artillery Regiment; Field Artillery Regiments of V, VI, XI, XII Army Corps Districts. Blue Piping: 4th. Foot Guard, 4th. Guard Grenadier Regiment; Infantry Regiments of VII, VIII, XVIIli XX Army Corps Districts; Infantry Regiments ftO, 113, 145, 170; Field Artillery Regiments of the VII, VIII, XVIII and XX Artillery Corps Districts; All Train Units.
66

Green Piping: Infantry Regiments of XXI Army Corps [Districts; Infantry Regiment 114; All Jager Units; Guard Schtzen Battalions; 108 Schtzen Regiment; Field Artillery Regiments of the XXI Army Corps District. Light Grey Piping: Air Service; Telegraph troop'si; Communication troops. Cavalry regiments bore variously coloured piping on their shoulder boards as outlined in the text. Other ^distinctions are described below.
An example of the pre-war "Brandenburg" cuff with plain gilt buttons. During the war, nearly all field service tunics; :|;had buttons bearing a crown motif (Chris Farlow).

Infantry
Nearly all infantry regiments wore the tunic with the "Brandenberg" cuff. This was piped in scarlet around the collar and the cuffs, and also down the front and on the skirt flaps. The trousers bore a thin red stripe down the outside seam. Bavarian troops wore this tunic, but in their case the piping was nearer to crimson than scarlet. All Saxon units, with the exception of Regiments 100 and 101, wore a special kind of tunic with the German or Saxon type of cuff. This was
An Unteroffizier of a Saxon Technical Unit, Wearing the 1910 unrfomrwrth "Saxon" cuffs. The soldier pictured has recently received the Iron Cross, second class (R.G. Hickox).

cut slightly differently from the normal tunic in that it had four buttons on differently arranged skirt tails instead of the more usual six. Shoulder straps of Saxon units were square cut along the top instead of being pointed. Piping on the Saxon tunic was scarlet around the collar, down the front, around the cuff top and bottom, and also on the back flaps. A piping feature that was peculiar to the Saxon tunic alone was the piping around the skirt edge of the tunic. A few normal infantry units wore a uniform with "Swedish" cuffs. These were the Foot Guards Regiments 1 to 4, Guard Fusilier Regiment, Saxon Bodyguard Grenadier Regiment 100, and Saxon Grenadier Regiment 101, Baden Bodyguard Grenadier Regiment 109, and Wrttemberg Grenadier Regiments 119 and 123. The tunics of these units had the normal scarlet piping on the same pattern, apart from the cuff variations, as the Brandenberg tunic. All Jager and nearly all Schtzen units also featured the "Swedish" cuff on their graugrn tunics, as did machine gun sections. Jger tunics were piped throughout in green, which was worn down the trouser seams as well. Schtzen units and the 2nd. Guard Machine Gun sections had the green piping on the tunic front and back, and on the trouser seams, but black piping on the collar and cuffs. Other Machine Gun units had the "Swedish" cuff piped, as elsewhere, completely in scarlet. The Guard Schtzen Battalion was distinctive in that it bore a tunic with a "French" cuff with litzen piped black. All Bavarian, Jger, Schtzen and Machine Gun battalions wore the Jger type tunic, but in field grey not grey green. Saxon Jger and Schtzen units wore a hunting horn on the square topped shoulder straps. The 108th. Saxon Schtzen Regiment wore a Jger uniform, although it was numbered in sequence with the normal line infantry units. Official head-gear for infantry regiments was the pickelhaube, normally with brass, although some had nickle or German silver, fittings. Jger, Schtzen and Machine Gun troops wore the tschako. The normal infantry mutze had a scarlet
67

Collar and cuff formations

Unteroffizier (Corporal) Regiment with Saxon cuff

Gefreiter (Senior Private) Regiment with Swedish cuff

Sargeant (Sergeant) Regiment with Swedish cuff

Obergefreiter (Lance Corp.] n Regiment with Brandenberg cuff

; '_ ; 1 :

Feldwebel (Warrant Officer) Regiment with Brandenberg cuff

band and scarlet piping around the top welt. Schtzen units had a black band piped top and bottom in green with a green welt. Machine Gun mutzen were as normal line infantry with the exception of the 2nd. Guard section whose cap had a black band piped top and bottom with scarlet, and a scarlet welt. In the field during the early years of the war, when dress headgear was worn, a cloth or canvas cover was issued for wear, to prevent any unnecessary glint or reflection from the polished surfaces. Unit numerals were displayed on these covers in scarlet until August 1914, when for reasons of camouflage they were changed to green. Reserve formations bore a letter "R" above the numeral. Landwehr units featured a letter "L" and active Landsturm formations a Maltese Cross above their battalion number. These rules applied to all branches of the Army.
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Cavalry i i,
Cavalry uniforms were among the most varied and luxurious in the whole of the German army, even during the years of the war. Cuirassiers, and other heavy cavalry units wore the waffenrock which had "Swedish" cuffs and a standing collar. The collar and cuffs were decorated with distinctive lace which was woven in the regimental colours. The tunic was also piped in this colour, down the front, at the back, on the shoulder straps and along the bottom of the hem. The different regimental piping was as follows: Scarlet Gardes du Corps, 4th. Regiment Bavarian troops. Rose 5th. Regiment. Carmine 2nd. Regiment.

Field Service Caps

1910 Field Service Uniform with Brandenberg cuffs

1915 Field Service Uniform the Bluse

1910 Field Service Uniform with Swedish cuffs

1915 Field Service Bluse with Brandenberq cuffs

1910 Field Service Uniform as worn by Saxon units

1910 Field Service Uniform with 1915 pattern Bluse cuffs

1910 Field Service Uniform with French cuffs, black piping and collar and cuff lace

1910 Field Service Waffenrock Uniform as worn by Curasiers

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White Saxon Reiter Regiment. Light Blue Garde Kurasiers 3rd. Regiment. Black 1st. Regiment, Saxon Karabiniers. Yellow ^th. Regiment. Green 8th. Regiment. Field grey trousers were worn but these had no coloured piping down the outside seams. Saxon units followed this pattern, but had the traditional "Saxon" cuff and rear skirt arrangement. Shoulder straps were distinctive in as much as, apart from the regimental piping, they also featured inner white piping. All cyphers, numerals and so on were in scarlet. Jgerzu Pjerde units wore a similar uniform but in grey-green material. The piping was in regimental colours which were white, red, yellow, light blue, black and dark blue for the 1st., 2nd.,

3rd., 4th., 5th. and 6th. Jger zu Pferde units respectively. Dragoons also wore the waffenrock, distinguished by the absence of the collar and cuff lace which was characteristic of the heavy cavalry tunic; although the standing collar and "Swedish" cuffs were retained. All regiments had the tunic piped in the regimental colour down the front, around the hem, on the shoulder straps, the skirt flaps at the back, and on the collar and cuffsi The only exceptions to this were the 13th. to 16th. dragoon regiments which had white collar and cuff piping, and the 22nd Dragoon Regiment whose shoulder straps were piped in red and black/Regimental colours were as follows: Scarlet 1st., 2nd. Dragoon Guards, 1st., 5th., 13th., 20th. and 23rd. Regiments.

Above left: 1910 Field Service Waffenrock uniform as worn byjDragoons Below left: 1910 Field Service Attila uniform as worn by Hussars : Above right: 1910 Field Service Ulanka uniform as worn by Uhlans

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Black 2nd., 6th., 14th., 18th., 19th. and 22nd. Regiments. Rose 3rd., 7th. and 15th., Regiments. Carmine llth. and 12th. Regiments. Yellow 4th., 8th., 16th., 21st. and 26th. Regiments.' White 9th., 10th., 19th., 24th, and 25th. Regiments. Trousers were in field grey without coloured piping. Litzen was worn by the Guard 17th., 18th. and 23rd. Dragoon Regiments. Uhlan units of the army wore the distinctive Ulanka with "Polish" cuffs and plastron front. It was piped in regimental colour around the :uffs, shoulder straps, collar, skirt and plastron, and also on the back. The regimental colours were as follows White 1st. Guard, 1st., 5th., 9th., 13th., 17th. and 1st. and 2nd. Bavarian. Red 2nd. Guard, 2nd., 6th., 18th. and 19th. Yellow 3rd. Guard, 3rd., 7th., llth., 15th., 20th. and 21st. Light Blue 4th., 8th., 12th. and 16th. Carmine 10th. and 14th. The Guard units and 17th., 18th. and 19th. Uhlans had collar and cuff litzen. Uhlan tunics, apart trom Saxons, bore pear-shaped shoulder straps with scarlet cyphers or numerals. The Saxon Uhlan regiments (17th., 18th., and 21st.) had traditional square topped shoulder straps. Field grey trousers without piping were worn by all Uhlan troops. Bavarian Chevauleger troops wore a basic lancer uniform, but it had "Swedish" cuffs and straight rear skirt ornamentation. Piping was in regimental colours which were: Carmine 1st. and 2nd. Regiments. Scarlet. 4th. and 5th. Regiments. Rose 3rd. and 6th. Regiments. White 7th. and 8th. Regiments.

Hussars in the German forces wore the braided Attila. This was a tunic with stand-up collar, and lace around the seams, decorated back and front and on the cuffs with braid. It was an exact copy of the pre-war tunic except that it was made from field grey cloth. The braid on the front was also field grey, featured as five horizontal bars across the chest accommodating the front fastening of five horn toggles. The cuffs were decorated with similar style braid arranged in the formation of an Austrian knot. The style of the shoulder straps worn by Hussars was unique in the German army. They were made of cord, twisted together in regimental colours and a neutral colour (white or yellow). The colours were as follows: Scarlet Guard Hussars, 3rd., 5th. Regiments. Black 1st., 2nd., 17th. Regiments. Brown 4th. Regiment. Green 6th., 10th., llth. Regiments. Dark Blue 7th., 8th., 14th., 15th. Regiments. Light Blue 9th., 12th., 13th., 16th., 18th., 19th., 20th. Regiments. Metal cyphers or numerals were normally worn on these shoulder straps. Hussar regiments wore field grey trousers with a thin half inch stripe of lace down the outside seam. Their riding boots were similarly coloured with lace stitched around the top edge. Cavalry head-gear was as varied as cavalry uniforms in the early stages of the war. Cuirassiers wore the metal "lobster tail" helmet with the spike for normal duties behind the lines. For parade the Gardes du Corps and the Guard Cuirassiers wore a helmet with a distinctive flying eagle mounted on the crown, whilst the Saxon Guard Cavalry Regiments featured a silver lion on the head-dress. The cuirassier mutze had a band in regimental colour, which was piped top and bottom in white. The top welt was also in white. Jger zu Pferde helmets were of the "lobster tail" variety, but
71

turned out in black metal. Their miitze was of grey-green cloth with a green band, and was piped in yellow around the top welt and above and below the band. Dragoons wore a pickelhaube stylised with a "square cuti ' front. The base of the spike on this pattern was decorated, for all ranks, with a circle of dome headed screws. Dragoon mutzen were of field grey, with the band and piping in regimental colours. The exception to this was the 22nd. dragoons, whose cap, although banded in black was piped scarlet. Uhlans wore the characteristic lancers' tschapka, usually covered by a canvas cloth cover. Their field service cap was in the usual field grey with piping and band in regimental colours. The only exceptions to this rule were the 12th. and 16. Uhlan regiments who featured light blue cap bands, with white piping. The Bavarian Chevauleger units had similar rules for field caps, which were banded and piped in regimental colours. Their normal head-dress was the pickelhaube, with square cut peak and fluted spike. All Hussar units in the German service wore the pelzmtze or the fur busby. The distinctive busby bag was in regimental colours. Hussar mutzen, as may be expected for flamboyantly dressed troops, were quite distinctively banded in the regimental colours, with the piping around the band, and on the welt, in either white or yellow. In addition to the colours, three units of the "Death's Head Hussars" the 1st., 2nd. and 17th. Brunswick featured a skull and crossbones device between the cockade of their caps. Two patterns of Death's Head device were worn, one being a full face type above crossed bones, worn by the 17th. Brunswick Hussars (and also by the 92nd; Brunswick Infantry Regiment), and the other type being three-quarter full face skull (viewed from the left side). Officers' busby ornaments were of better quality than those of the other ranks. The origins of these devices is said to have been the funeral trappings of King Frederick Wilhelm I of Prussia.

Artillery
All Grerman Field Artillery troops, Saxon units included, wore the tunic with the "Swedish" cuff. This was piped in scarlet down the front and at the back, but the collar and cuffs featured black piping Field Artillery shoulder straps were piped as previously shown, and, in addition to a cypher or numeral, also featured a device of a burning grenade in scarlet. An exception to this ruling were the Bavarian troops, who did not display the burning grenade device. All foot artillery troops, with the exception of the Saxon contingents, wore a tunic with "Braridenberg" cuffs. Apart from the cuff, the piping and so on was the same as that worn by the Field Artiller-y. Saxon units were similarly piped but had their own distinctive cuff pattern and square shoulder strap. This latter also displayed a grenade device, but Saxon Foot Artillery were the only foot units to wear this on the 1910 pattern! uniform. The pickelhaube with brass fittings and kgel (a balli top to the spike) was worn by all artillery units with the exception of the Bavarian troops, whose'gunners wore the normal spike ornament. The artillery miitze was in the normal field grey, but featured a black band with scarlet piping and scarlet" piping to the welt.

Engineers and Pioneers

The Pioneer/ Engineer uniform was normal field grey with scarlet piping down the front of the tunic, down the outside seam of the trousers and on the back skirt. The tunic featured "Swedish" cuffs, arid was piped on the cuffs and around the

Three artillery officers newlv decorated with the Iron Cross, second class. The "Swedish" cuff and the kugel (ball top!to the pickelhaube instead of spike) can be clearly seen.

72

collar in black, the traditional colour for technical troops of the Germany army. Saxon pioneers displayed a device of crossed pick and shovel on their square topped shoulder straps, and wore their own style skirt. Guard pioneers wore litzen. All other pioneer distinctions have been detailed elsewhere. The pickelhaube for pioneers was the same as that worn by infantry, except that all fittings on the pion eer/ engineer helmets were finished in nickel, or German silver. The miitze had a black band, piped top and bottom in scarlet, with scarlet piping around the top welt.

Train Units
Train units in the German army wore the tunic with f'Swedish" cuffs. The piping on the trousers, backj skirts, and down the front was scarlet, whilstithe collar, cuffs and shoulder straps were in light blue. The normal pickelhaube was worn by train battalions in the early stages of the war, while the train miitze had a light blue band, and light iblue piping.

Medical Corps
Medical Corps personnel were usually officers or N.C.Q.S as previously mentioned. They wore the tunic with "Swedish" cuffs piped in dark blue. In addition to this they wore dark blue collar patelles edged in red. The normal head-dress was the pickelhaube with brass fittings, and the field service cap was field grey with dark blue band and piping. A red cross was sometimes worn on the cap in lieu of the national cockade.

Air Services and Communication Troops

The Air Service and Communication troops in the German army wore uniforms which were very similar. The tunic was the type with the "Swedish" cuff, piped in scarlet, apart from the cuffs and collar, which were black and the shoulder straps which were light grey. Aircraft units featured a device of a winged airscrew on their shoulder straps. Airship and balloon units had a Roman "L" (Luftschiff); railway troops a Roman "E" (Eisenbahn); telegraph troops a Roman "T" (Telegraphen), and mechanical troops a Roman "K" (Kraftfahr). In addition certain "trade" badges were worn, denoting specialist occupations or capacities. Electrical troops of the signal services wore a forked lightning device. Air troops featured emblems displaying the speciality of pilot, observer and so on. In the early stages of the war all Communication troops, except the Eisenbahn units, wore the tschako with brass fitting for normal duties. Railway units wore the pickelhaube with brass fittings. The miitze was common to all branches of the communication troops, field grey with a black band piped top and bottom in scarlet with the top welt similarly piped in scarlet.
74

Above right: N.C.O. 'sand men of the 16th. Lorraine Train Battalion playing a game of "Skat". Below right: N.C.O.'sand men of the 16th. Lorraine Train Battalion on Christmas day, 1914. The white "flashes" in the background are due to damage to the original photograph.

The 1915 Uniform

By the end of 1914, experience in trench warfare had made it apparent to the German High Command that many features of the 1910 uniform were totally impracticable for front line war service. Apart from the basic matters of finance and camouflage, the 1910 pattern uniform was based on the earlier design of a dress uniform, and was originally conceived as a military showpiece rather than as combat dress. The war on the 'Western Front had shown with great clarity that the rigours of modern warfare had no place for dress patterned uniforms. In 1915 a completely new and semi-universal uniform had been designed for issue, intended to be the basis of dress for the whole of the German army. The basis of the design had been governed by the role it was to play in the trenches. This new pattern of uniform was to become known as the bluse and its issue was intended to supersede all other existing forms of uniform. Up until 1915 certain reserve troops were still dressed in the old dunkelblau uniform in the front line. The 9th. Battalion King's Regiment came across such troops in April 1915 at Wailly. These were probably the Landwehr Infantry Regiment No. 78. The bluse consisted of a loose fitting jacket in field-grey cloth fastened down the front by concealed hook and eye attachments. It had cuffs
76

of the same material turned back to form large flaps and a standing full collar. There were two slanting side pockets, fastened by buttons bearing the Imperial Crown. The only other buttons used were to fasten the shoulder straps and help support the belt at the small of the back. Units that were entitled to wear litzen now only wore it on the collar in small patches. The system of shoulder strap piping and colour became completely reorganised. In general the old style 1910 pattern trousers continued to be worn, but officers were now ordered to have their trousers cut to the same style and from the same material as the men. This was also the case with officers' tunics, and seems to have been motivated largely by considerations of safety. The visibility of officers' tunics due to bright fittings and distinctive colours had been reflected in the high fatality rate of officers at the front. It is significant to note that at the same time in the British Army, Officers were being encouraged to wear puttees carry irifles, and wear their rank badges more unobtrusively on their shoulder straps instead of on their cuffs.. From the introduction of the bluse, pickelhauben and other forms of dress type head-gear were gradually phased out. The first step was an order to remove the polished metal spikes before going to the front. This order was made at the end

of 1915 but it appears that it was not widely obeyed, as complete assembly helmets were still being worn at the front as late as 1918. Other helmets were issued as previously mentioned with a removeable spike or ball ornament. Although the 1915 uniform regulations made provision for the issue of a universal field grey cap, the 1910 style mutze with its normal colours still tended to be worn by most units until the end of the war. About the same time as the introduction of this uniform, most units began to remove numerals and so on from their canvas helmet covers, a practice previously only found in guard units. With the 1915 uniform came the introduction also of a new universal greatcoat in field grey cloth for all ranks. All leather equipment was ordered to be blackened at the same time. Although Jger and Schtzen units had the new bluse in grey-green, this was not authorised for machine gun units who were ordered to wear the uniform of the unit to which they were allotted. Despite the intentions of the high command, by 1918 the bluse was by no means universal. For some reason, rear echelon and artillery and pioneer units were issued with it first, whereas many front line infantry units were still in their original, but patched and threadbare, 1910 pattern tunics. There were also mixtures of the two types of uniform. Tunics with a 1910 front but having 1915 type sleeves were encountered, just as there were tunics with the 1915 front and 1910 cuffs. The systems of piping and shoulder straps were sometimes shared between the two. The position was similar with regard to footwear. Although authorised for wear with the normal half-wellington pattern boots, by 1917 the bluse was being worn with ankle boots and puttees in the British style, and such boots were officially issued to assault troops. By the time of the March 1918 offensive, largely because of the effectiveness of the allied blockade, many German infantrymen wore captured, or looted, British boots which were quite highly valued. Because of the drabness of the bluse, the most

significant and colourful part of the uniform was the shoulder straps. In an attempt to simplify the difficult and complex coloured piping situation a new style of shoulder strap was introduced with the 1915 uniform. The basic idea was to establish one style and colour for each different type of unit and to dispense with the old corps colour system, which at best was very confusing. Naturally however, some units rigidly adhered to traditions, and in particular the old elite units insisted on retaining the right to wear their old shoulder strap colours. Infantry: All infantry wore a field grey strap, the piping however varied slightly in some instances. The final colour schemes established were as follows: White: Most infantry regiments. Scarlet: 2nd. Foot Guards, 2nd. Guard Grenadiers, 8th. Guard Grenadiers. Lemon yellow: 3rd. Foot Guards, 3rd. Guard Grenadiers, Guard Fusiliers, 7th. Grenadier Regiment, llth. Grenadier Regiment. Light Blue: 4th. Foot Guards, 4th. Guard Grenadiers, 145th. Jger Regiment. Light Green: 114th. Jger Regiment. Jger and Schtzen units wore a grey green strap with light green piping. The only exceptions to this was the Guard Schtzen Battalion whose strap was piped in black. Cavalry: Cuirassiers all wore a white cloth strap with the same colour piping as was worn with the 1910 uniform. The only exception to this were the 2nd. Cuirassiers who wore crimson piping instead of carmine. Dragoons wore straps of cornflower blue, a traditionally favourite colour of the Hohenzllern family. Their piping was also the same as with the 1910 uniform, with the exception of the 22nd. Dragoons whose previously red and black piping was established in 1915 as black only. Hussars continued to wear the same strap as with the 1910 uniform, probably as their straps
77

Artillery: Most field artillery and horse artillery units wore a scarlet strap with no piping at all and leaving a cypher or number and the burning grenade device. The exceptions to this were 1st. Guard Field Artillery Regiment which had white piping, 3rd. Guard Field Artillery which had lemon yellow piping and the 4th. Guard Field Artillery which 4iad light blue piping. All foot artillery units after the introduction of the fyyse wore a golden yellow strap with crossed exploding grenades on it in scarlet, placed above the unit number.
i '

Pioneers: All pioneers wore a black shoulder strap piped in scarlet. Communications Troops: The shoulder straps featured by Communications Troops were of light J grey cloth, devoid of all piping.
I Train, Troops: Normal train detachments wore shoulder straps of cyan or light blue without piping. Stretcher bearers wore crimson shoulder straps without edging, and sick bay attendants and other similarly attached train personnel wore shoulder straps of dark blue cloth piped with cornflower blue.

Although it was designed as a purely functional garment, the 1915 bluse could look quite smart. This Technical Unit officer is wearing the Iron Cross, first class.

were considered distinctive enough as they were. Lancer units wore a scarlet strap, but made in the normal pointed shape instead of the former pear shape. The piping remained the same as before however, with the exception of the 13th. Dragoons whose piping changed to light blue, and.the 2nd. and 6th. Guards who abolished their scarlet piping completely. Jager zu Pferde units wore a light green strap with their old red piping. The newly formed units of 7th., 9th., 10th., llth., 12th. and 13th. wore piping in the following colours respectively: pink, white, red, yellow, light blue, black, dark blue.
78

The basic style of officer's shoulder strap for the 1915 uniform did not alter greatly from that worn on the 1910 pattern. They continued to be made iof woven thread with the wearer's state colours interwoven into the basic colour scheme. However, for the 1915 version the basic thread colour was changed from metallic silver to grey. At the same time gold badges and unit numerals were changed to grey metal. As a general rule, the cloth backing for officers' shoulder straps became the same colour as that used for the enlisted personnel ranks, or as the piping that was used for enlisted ranks in the case of Infantry and Jger troops. There were a few exceptions howeyr, and these were as follows: 1st. Foot Guards, 109th. Bodyguard Grenadiers, Garde du Corps, 19th. Dragoons, straps edged in silver lace. 1st. Flying Battalion, straps edged in white

Infantrymen wearing the special body armour that first came into service in 1916. The armour was a special issue item, designed for protection of troops who were to hold a position against all attacks. The armour consisted of a breastplate, with flapped protective sections for the stomach and groin. Very heavy, it was made of sheet steel of about 5/16th in. thickness, and was ideally suited for use by snipers holding a position. A special reinforced plate for the front of the helmet was also issued which was particularly suitable for sniper duties. The reinforced plate was fitted to the helmet by attachment to the lugs on the side of the helmet.

lace. 2nd. Flying Battalion in scarlet. 3rd. in yellow. 4th. in light blue. It must be borne in mind however, that with all shoulder straps, especially as the war progressed, many variations in quality, materials and evenexact colour matches occurred, and that therefore in some cases positive indentification is impossible. Old and new styles of shoulder strap were worn simultaneously within the same unit, as the new designs were never issued in sufficient numbers. In some instances for security reasons, front line troops wore no shoulder straps at all.

79

Appendix

The Army Corps Districts and their Headquarter Towns.

Army Corps Area East Prussia Pomerania Brandenburg Prussian Saxony Posen Silesia Westphalia Rhineland Schleswig-Holstein Hanover Thuringia and Hesse-Nassau Eastern Saxony Wrttemberg Baden Alsace West Lorraine West Prussia Hesse West Saxony South East Prussia East Lorraine South Bavaria Lower Franconia North Bavaria Principal Town Knigsberg Stettin Berlin Magdeburg Posen Breslau Mnster Coblenz Altona Hannover Cassel Dresden Stuttgart Karlsruhe Strassburg Metz Danzig Frankfurt am Main Leipzig Allenstein Saarbrcken Mnchen Wrzburg Nrnberg

I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII XIX XX XXI IBAV II BAV III BAV
80

1-75

In August, 1914, Imperial Germany had the most efficient and wellplanned large-scale military organisation in the world. In the years leading up to World War I, German society saw army life as the ideal and it was closely linked to the social system. Because of conscription, military service was an inevitable fact of life for almost all of the male population of Germany. When World War I did break out, Germany was able to field a huge army of well-trained soldiers almost immediately. This was possible because of the excellent organisation of the army which had been built up over many years. The authors give a detailed account of the conscription methods, the system of reserves and the general organisation of the German army. They also describe the uniforms worn by the German soldiers of the period, and trace the development of the flamboyant uniforms of 1900 into the drab field-grey of 1918. The book contains many photographs of soldiers, equipment and individual items of uniform, together with eight pages of full colour illustrations.