Mineralium Deposita (2001) 36: 477489 DOI 10.

1007/s001260100184

A RT I C L E

James R. Lang Timothy Baker

Intrusion-related gold systems: the present level of understanding

Received: 30 May 2000 / Accepted: 12 April 2001 / Published online: 27 July 2001 Springer-Verlag 2001

Introduction
This volume presents new data on a group of gold deposits that are hosted primarily within or in the immediate wall rocks to intrusions, and which have recently been suggested to comprise a distinct class of magmatic hydrothermal system. These deposits have been called ``porphyry gold deposits'' (Hollister 1992; Bakke 1995), ``intrusion-related stockwork-disseminated deposits'' (Sillitoe 1991), ``plutonic-related gold deposits'' (Newberry et al. 1988; McCoy et al. 1997) and ``intrusionrelated gold deposits'' (Thompson et al. 1999). Lang et al. (2000) preferred the term ``intrusion-related gold systems'' because it reects a tendency common to all magmatichydrothermal environments to form ores that manifest multiple styles, metal assemblages, and spatial associations with their related intrusive centers. Although in its infancy, investigation and exploration of intrusion-related gold systems has accelerated markedly in the last 5 years, due in part to their global distribution and to the large number of deposits that contain a gold resource of >30 metric tonnes (Fig. 1). Major deposit examples include Fort Knox (210 t Au), Donlin Creek
J.R. Lang (&) T. Baker Mineral Deposit Research Unit, Department of Earth and Ocean Science, University of British Columbia, 6339 Stores Rd., Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada Present address: J.R. Lang Lang Geoscience Inc., 10556 Suncrest Drive, Delta, British Columbia V4C 2N5, Canada e-mail: jlang@dccnet.com Tel.: +1-604-5823808 Fax: +1-604-8226088 Present address: T. Baker Economic Geology Research Unit, School of Earth Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia

(315 t Au), Pogo (160 t Au), and Dublin Gulch, True North, and Brewery Creek (40 t Au each) in Yukon, Canada, and Alaska, United States, as well as Mokrsko, Czech Republic (120 t Au), Vasilkovskoe, Kazakstan (300 t Au), Salave, Spain (30 t Au), Korri Kollo, Bolivia (160 t Au), and Kidston, Australia (140 t Au). A paucity of detailed descriptions of individual intrusion-related gold systems, the plutonic provinces that host these systems, and the genetic processes critical to their formation currently limits our ability to either develop precise criteria for their denition or to formulate well-constrained geological and exploration models. The principal discussions (Sillitoe 1991; Hollister 1992; Newberry et al. 1988, 1995; Lang et al. 1997; McCoy et al. 1997; Thompson et al. 1999; Goldfarb et al. 2000; Lang et al. 2000; Newberry 2000) suggest that there are several features common to most intrusion-related gold deposits and provinces, including: (1) metaluminous, subalkalic intrusions of intermediate to felsic composition that lie near the boundary between ilmenite and magnetite series; (2) carbonic hydrothermal uids; (3) a metal assemblage that variably combines gold with elevated Bi, W, As, Mo, Te, and/or Sb and low concentrations of base metals; (4) a low sulde mineral content, mostly <5 vol%, with a reduced ore mineral assemblage that typically comprises arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite, and pyrite and which lacks magnetite or hematite; (5) areally restricted, commonly weak hydrothermal alteration, except in systems formed at the shallowest depths spanned by these deposits; (6) a tectonic setting well inboard of inferred or recognized convergent plate boundaries, where continental magmatism commonly contains coeval intrusions of alkalic, metaluminous calcalkalic, and peraluminous compositions; and (7) a location in magmatic provinces best or formerly known for tungsten and/or tin deposits. Deposits that can be condently placed within the group formed during much of the Phanerozoic, but inclusion of some Proterozoic and even Archean deposits has also been proposed (e.g., Robert 2001, this volume).

478 Fig. 1 Location of major, recognized intrusion-related gold systems and related plutonic provinces. Diagram after Thompson et al. (1999) and Lang et al. (2000)

The dening criteria, as presently recognized, show that intrusion-related gold systems and their associated plutonic provinces are globally widespread (Fig. 1), but adequate descriptions of the contained deposits are only now beginning to emerge. The Tintina gold belt of eastern Alaska and central Yukon in the northern part of the North American Cordillera (Fig. 1) is thus far the most extensively studied province of intrusion-related gold systems. This belt is 1,000 km in length and contains gold deposits of Early Cretaceous to Eocene age (Newberry et al. 1995; McCoy et al. 1997; Goldfarb et al. 2000; Lang et al. 2000) that, as a group, span much of the globally recognized variation among these systems. As such, the Tintina gold belt is currently the primary standard against which deposits in other provinces can be compared, and is, therefore, emphasized in this introduction. This paper briey considers the status of our knowledge of intrusion-related gold systems, and is intended only as an introduction to the major characteristics of these deposits rather than as a comprehensive description. The discussion emphasizes the nature of the associated igneous rocks and their tectono-magmatic setting, the styles of deposits and their spatial distribution, the characteristics and evolution of hydrothermal uids, and structural controls. It concurrently highlights some of the important gaps in our understanding of these systems that will be fruitful areas of investigation in ongoing and future research programs. The paper concludes with comments on deposit classication and the relationship of intrusion-related gold systems to other types of magmatichydrothermal systems.

Thompson et al. 1999; Hart et al. 2000; Lang et al. 2000; Newberry 2000) and new results presented in this volume. It is biased toward systems in the Tintina gold belt (Fig. 1), but also incorporates important variations found in other provinces. The essential feature of the model is the vertical and lateral variations in ore environment as reected by deposit styles, metal assemblages, and hydrothermal uid compositions. The research presented in this volume addresses a wide range of topics relevant to understanding the genesis of intrusion-related gold systems. Mustard details the geology of the Timbarra gold deposit of eastern Australia, and the relationship between granite facies, alteration, and gold distribution. Rombach and Newberry (Shotgun, Alaska), Maloof et al. (Dublin Gulch, Yukon), and Zacharias et al. (Petrackova hora, Czech Republic) also provide detailed geological descriptions of individual intrusion-related gold deposits and discuss the types of uids present and their potential sources. Baker and Lang recognize a wide range of uid types and processes from studies of several intrusion-related gold systems in Yukon. They document the critical role of carbon dioxide during hydrothermal processes in intrusion-related gold systems, a topic that is expanded upon by Lowenstern, who addresses its role and behavior in magmatic processes. Coulsen et al. (Emerald Lake, Yukon) present additional data on the behavior of volatiles during magmatic fractionation processes. Robert describes several deposits that may extend the formation of intrusion-related gold systems into the Archean. Collectively, and in combination with earlier literature, these papers signicantly improve our ability to dene the general features of intrusion-related gold systems. Tectono-magmatic setting Thompson et al. (1999) observed that the tectonic environment of many plutonic belts that host

Status of current understanding

The geological and exploration model for intrusionrelated gold systems presented in Figs. 2 and 3 has been synthesized from previous work (McCoy et al. 1997;

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Fig. 2 Schematic geological and exploration model for intrusionrelated gold systems emphasizing the vertical and lateral variation in deposit styles, uid characteristics, and metal signatures (Modied from Lang et al. 2000)

intrusion-related gold systems is poorly understood, and that back-arc, foreland fold-thrust, collisional, postcollisional, and magmatic arc environments have been variously proposed (e.g., Thompson et al. 1999; Goldfarb et al. 2000). Goldfarb et al. (2000) examined the tectonic setting of several plutonic provinces that host intrusion-related gold systems and concluded that accretionary to collisional, subduction-related orogens may be the most favorable environment. Two prominent examples of this type of setting that are well-endowed with major, potentially intrusion-related gold deposits are Mesozoic rocks in the North China Platform that have been subjected to multiple episodes of tectonic reactivation (Miller et al. 1998), and the Paleozoic Variscan orogen that extends from Iberia across much

of central Asia and into northern China (e.g., Fernandez-Suarez 1998; references in Goldfarb et al. 2000). The nature of crustal heating and possible episodes of delamination in collisional/accretionary settings are also suggested by Goldfarb et al. (2000) to at least partially account for the diused character of magmatism and the diculty in relating it to specic loci of subduction in many provinces that host intrusion-related gold systems. Reconstruction of the Tintina gold belt by Flanigan et al. (2000), however, has shown that, even within a single province, intrusion-related gold systems can form within a tectonic environment that varies in style across both time and space. In this example, the Tombstone plutonic suite forms the northeasternmost mid-Cretaceous plutonic belt in the Tintina gold belt (Mortensen et al. 2000). It comprises coeval alkalic, metaluminous calc-alkalic, and peraluminous intrusions emplaced into old continental crust, possibly during an episode of local extension that followed movement on major thrust faults (e.g., Murphy 1997; Marsh et al. 1999), and is

480 Fig. 3 Schematic geological and exploration model for intrusion-related gold deposits illustrating the variation in styles from intrusion hosted to proximal and distal deposits (Modied from Hart et al. 2000; Lang et al. 2000)

reminiscent of a back-arc or foreland environment. In contrast, Late Cretaceous intrusions in southwestern Alaska have a demonstrably more direct relationship to subduction processes (e.g., Buntzen and Miller 1997; McCoy et al 1997; Flanigan et al. 2000; Goldfarb et al. 2000; Newberry 2000). Despite uncertainties between and within provinces, most or all intrusion-related gold systems formed above or within old, typically cratonic, continental crust (Thompson et al. 1999) in a setting well removed, or most distal, from convergent margins active at the time of magmatism. Although debate will no doubt continue, the apparent formation of similar styles of intrusion-related gold systems across a range of tectonic settings, both between and within individual provinces, suggests that no single tectonic regime is uniquely required. The igneous centers associated with intrusion-related gold systems typically form multiphase complexes that were rapidly emplaced and cooled quickly (e.g., Coulsen et al. 2001, this volume). The complexes can comprise batholiths, large or small plutons, irregular plugs, dome complexes, or swarms of dikes and sills (Thompson et al. 1999; Lang et al. 2000; Newberry 2000). Intrusions are surrounded by contact metamorphic aureoles that range widely in size; in Yukon and Alaska these can reach several kilometers in width and commonly enclose several discrete intrusive bodies within a district (Poulsen et al. 1997), whereas in northern Iberia contact eects are very limited. Volcanic rocks coeval with the intrusions are preserved in systems that have not been deeply eroded, such as Kori Kollo, Bolivia, and Kidston, Australia (Thompson et al. 1999; Goldfarb et al. 2000; Lang et al. 2000). The composition of igneous rocks in these magmatic centers varies greatly (e.g., McCoy et al.

1997; Lang et al. 2000; Newberry 2000), with the most common rock types being metaluminous, subalkalic, intermediate to felsic intrusions. Newberry (2000) has shown that the compositions of such intrusions in the Tintina gold belt exhibit great spatial and temporal variation and encompass within-plate, collisional, and volcanic arc compositions on trace element discrimination diagrams, which might again reect possible intraprovince dierences in tectonic environment and the mechanisms of magma generation. Most provinces also contain less abundant silica-oversaturated to silica-undersaturated alkalic intrusions. In the Tombstone plutonic suite, alkalic plutons and volumetrically minor lamprophyre dikes are common along the length of the belt and document the widespread presence of mac alkaline magmas. Peraluminous intrusions are also typically present. In Yukon these range from large, discrete plutons (Gordey and Anderson 1993) to small subzones that formed by fractionation processes within larger metaluminous intrusions (Duncan 1999); in contrast, peraluminous plutons are the dominant igneous rock type in the Iberian Massif, but consistently pre-date the metaluminous intrusions associated with intrusionrelated gold systems by 10 to 20 m.y. (Fernandez-Suarez 1998). In general, however, it is most typical to nd spatial and temporal overlap among the alkalic, metaluminous, and peraluminous igneous subtypes within a given province. The relative oxidation state of the intrusions in these systems has been discussed by several authors (e.g., Thompson et al. 1999; Fig. 4). Although this parameter varies signicantly between systems, most intrusions can be classied as reduced, subalkalic, metaluminous, Itype intrusions, based both on geochemical composition

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and on the presence of minor to signicant ilmenite without, or accompanied by only trace to (rarely) minor, magnetite (Thompson et al. 1999). A few intrusions contain signicant magnetite and ilmenite and reect relatively more oxidized conditions; the occurrence of such intrusions at Timbarra may reect emplacement of magmas into a pre-existing batholith rather than into reduced metasedimentary rocks (Mustard 2001, this volume). Alkalic intrusions in intrusion-related gold provinces contain oxidized magnetitetitanite assemblages, whereas peraluminous intrusions are invariably ilmenite-rich and reduced. The intermediate oxidation state of most intrusions is compatible with the longrecognized empirical correspondence between magmatichydrothermal deposits of various principal metal signatures and intrusions of distinct composition, as outlined by Thompson et al. (1999; Fig. 4). Empirical geochemical models, such as the one proposed by Leveille et al. (1988) and Newberry et al. (1995), which uses indices related to alkalinity and oxidation state, have sought to exploit these relationships in order to distinguish intrusions whose compositions may be favorable to formation of gold deposits. The role of magmatic processes in formation of intrusion-related gold systems is the least understood, but perhaps the most critical, factor for our ultimate understanding of these deposits. Three important processes that need to be addressed include: (1) the importance of magma source(s); (2) magmatic dierentiation processes; and (3) controls on volatile composition and exsolution (Fig. 5). Available NdSrOPb isotopic data for the intrusions show a predominance of old continental crust (e.g., Nd values are 8 to 15 in the Tintina gold belt;

Lang et al. 2000), although a small, but potentially critical, component of asthenospheric or lithospheric mantle cannot be excluded (Farmer et al. 2000; Lang et al. 2000). Cogenetic intrusions that comprise the goldmineralized Emerald Lake pluton in Yukon range from metaluminous alkalic augite syenite to peraluminous biotite granite (Duncan et al. 1997; Coulson et al. 2001, this volume). Duncan (1999) suggested that LILE enrichment, HFSE depletion, and neodymium and strontium isotopic signatures ()14 and 0.715, respectively) in this pluton were the result of interaction between material derived from subcontinental lithosphere and evolved continental crust. The possible importance of mantle components is most obvious where the more typical felsic to intermediate, subalkalic intrusions were cospatial and cotemporal with mac alkaline magmas. Keith et al. (1998) have proposed that intrusion of mac alkaline magmas into intermediate calc-alkalic melts may be a key process in the formation of porphyry copper and molybdenum deposits. The eect of the mac alkaline melts may be to either provide volatiles and/or metals to the calc-alkalic melts, or to act as a catalyst for volatile streaming and metal transport within those melts (Keith et al. 1998). Either eect could be important to metallogenesis in intrusion-related gold systems, but constraints are lacking.

Fig. 4 A schematic representation of the relationship between degree of fractionation and oxidation state for magmas associated with dierent dominant metal assemblages (after Thompson et al. 1999)

Fig. 5 Schematic model illustrating the critical processes which generated magmas associated with intrusion-related gold systems. 1 Generation of primitive melts (dark shades) during partial melting of subcontinental lithosphere and/or asthenosphere. Carbon dioxide may have played an important role in production of alkali-rich magmas (Kaszuba and Wendlandt 2000). 2 Magma rises through crust and undergoes substantial assimilation and fractional crystallization inferred from Nd and Sr isotopes and geochemistry (e.g., Duncan 1999; Lang et al. 2000). 3 Magma emplacement, further fractionation, and exsolution of a carbon dioxide rich volatile phase resulting in intrusion-related gold mineralization (e.g., McCoy et al. 1997; Baker and Lang 2001, this volume; Mustard 2001, this volume)

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Fractionation has been implicated as an important process in several intrusion-related gold deposits, including Fort Knox (McCoy et al. 1997) and Timbarra (Mustard 2001, this volume). In both cases, gold mineralization is spatially and temporally associated with the most fractionated phases of the local magmatic complexes. The importance of late-stage fractionates, and the concurrent transition from magmatic to hydrothermal processes, is further supported by the common presence in many Yukon systems (Lang et al. 2000; Baker and Lang 2001, this volume) and at Timbarra (Mustard 2001, this volume) of late-stage, mineralized aplites and pegmatites that grade laterally and with time to gold-bearing quartz veins. These observations suggest that the ore-forming uids were concentrated in late phases of crystallizing intrusions. Mineral chemistry data on biotite and apatite in the Emerald Lake pluton in Yukon (Coulson et al. 2001, this volume) show that substantial changes in volatile activities accompany even subtle igneous fractionation in these systems, although the importance to ore formation remains unclear. Carbon dioxide is abundant in uid inclusions in hydrothermal veins in intrusion-related gold systems. McCoy et al. (1997), Thompson et al. (1999), and Baker and Lang (2001, this volume) have argued for a magmatic source for these uids. Elevated carbon dioxide in magmas has a major eect on both magma generation and crystallization (Lowenstern 2001, this volume). For the former case, recent experimental studies by Kaszuba and Wendlandt (2000) suggest that carbon dioxide is critical for generating alkaline magma in the continental crust. Touret (1992) also argued that carbon dioxide plays an important role in both the generation of mantle magmas and their migration into, and accumulation within, overlying crust. The eect of carbon dioxide during crystallization processes in intermediate melts hinges mainly upon its much lower solubility compared to water, which leads to exsolution of carbonic uids prior to loss of hydrous uids, and at higher pressures (Fogel and Rutherford 1990; Blank et al. 1993). This may explain the wider range of emplacement depths encountered in intrusion-related gold systems compared to that of relatively carbon dioxide poor porphyry copper deposits, as well as similarities of intrusion-related gold deposits to some molybdenum-dominated, carbon dioxide rich magmatichydrothermal systems (e.g., Lowenstern 1994). Consequently, the presence of abundant carbon dioxide may be a key inuence on all stages of evolution of intrusion-related gold systems, from initial magma generation to late-stage fractionation and volatile exsolution (Fig. 5). Alteration, mineralization, and metal assemblages Mineral deposits in intrusion-related gold systems span a broad range in style and position relative to intrusive centers. McCoy et al. (1997), Thompson et al. (1999), Hart et al. (2000), Lang et al. (2000), and Newberry

(2000) have described the more common patterns of zoning (Figs. 2 and 3). Hart et al. (2000) separated deposits into three categories based on their spatial relationship to intrusions. Intrusion-hosted deposits comprise auriferous, mostly sheeted and lesser stockwork vein deposits that are characterized by a metal assemblage of AuBiTeAsMoW. Gold can also be found in the inll of miarolitic cavities within the plutons, and in pegmatites and/or aplites that cut the intrusions. Proximal deposits are located in host rocks adjacent to the intrusions, or slightly removed from them, but within the metamorphic aureole. Common deposit types are WCuAu and CuBiAuW skarns, high to low sulde replacements of calcareous rocks, tin-bearing and copper-rich breccias and diatremes, and veins and disseminated deposits in metasedimentary host rocks. Distal deposits are located beyond the outer limit of hornfels. They include auriferous, mesothermal to epithermal quartzsulde veins along steep faults (e.g., Donlin Creek, Alaska; Ebert et al. 2000; similar deposits in China described by Miller et al. 1998), hydrothermal breccias and base metal veins enriched in AgAu, and auriferous disseminations in variably calcareous and carbonaceous metasedimentary host rocks which have been favorably compared to Carlin-style deposits (Poulsen 1996). Distal deposits have a typical metal signature of AuAsSbHg. Vertical variations in deposit style are less well characterized, but include differences in the relative importance of ductile and brittle structures, the degree of lateral dispersion or concentration of hydrothermal uids, metal signatures, and the composition of hydrothermal uids (e.g., Lang et al. 2000; Newberry 2000). Placer deposits of gold, and more rarely tungsten or tin, are commonly derived from intrusion-related gold systems and have been an important historical lure to lode gold potential in many provinces (Goldfarb et al. 2000). The intrusion-hosted and proximal settings contain the deposits most characteristic of intrusion-related gold systems. These deposits contain fracture-controlled and rarer pervasive alteration that can include feldspathic, sericitic, silicic, greisen, calc-silicate, and/or advanced argillic assemblages. Feldspathic alteration, dominated by albite and/or K-feldspar, is nearly ubiquitous and is invariably early. It is commonly associated with tungstenmolybdenum mineralization and, in many cases, its relationship to gold is comparatively weak or poorly dened. Gold, and the metals with which it correlates more closely, are most commonly associated with a later stage of sericitic (e.g., Maloof et al. 2001, this volume; Mustard 2001, this volume) or, in some cases, greisen assemblages (e.g., Fernandez-Catuxo 1998; Yao et al. 1999) that typically include chlorite, carbonate, and albite. Silicic alteration is only locally recognized. Calcsilicate alteration is restricted to metasomatic skarns or contact metamorphism of calcareous units near intrusive contacts. Advanced argillic alteration has been recognized only in subvolcanic deposits of the Bolivian polymetallic belt, such as Kori Kollo and Tasna (Sillitoe et al.

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1998). Alteration within intrusions is most commonly conned to narrow alteration envelopes around individual veins, and a low or very conned uid ux is implied. In rarer and more localized cases, envelopes can coalesce into more extensive zones of pervasive alteration, but with the notable exception of the subvolcanic system at Kori Kollo, Bolivia, this is not observed at the scale or intensity typical of porphyry deposits dominated by base metals. The distribution of alteration in the proximal and distal settings is controlled by, and in most cases tightly surrounds, pre- and syn-intrusion structures. An important feature of some intrusion-hosted deposits is that gold precipitated from near solidus to low temperature hydrothermal conditions. Individual systems, such as Emerald Lake in Yukon, or the Penedono district, Portugal, can contain gold in the inll of miarolitic cavities, in late-magmatic pegmatites and aplites, and in mineralogically diverse hydrothermal veins that formed from >500 to <250 C (Duncan 1999; Baker and Lang 2001, this volume; Zacharias et al. 2001, this volume). The ow of hydrothermal uids in these several manifestations of mineralization was generally passive, and uid evolution appears to have been mainly unidirectional with little or no evidence for the dynamic, multiple pulses of uid that typify porphyry systems. Intrusion-hosted ores typically contain only 1 to 3 vol% ore minerals (e.g., Fort Knox; Bakke 1995). A few deposits or sub-zones within deposits, such as Salave, Spain (Fernandez-Catuxo 1998), Kori Kollo, Bolivia (Columba and Cunningham 1993), and Niuxinshan, China (Yao et al. 1999), can contain >20 vol% ore minerals. The sulde mineral concentration in proximal and distal deposits is commonly higher, particularly in late or peripheral base metal veins (e.g., Keno Hill district, Yukon; Lynch et al. 1990) and replacement bodies in calcareous host rocks (e.g., Mike Lake and Scheelite Dome districts, Yukon; Lilly 1999; Mair et al. 2000). Ore mineralogy comprises a complex suite of tellurium- and bismuth-bearing minerals, native gold, gold alloys, sulfosalts, and suldes. The ore minerals in most deposits are consistent with strongly to moderately reduced conditions (McCoy et al. 1997). In many intrusion-hosted deposits, gold correlates strongly with bismuth, to a lesser but signicant extent with tellurium, and more variably with As, Mo, Ag, and Pb. Tungsten is commonly cospatial with gold but the two metals do not correlate well. Maloof et al. (2001, this volume) account for this divergence in the Dublin Gulch deposit, Yukon, through early precipitation of scheelite in feldspathic quartz veins, followed by a later episode of AuBiAsTe precipitation associated with sericite chloritecarbonate alteration that inlled fractures and replaced the earlier veins. Sources and evolution of uids Fluid inclusion and stable isotope studies of the composition and evolution of hydrothermal uids in intru-

sion-related gold systems are few. Available data from individual deposits (see McCoy et al. 1997; Baker and Lang 1999, 2001, this volume; Lang et al. 2000; and their contained references) reveal several recurrent themes: (1) the CO2-rich uids are nearly ubiquitous, except in some very shallow systems such as those in the Bolivian polymetallic belt; (2) the NaCl oversaturated to undersaturated, aqueous chloride brines are most common in systems formed at relatively shallow depths, at pressures below 1.5 kbar; (3) there is a common pattern of early carbonic uids evolving to later aqueous brines; (4) other components, such as CH4, N2, and H2S, have been identied by Raman spectroscopy, but are generally most abundant in intrusion-hosted deposits formed at higher pressures, and in proximal or distal deposits; (5) temperatures and pressures attending precipitation of gold and related metals span broad ranges of <200 to >600 C and <0.5 to >3.0 kbar, respectively; and (6) a correspondence between uid composition, host rock composition, and pressure is evident. These characteristics and patterns are consistently developed in most provinces. Fluids in intrusion-hosted settings are dominated by a magmatic component, but important roles for metamorphic and meteoric uids have also been proposed. Metamorphogenic uids are most plausible and have been most widely called upon (e.g., Moravek 1995; Spiridinov 1996) in provinces where magmatichydrothermal activity overlapped regional metamorphism in time. In comparison, deposits in the Tintina gold belt post-date regional metamorphism and deformation by as much as 15 m.y. (Goldfarb et al. 2000) and appear to reect formation from exclusively magmatic uids (McCoy et al. 1997; Baker and Lang 2001, this volume). Similarly, the presence of nearly pure CO2-rich uids in melt inclusions from Timbarra (Mustard, personal communication, 2001) document the presence of appropriate carbonic uids in the melt phase of associated plutons. The extensive contact metamorphic aureoles that surround most intrusions in the Tintina gold belt are certainly artifacts of large-scale uid ow, but the potential contribution to ore formation by uids generated in this environment remains to be tested. Meteoric uids have generally been considered minor to absent during gold mineralization in these systems (McCoy et al. 1997; Baker and Lang 1999; Goldfarb et al. 2000). Zacharias et al. (2001, this volume) report post-ore inltration of meteoric waters at the Petrachova hora deposit in the Czech Republic, and Lynch et al. (1990) have suggested that meteoric waters were important in distal AgPbZnAu vein deposits in the Keno Hill district, Yukon. A large number of uid processes have been recognized in intrusion-related gold systems. Immiscible separation of uids of initially moderate salinity into a high salinity brine and a low salinity, aqueous or carbonic vapor, has been encountered in some intrusion-related gold systems (e.g., Kidston, Baker and Andrew 1991; Mike Lake, Baker and Lang 2001, this volume; Shotgun,

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Rombach and Newberry 2001). These deposits appear to have formed at pressures of less than 1.5 kbar. Immiscible, low salinity carbonic uids are common in deeper deposits (McCoy et al. 1997; Baker and Lang 2001, this volume), and in several systems these uids were followed by inux of an aqueous brine (typically <20 wt% NaCl equiv.). This plausibly reects either the dierences in solubility of carbonic and aqueous uids in intermediate melts, as described above, retrograde boiling, or uid mixing (Baker and Lang 2001, this volume). The importance of mixing between uids of distinct provenance remains to be addressed in detail, although existing data do not support it as a key process for ore formation. More importantly, data required to condently distinguish between magmatic and metamorphogenic uids are lacking. Structural controls The formation of intrusion-related gold systems, like most ore deposits, involves a component of structural control. In these systems, structures have inuenced deposit location and geometry at all scales, but few deposits have been suciently mapped to understand the details. Ongoing work in the Tintina gold belt is addressing structural controls on the emplacement of intrusions and the localization of alteration and ores (Mair et al. 2000; Miller et al. 2000; O'Dea et al. 2000; Stephens et al. 2000). Data thus far show that structures related to both regional and local stress regimes were important for uid ow and localization of ore (Mair et al. 2000; O'Dea et al. 2000; Stephens et al. 2000). Detailed mapping at Clear Creek, Yukon (Stephens et al. 2000), has documented a well-dened structural control to magmatichydrothermal evolution. Early, north northwest trending, sinistral master faults pre-dated emplacement of intrusions, and were reactivated during and after magmatism. These structures at least partially guided emplacement of magmas, and were also related to formation of secondary, eastwest trending extensional structures. The extensional structures were particularly important for formation of veins and late-stage dikes. Similar easterly-oriented extensional structures controlled the formation of sheeted vein arrays in deposits distributed along several hundred kilometers of strike length in the Tombstone plutonic suite in Yukon, and document operation of similar structural processes at the regional scale (Poulsen et al. 1997; Mair et al. 2000; O'Dea et al. 2000). Ebert et al. (2000) and Miller et al. (2000) have also described a control by regional scale, mainly strike-slip faults and related structures in ore systems at Donlin Creek and elsewhere in southwestern Alaska. Deposits of similar alteration assemblages and metal signature can form across a wide range in PT conditions that span brittle and ductile regimes. The Pogo deposit is essentially a series of stacked, massive quartz veins that replaced high-grade metamorphic host rocks

along sets of earlier, small, at-lying, ductile shears at pressures of about 2.5 kbar (Smith et al. 1999). Some stages of auriferous quartz veins in the Petrakova hora deposit, which formed at a similar pressure, are also ductility deformed (Zacharias et al. 2001, this volume). Most deposits, however, manifest predominantly brittle strain, even under PT conditions normally ascribed to the ductile regime. This may again reect the CO2-rich nature of uids in these systems, which can extend brittle behavior to higher PT conditions than is normal (Wawrzyniec et al. 1999).

Comments on classication
It is relevant to consider whether the characteristics of intrusion-related gold systems, as described above, warrant a distinct classication among magmatichydrothermal deposits. Early references to these systems as porphyry gold deposits (Hollister 1992; Bakke 1995) highlight the problem. It is common for geologists to use the term ``porphyry'' in reference to a deposit of almost any principal commodity so long as it is a large, lowgrade, bulk tonnage deposit related to a porphyritic intrusion. Clearly, many intrusion-hosted deposits, such as Fort Knox (Bakke 1995) and Salave (Fernandez-Catuxo 1998), conform to this simple denition. The gold-rich porphyry deposit designation, however, has strong connotations for physical and geochemical characteristics that do not readily correlate with the dominance of carbonic uids, the passive transit of apparently small volumes of hydrothermal uid, the reduced nature of associated intrusions and uids, and the metal signature enriched in BiTeW and generally decient in base metals that typies intrusion-related gold systems (cf. Sillitoe 1991, 1993). Even such limited criteria distinguish intrusion-related gold systems from their closest porphyry analogs, the gold-rich, copper-poor deposits of the Maricunga belt, Chile (Vila and Sillitoe 1991). Porphyry and intrusion-related gold systems are, however, bound by similarities in generative processes such as formation from magmatic uids that commonly underwent immiscible phase separation, and by similarity in the complexity of deposit types and their zoning patterns (Lang et al. 2000). Lang et al. (2000) and Rombach (2000) have also pointed out that the characteristics of intrusion-related gold systems that formed at shallow depths begin to overlap those of base metal rich porphyry deposits. In light of the unique set of characteristics manifested by intrusion-related gold systems, the recent inclusion by Rowins (2000) of some of these (including Fort Knox and Shotgun) into a deposit subtype that he calls ``reduced porphyry CuAu deposits,'' and which he suggests are simply variations on the traditional base metal rich porphyry theme, may be misleading and require reconsideration. Intrusion-related gold systems may also be compared to the alkalic CuAuAgFe deposits which are related

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to shoshonitic volcanic belts and associated intrusions in British Columbia, Canada. The alkalic deposits share characteristics of igneous rock compositions, metal assemblages, and uid compositions and processes with both Fe oxideCuAu (Holbeck et al. 2000; Ray and Webster 2000) and subalkalic porphyry systems (Lang et al. 1994). The alkalic deposits also manifest more passive uid ux than is typical of calc-alkalic porphyry deposits, include a component of carbonic uids, and have compositional analogs in the intrusion-related gold systems. The alkalic systems are clearly distinguished by their primitive, intra-oceanic arc setting, the more mac compositions of intrusions, the absence of subalkalic and peraluminous intrusions, and the oxidized nature of uids and magmas (Lang et al. 1995). The intrusion-related gold systems also have similarities to reduced tin- and tungsten-rich magmatichydrothermal systems (Newberry 1998). Overlaps include the reduced composition of intrusions and uids, tectonic setting, the presence of carbonic uids, and depths of formation. The intrusion-related gold systems again have lower uxes of uid, generally less extensive alteration, intrusions are never as consistently peraluminous as those in tintungsten systems, and they typically have a greater lateral extent and diversity of deposit styles. Metal assemblages show both similarities and dierences. Although there is a partial overlap, tintungsten systems and intrusion-related gold systems should be considered distinct. The ``orogenic'' lode gold deposits most closely mirror the characteristics of intrusion-related gold systems, particularly in terms of uid composition, metal assemblage, and alteration. Goldfarb et al. (2000) have also suggested that both deposit types should be found in comparable tectonic settings. The diculty in distinguishing between these two deposit types has been discussed by Sillitoe and Thompson (1998). A point of departure may be the common zoning, both in time and space, in the intrusion-related gold systems from sheeted or stockwork vein systems within intrusions to veins enriched in base metals outside the intrusions, a pattern typical of most intrusion-related gold systems, but not commonly found in orogenic gold deposits (Goldfarb et al. 2000). In addition, orogenic gold deposits are typied by strong sericiteankeritic carbonate alteration, and alkali feldspar alteration is generally modestly developed to absent. Development of methods that discriminate between intrusion-related and orogenic gold deposits is particularly important to exploration in Archean and Proterozoic terranes, and may bear directly upon genetic interpretation of disseminated to fracturerelated gold deposits that have recently been described within Archean intrusions (Leonardos et al. 1991; Buchholz et al. 1998; Qiu and McNaughton 1999; Robert 2001, this volume). The characteristics of intrusion-related gold systems clearly overlap those of other, more widely accepted classes of deposit with respect to uid compositions and processes, PT conditions of formation, vertical and

lateral zoning of deposit styles, metal assemblages, tectonic setting, structural controls, and composition of associated intrusions. Their unique combination of features, however, appears to warrant a separate classication, even though the exact criteria that should be employed to dene them remain to be fully determined. Our current level of understanding only allows us to conceptually view intrusion-related gold systems to lie somewhere along a broader spectrum of magmatichydrothermal and related orogenic deposit types.

Recommended topics of investigation

The foregoing overview of physical characteristics and genetic processes that have operated in intrusion-related gold systems highlights many topics that require investigation before geological and exploration models can be appreciably rened. Major topics include the following: 1. Basic deposit descriptions. A pressing need is for comprehensive descriptions of intrusion-related gold systems based on regional and deposit scale geological mapping. The studies should emphasize the physical and mineralogical characteristics of the associated intrusions, the spatial and temporal distributions and parageneses of alteration assemblages, the role of structures in localizing intrusions and mineralization, and the physical and temporal relationships between diverse ore types. Field observations should be accompanied by precise isotopic dating of intrusions and alteration. These studies will form the groundwork for interpretation of analytical data. 2. Tectono-magmatic setting. A better appreciation of the timing and spatial position of intrusion-related gold systems to convergent margin processes will serve as a basis for understanding the generative mechanisms of intrusions, and their initial composition and subsequent evolution. Isotopic and geochemical studies of the intrusions will aid evaluation of the relative importance of crustal and asthenospheric and lithospheric mantle components. Regional mapping and syntheses will shed light on the importance of local and regional structures to magma emplacement and subsequent ore localization. Regional isotopic dating will constrain the relative timing of magmatic, hydrothermal, metamorphic, and deformational events, and provide a framework for evaluating possible sources of hydrothermal uids. 3. Igneous fractionation. The dierentiation paths of associated magmas inuence the behavior of magmatic volatiles, hydrothermal uid egress, and metal availability and transport. Detailed geochemical databases should be assembled across a range of igneous environments and compositions. Unfortunately, there are few experimental constraints on the variables that control the behavior of gold in melts,

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including the conditions under which it will be selectively sequestered into crystallizing mineral phases versus the conditions of its release (e.g., Cygan and Candela 1995). The importance of mac alkaline magmas to the volatile and metal budgets of the metaluminous, subalkalic intrusions associated with most intrusion-related gold systems must also be evaluated. Adequate geochemical data may allow intrusions favorable to gold mineralization to be condently distinguished from those that lack mineralizing capacity. 4. Hydrothermal uid evolution. Several types of uids have been identied in intrusion-related gold systems. They exhibit signicant vertical and lateral variations in their PTX properties, yet uids of diverse composition appear capable of forming economic gold deposits. Although the uids responsible for intrusion-hosted ores appear to be predominantly magmatic in origin, with little or no inuence from metamorphogenic or meteoric uids, the relative importance of these three uid types becomes less clear with increasing distance from the intrusions. Resolution of this uncertainty will require studies that couple uid inclusion microthermometry with microbeam analysis of individual uid inclusions, and with isotopic and mineralogical data. Such studies should address several key topics: (1) the relative importance of carbonic uids and aqueous brines to the transport of gold; and (2) the types of complexes that transport gold in hydrothermal uids, which could include telluro, hydroxyl, thio, sulde, carbonyl, and chloride species (e.g., Gammons and Williams-Jones 1997; Loucks and Mavrogenes 1999), knowledge of which is limited by a near absence of experimental data for gold complexing under (near) magmatic conditions; even empirical constraints on gold transport will help to address the wide variation in the suites of accessory metals that accompany gold, and aid interpretation of data collected during exploration geochemistry surveys; (3) variations in the PTX properties of uids in the intrusion-hosted, proximal and distal environments, from which better interpretation of the controls on alteration and metal assemblages and their zoning can be made; and (4) the role of host rocks, either as a source of hydrothermal uid components or as an inuence upon their composition. In light of the recognized vertical and lateral variations in deposit styles and metal assemblages in these systems, constraints on these questions will help determine if and how focused uid inclusion studies might function as a practical aid to reasoned anticipation of ore environment during exploration. 5. Structural control. The paucity of detailed mapping of individual systems and regional structural syntheses limits our interpretation of structural controls. The origin of sheeted vein arrays remains to be established, and structural controls on deposits located in the host rocks to intrusions have been especially under-studied (Hart et al. 2000). The inuence of

uid composition on ductile versus brittle behavior, and its consequent inuence on the concentration or dispersion of mineralizing uids, has also not been addressed. Such studies will be particularly useful in evaluating the role of uids generated in the large metamorphic aureoles that surround many plutons in this setting.

Concluding comment
Geological investigation of intrusion-related gold systems is in its infancy. Most relevant studies of these systems have been published only within the last 5 years but data are expanding at an extremely rapid pace, reminiscent of the situation with base metal rich porphyry deposits in the 1950s and 1960s. It is clear that the characteristics of intrusion-related gold systems overlap those of many other deposit types, including base- and precious metal-bearing porphyry deposits, alkalic Cu FeAu deposits, and tungsten-, tin- and molybdenumrich systems, but they manifest a unique combination of geological, genetic, and exploration characteristics worthy of separate classication. The intrusion-related gold systems are geologically intriguing even in isolation but, perhaps more importantly, they oer unique opportunities to further our knowledge of the factors that aect availability, transport, and precipitation of gold and other metals across a broad spectrum of magmatichydrothermal deposit types and conditions. As geological and geochemical databases build in coming years, genetic and exploration models will improve signicantly with a commensurate increase in the eciency and rate of success of exploration programs.
Acknowledgements JRL and TB would like to thank Richard Goldfarb for the invitation to compile and edit this special issue on intrusion-related gold deposits. The manuscript is the result of research collaboration and discussion with numerous geologists over the past 5 years. In particular, we acknowledge Craig Hart, Dan McCoy, Jim Mortensen, Rainer Newberry, Dick Sillitoe, and John Thompson for their contributions. We also acknowledge the nancial support of mining companies (Kennecott Canada Inc, Cominco Ltd., Teck Corporation, Westmin Resources Ltd., Almaden Resources Corp., Barrick Gold Corporation, Canamera Geological Ltd., Cyprus/Amax Minerals Corp., Echo Bay Mines Limited, First Point Minerals, Homestake Canada Inc., Inco Ltd., Newmont Gold Corp., Phelps Dodge Mining Co., Placer Dome Canada Ltd., Princeton Mining Corp., Rio Algom Exploration Inc., South Pacic Resources, TVI Pacic Inc., WMC International Ltd., and Yukon Gold Corp.) and NSERC (Grant No. IOR0179765) to the MDRU ``Magmatichydrothermal'' project, through which research on the Tintina gold belt was carried out.

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