11/22/2012

1
Introduction to advanced topics
in mechanics of solids
F2012
I. Inelastic material behavior and failure
criteria

II. Stress concentration

III. Materials fatigue failure

Iv. Fracture mechanics and materials
fatigue fracture failure
I. Inelastic Behavior of Solids
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Introduction
Materials elastic deformation is recoverable upon removal of external load

Opposite is inelastic behavior
Viscoelastic, Visco-plastic and plastic

To predict failure with measured quantities like yield strength needs a
criterion

Ductile materials fail by shear stress on planes of maximum shear stress

Brittle materials by direct tensile loading without much yielding

Other factors
- Temperature
- Rate of loading
- Loading/ Unloading cycles

-20
-2
16
34
52
70
S
t
r
e
s
s

(
k
s
i
)
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Strain (in/in)
CE 334 Tension Test Results
1018 Steel - 10/26/90
Test results plotted for 1018 steel
Stress-strain curve for a structural steel
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Structural steels
All dim. in mm
?
Ideal Stress Strain Curves
(simplified for modeling)
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o

o
u
Y

Y

E = tan o

| = tanu / tan o

Bi-linear stress strain curve:
A simplified elastic-strain hardening model
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Models for Uniaxial stress-strain
All constitutive equations are models that are supposed to
represent the physical behavior as described by experimental
stress-strain response
Experimental Stress strain curves
Idealized stress strain curves
Elastic- perfectly plastic response
Models for Uniaxial stress-strain contd.
.

Linear elastic response Elastic strain hardening response
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Models for Uni-axial stress-strain contd.
.

Rigid models
Rigid- perfectly plastic
response
Rigid- strain hardening plastic
response
Stress-strain curves
Cast Iron
(brittle)
Copper
(ductile)
Difference between tension and
compression
Weaker under tension
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Youngs Modulus
Proportional limit
Yield Strength
Pl = proportional limit
Material parameters
Tangent Modulus Slope of a line tangent to the
stress-strain curve at the point
of interest. It is used to
describe the stiffness of a
material in the plastic range
Secant Modulus
Slope of a line from the origin of
the stress-strain diagram and
intersecting the curve at the
point of interest. It is also used
to describe the stiffness of a
material in the plastic range
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Poissons ratio
Poissons ratio can be determined indirectly from stress-strain curve by
knowing the change in the cross-sectional area of the specimen at a point
along the elastic region of the stress-strain curve.

Definition: the strain ratio for a sample loaded in
uniaxial stress

v =



v for most metals: 0.25 ~ 0.35
Rubber: ~ 0.5 (0.5 means incompressible!)
Cork: ~ zero. (good for making bottle
stoppers - an axially-loaded cork will not
swell laterally to resist plug insertion.)
theoretical limits: [-1, 0.5] (for engineering
materials negative v is rare)

Some interesting points about
Poissons ratio v
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- materials soften with increasing temperature
Temperature Effect
on Inelastic Behavior of Solids
Typical stress-strain curves for polycrystalline aluminum and semi-
crystalline polyethylene
Comparisons: Metallic and plastic materials
Both materials show necking but for polyethylene, the molecule chain
alignment results in stiffening before failure.
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Creep / Stress Relaxation Experiment
Dead weight creep machine for constant stress
Effects of Stress and Temperature on Strain Rate
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General Yielding
Failure of a material happens when the structure cannot support the
intended function
In some cases, load continues to increase beyond initial yielding load,
and part of the member still in elastic range
General yielding occurs as entire member reaches the inelastic range
and the load cannot increase anymore
2
,
6
Y Y
bh
P Ybh M Y = =
P Y
P Ybh P = =
2
1.5
4
P Y
bh
M Y M = =
Example:
A rectangular cross-sections
member loaded in axial tension
or pure bending
P
y
load limit at initial yielding, P
p
load limit at general
yielding for axially loaded bar
M
Y
load limit at initial yielding M
p
load limit at general
yielding for bending beam
Models for uniaxial stress-strain contd.
.

The members AD and CF are made of
elastic- perfectly plastic structural steel, and member BE
is made of 7075 T6 Aluminum alloy. The members
each have a cross-sectional area of 100 mm
2
.Determine
the load P= P
Y
that initiates yield of the structure and
the fully plastic load P
P
for which all the members yield.

Soln:
Contd..
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Models for uniaxial stress-strain contd.
Materials Mechanical Behavior
Failure modes and Failure criteria
How does the concept of
stress matter for them?
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Plane Stress
Plane Stress The state of stress
when we analyzed bars in tension and
compression, shafts in torsion, and
beams in bending.

The left figure shows a general 3
dimensional stress element

For material is in plane stress in the xy
plane
Only the x and y faces of the
element are subjected to stresses
All stresses act parallel to the x
and y axis
Review:
Stresses on Inclined Planes
knowing o
x
o
y
and t
xy
at a point

Consider a new stress element
rotated by u

Find o
x
, o
y
, and t
xy
,

at the same point in the material
as the original element, but is
rotated about the z axis
x and y axis rotated through an
angle u

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Stresses on Inclined Planes
Construct a FBD showing all the
forces acting on the faces
The sectioned face is AA.
Then the normal and shear forces
can be represented on the FBD.
Summing forces in the x and y
directions and remembering trig
identities, we get:
u t u
o o
t
u t u
o o o o
o
2 cos 2 sin
2
2 sin 2 cos
2 2
xy
y x
y x
xy
y x y x
x
+

=
+

+
+
=
' '
'
2D Stress Transformation
The transformation equations for plane stress.
transfer the stress component form one set of axes to
another
The state of stress remains unchanged

Based only on force equilibrium, independent of
material properties or geometry
There are Strain Transformation equations that can be
obtained based solely on the geometry of deformation.

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u t u
o o
t
u t u
o o o o
o
u t u
o o o o
o
2 cos 2 sin
2
2 sin 2 cos
2 2
2 sin 2 cos
2 2
'
xy
y x
y x
xy
y x y x
y
xy
y x y x
x
+

+
=
+

+
+
=
' '
'
Formulas for 2D stress transformation
Special cases for simple stress states:

Uniaxial stress- o
y
=
xy
= 0
Pure Shear - o
x
=

o
y
= 0
Biaxial stress -
xy
= 0

Transformation equations are simplified
accordingly.
2D Stress Transformation
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Principal Stress & Maximum Shear Stress
Structural members can fail due to excessive normal
stress or shear stress

Failure prediction needs to know
maximum normal and maximum shear stresses
plane (orientation) of the maximum and stresses
Why are they so important for failure analysis?
Principal stresses

Two values of the angle 2u
p
are obtained from the
equation tan(2u
p
)=

xy
o
x

o
y
.
One value 0
o
-180
o
, other 180
o
-360
o

Therefore u
p
has two values 0
o
-90
o
& 90
o
-180
o

Values are called Principal Angles.
For one angle o
x
is maximum, the other o
x
is minimum.
Therefore: Principal stresses occur on mutually
perpendicular planes.
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Principal Stresses
Consider the right triangle
Using the trig from the triangle
and substituting into the
transformation equation for
normal stress, we get




Formula for principal stresses.

2
2
2 , 1
2 2
xy
y x y x
t
o o o o
o +
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
=
The Third Principal Stress
In x-y plane, rotating stress element about z-
axis to obtain in-plane principal stresses
What about the stress element is 3D and has
3 principal stresses?
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Maximum In-Plane Shear Stress
Consider the maximum shear stress and the
plane in which it exists
Obtain by the transformation equations
The planes is at 45 degree to the principal
planes/directions
Maximum shear stress is equal to the
difference of the principal stresses
t
Average Normal Stress
In the planes of maximum shear stress normal
stress is not necessarily zero

Normal stresses acting on the planes of maximum
shear stress is equal to half of the sum of the
principal stresses, called the average normal stress

The sum of the normal stresses for an stress
elements in any orientation is constant, called
stress invariant

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Some Important Concepts
The principal stresses are the max and min normal
stress at a point

When the state of stress is represented by the principal
stresses, no shear stress acts on the element

The state of stress at the point can also be represented
in terms of max in-plane shear stress. In this case an
average normal stress also acts on the element

The element in max in-plane shear stress is oriented
45 from the element in principal stresses.
7 - 38
Transformation of Plane Strain
Plane strain - deformations of the material
take place in parallel planes and are the
same in each of those planes.
Example: Consider a long bar subjected
to uniformly distributed transverse loads.
State of plane stress exists in any
transverse section not located too close to
the ends of the bar.
Plane strain occurs in a plate subjected
along its edges to a uniformly distributed
load and restrained from expanding or
contracting laterally by smooth, rigid and
fixed supports
( ) 0
: strain of components
x
= = =
zy zx z xy y
c c c
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7 - 39
Transformation of Plane Strain
State of strain at the point Q results in
different strain components with respect
to the xy and xy reference frames.
( )
( ) ( )
( )
y x OB xy
xy y x OB
xy y x
c c c
c c c c
u u u c u c u c
+ =
+ + = =
+ + =
2
45
cos sin sin cos
2
1
2 2
u

u
c c
u

u
c c c c
c
u

u
c c c c
c
2 cos
2
2 sin
2 2
2 sin
2
2 cos
2 2
2 sin
2
2 cos
2 2
xy y x y x
xy y x y x
y
xy y x y x
x
+

+
=
+

+
+
=
' '
'
'
Applying the trigonometric relations
used for the transformation of stress,
7 - 40
Mohrs Circle for Plane Strain
The equations for the transformation of
plane strain are of the same form as the
equations for the transformation of plane
stress - Mohrs circle techniques apply.
Abscissa for the center C and radius R ,
2 2
2 2 2
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
+
=
xy y x y x
ave
R
c c c c
c
Principal axes of strain and principal strains,
R R
ave ave
y x
xy
p
= + =

=
c c c c
c c

u
min max
2 tan
( )
2 2
max
2
xy y x
R c c + = =
Maximum in-plane shearing strain,
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7 - 41
Three-Dimensional Analysis of Strain
Previously demonstrated that three principal
axes exist such that the perpendicular
element faces are free of shearing stresses.
By Hookes Law, it follows that the
shearing strains are zero as well and that
the principal planes of stress are also the
principal planes of strain.
Rotation about the principal axes may be
represented by Mohrs circles.
7 - 42
Three-Dimensional Analysis of Strain by Mohr Circle
For the case of plane strain where the x and y
axes are in the plane of strain,
- the z axis is also a principal axis
- the corresponding principal normal strain
is represented by the point Z = 0 or the
origin.
If the points A and B lie on opposite sides
of the origin, the maximum shearing strain
is the maximum in-plane shearing strain, D
and E.
If the points A and B lie on the same side of
the origin, the maximum shearing strain is
out of the plane of strain and is represented
by the points D and E.
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7 - 43
Three-Dimensional Analysis of Strain
Consider the case of plane stress,
0 = = =
z b y a x
o o o o o
Corresponding normal strains,
( ) ( )
b a b a c
b a
b
b a
a
E
E E
E E
c c
v
v
o o
v
c
o o v
c
o v o
c
+

= + =
+ =
=
1
If B is located between A and C on the
Mohr-circle diagram, the maximum
shearing strain is equal to the diameter CA.
Strain perpendicular to the plane of stress
is not zero.
7 - 44
Measurements of Strain: Strain Rosette
Strain gages indicate normal strain through
changes in resistance.
( )
y x OB xy
c c c + = 2
With a 45
o
rosette, c
x
and c
y
are measured
directly.
xy
is obtained indirectly with,
3 3 3
2
3
2
3
2 2 2
2
2
2
2
1 1 1
2
1
2
1
cos sin sin cos
cos sin sin cos
cos sin sin cos
u u u c u c c
u u u c u c c
u u u c u c c
xy y x
xy y x
xy y x
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
Normal and shearing strains may be
obtained from normal strains in any three
directions,
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7 - 45
Mohrs Circle for 3D Analysis of 2D Stress (review)
If A and B (principal stresses)are on the
same side of the origin (i.e., have the same
sign)
c) planes of maximum shearing stress are
at 45 degrees to the plane of stress
b) maximum shearing stress for the
element is equal to half of the
maximum stress
a) the circle defining o
max
, o
min
, and
t
max
for the element is not the circle
corresponding to transformations within
the plane of stress
7 - 46
Stresses in Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
Cylindrical vessel
o
1
= hoop stress
o
2
= longitudinal stress
( ) ( )
t
pr
x r p x t F
z
=
A A = =
1
1
2 2 0
o
o
Hoop stress:
( ) ( )
2 1
2
2
2
2
2
2 0
o o
o
t t o
=
=
= =
t
pr
r p rt F
x
Longitudinal stress:
Example
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7 - 47
Stresses in Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
Points A and B correspond to hoop stress,
o
1
, and longitudinal stress, o
2

Maximum in-plane shearing stress:
t
pr
4 2
1
2 ) plane in max(
= =

o t
Maximum out-of-plane shearing stress
corresponds to a 45
o
rotation of the plane
stress element around a longitudinal axis
t
pr
2
2 max
= =o t
7 - 48
Stresses in Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
Spherical pressure
vessel:
t
pr
2
2 1
= =o o
Mohrs circle for in-plane
transformations reduces to a
point





0
constant
plane) - max(in
2 1
=
= = =
t
o o o
Maximum out-of-plane
shearing stress
t
pr
4
1
2
1
max
= = o t
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49
Failure Modes
Failure Theory for Ductile Materials
Failure Theory for Brittle Materials
Safety Factor
Selection of Failure Criteria

Materials Failure Theory

50
Failure Mode
Ductile Failure:
Failure strain > 5%
Fails by shear stress characterized w. sloped break surface
Materials: steel, aluminum, copper,
Brittle Failure:
Failure strain < 5%
Fails by normal stress characterized w. flat break surface
Materials: ceramics, glass, steel (low temp.),
Ductile failure Brittle failure
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Failure Mode
Failure Criteria:

d
o

l
o

y

z
o
y
o
x
t
zx
t
xy
t
yx
t
xz
t
yz
t
zy
o
z
o
c
f
c
S
y

1D
2D
3D
Material property test
Stress condition in a
tensile testing sample
The maximum shear stress when yield
happens is t
Y
= o
Y
/2
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Yield criteria for ductile materials
under plane stress
Material property testing
to obtain yield limit o
Y
Actual stress state in a
beam
How to use o
Y
in
predicting ductile
failure of an actual
member

??
7 - 54
Yield Criteria for Ductile Materials Under Plane Stress
Failure of a machine component
subjected to uniaxial stress is directly
predicted from an equivalent tensile test
Failure of a machine component
subjected to plane stress cannot be
directly predicted from the uniaxial state
of stress in a tensile test specimen
It is convenient to determine the
principal stresses and to base the failure
criteria on the corresponding biaxial
stress state
Failure criteria are based on the
mechanism of failure. Allows
comparison of the failure conditions for
a uniaxial stress test and biaxial
component loading
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Materials failure testing subjects a material
coupon in simpler stress (1D)

But in general, mechanical components are
subjected to complicated stress state (2D, 3D)

How to use the testing obtained materials
failure data (such as yield stress) to predict
failure of a component under arbitrary stress
condition? ------ need failure theory and criteria

The necessity of Failure Criteria
Materials failure: Ductile and Brittle Fracture
Ductile
Brittle
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Materials failure process-
Crack initiation and propagation
Common failure modes of a structural member:

1. Failure by excessive deflection

2. Failure by general yielding

3. Failure by fracture

4. Failure by instability (buckling)


Elastic deflection

Deflection by creep
Sudden (brittle) fracture
Fracture of cracked member
Progressive fracture, Fatigue
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Failure and limits on design: (isotropic material)
For predicting materials failure, need stress based criteria
Material
Type
Failure Theories
Ductile Maximum shear stress criterion, von Mises criterion
Brittle Maximum normal stress criterion, Mohr's theory

Or non-Stress based criteria
Stiffness, vibrational characteristics, fatigue
resistance, creep resistance etc.
For stress analysis for isotropic materials under elastic deformation, only two
independent elastic constants are needed describing the stress-strain
relationship, i.e., Hooke's Law o/ c = E
7 - 60
Failure Criteria for Brittle Materials Under Plane Stress
Maximum normal stress criterion
Structural component is safe as long as the
maximum normal stress is less than the ultimate
strength of a tensile test specimen.
U b
U a
o o
o o
<
<
Brittle materials fail suddenly through
rupture or fracture in a tensile test. The
failure condition is characterized by the
ultimate strength o
U
.
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61
Failure Theory for Brittle Materials
Max. Normal Stress Criterion
Brittle material fails @ the max. normal stress

s
>
uc
ut
S
or S
3
1
o
o


crack
90
0

Example:
Maximum principal stress criterion (Rankines criterion)
for 3D
Yield begins at a point in a member where the
maximum principal stress reaches a value equal to
the tensile/compressive yield stress Y.
o
1
= Y

The criterion ignores the existence of o
2
and o
3
Effective stress
o
e
= max (lo
1
l, l o
2
l, l o
3
l)
Yield function f = max (lo
1
l, l o
2
l, l o
3
l) - Y
Since ductile materials fail due to shear. This criterion
only applies to brittle materials whose failure is due to
tensile normal stress.
o
1

o
2

o
3

Y
Y
-Y
-Y
Y
-Y
Yield surface
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Maximum principal strain criterion
(St. Venants criterion)
Yield starts when the maximum principal strain at a point reaches a value
equal to the yield strain

y
= Y/E

This criterion takes into consideration of other principal stresses since
1
=
1/E (o
1
-vo
2
-vo
3
).

Similar to maximum principal stress criterion, this one also applies to
brittle materials for predicting fracture failure.

Effective stress o
e
= max l o
i
- vo
j
- vo
k
l, i= j = k

Yield function f = o
e
Y = max l o
i
- vo
j
- vo
k
l - Y, i= j = k
Yield Criteria for ductile materials:
A general concept in Plasticity
Three basic components in Plasticity:
Yield criterion to define initiation of yield
Flow rule to relate plastic strain increments to stress increments
Hardening rule predict changes in yield structure

We only focus on yield initiation theory yield criteria
Primary objective of yield criteria is to develop the concept of yield
criteria for uni-axial stress states.
Basis of the development is the definition of effective (equivalent) uni-
axial stress that is a particular combination of components in multi-axial
stress state.
Basic concept is that yielding initiated in a multi-axial stress state when
the effective stress reaches a limiting value that is assumed to be same
as that in the un-iaxial stress state). This is because that most
parameters for material property are obtained based on uni-axial
testing.
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Commonly used yield criteria
for Ductile Metals
As the evidence of slip lines shown by ductile metals at
yielding suggests, most ductile metals failure due to
shearing. This comes to the following two criteria for
predicting the failure for ductile metal materials.

<1> Maximum Shear-Stress (Tresca)
Criterion

<2> Distortional Energy Density (von
Mises) Criterion
<1> Maximum Shear-Stress (Tresca) Criterion
Yield begins at a point in a member when the
maximum shear stress reaches a value equal to
the maximum shear stress at yield of a sample
in a uni-axial tension or compression test.

For multi-axial stress case t
max
= (o
max
- o
min
)/2

In uni-axial t
Y
= Y/2

The criterion

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7 - 67
Mohrs Circle for 3D Analysis of 2D Stress (a review)
If A and B (principal stresses)are on
the same side of the origin (i.e., have
the same sign)
c) planes of maximum shearing
stress are at 45 degrees to the
plane of stress
b) maximum shearing stress for
the element is equal to half of
the maximum stress
a) the circle defining o
max
, o
min
,
and
max
for the element is not
the circle corresponding to
transformations within the plane
of stress
7 - 68
Yield Criteria for Ductile Materials Under Plane Stress
(1) Maximum shearing stress
criterion (for 2D stress)
Structural component is safe as long as the
maximum shearing stress is less than the
maximum shearing stress in a tensile test
specimen at yield, i.e.,
2
max
Y
Y
o
t t = <
For o
a
and o
b
with the same sign,
2 2
or
2
max
Y b a
o o o
t < =
For o
a
and o
b
with opposite signs,
2 2
max
Y b a
o o o
t <

=
whichever is greater
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Failure Theory for Ductile Materials
Max. Shear Criterion
For plane stress




Safety Factor
y
y
y
S
S
S
=
=
=
=
1
2
2 1
3
0
o
o
o o
o
S
y

S
y

-S
y

-S
y

2

factor Safety n
n
S
y
:
) , , max(
3 1 3 2 2 1
= = o o o o o o o
Safe
y
y
S = o
70
Safety Factor
Concept and Definition
load normal
overload design
n
or
stress effective
strength material
n
=
=
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Failure Theory for Ductile Materials
Max. Shear Criterion
P

max

90
0

crack
Example
1D stress
Strain energy density - review

The general form for strain energy density

U
o
= 1/2E [o
1
2
+o
2
2
+o
3
2
-2v (o
1
o
2
- o
2
o
3
- o
3
o
1
)]

The strain energy density at yield in uni-axial tension/
compression

Uo
Y
= Y
2
/2E

(2) von Mises condition (maximum distortion energy criterion) for
ductile materials under plane stress (2D stress)
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If only distortional energy (shear stress and shear strain
related )is considered being responsible for ductile failure
2D distortional strain energy:
(2) von Mises condition (maximum distortion energy criterion) for
Ductile Materials Under Plane Stress (2D stress)

Structural component is safe as long as
the distortion energy per unit volume is
less than that occurring in a tensile test
specimen at yield.
( ) ( )
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
0 0
6
1
6
1
Y b b a a
Y Y b b a a
Y d
G G
u u
o o o o o
o o o o o o
< +
+ < +
<
where o
a
, o
b
are the principal stresses at a point as variables
and o
Y
is a material constant (yield strength)
Failure Theory for Ductile Materials
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78
Failure Theory for Ductile Materials
Compare Tresca with Von Mises Criterion
Difference between Tresca and von Mises: < 15%
S
y
S
y
-S
y
-S
y
o
1
o
2
Tresca Criterion
von Mises
Tresca condition is more conservative than von Mises
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79
Failure Theory for Ductile Materials
Example: von Mises criterion applied to pure shear
o
t
o
1
= t
o
3
= t
t

t

( ) | |
y
S = =
+ + + + + =
t
t o
3
0 0 6 0 0 0
2
1 2 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
/
For material under 2D pure shear stress condition,
yielding will occur at 57.7% of the Yield Strength.
y
S 577 . 0 = t
Distortion Energy (von Mises Criterion) for 3D
Materials fail due to the distortional strain energy
When principal stresses
1
,
2
,
3
are known




When normal & shear stresses in arbitrary coordinate
system are known

( ) ( ) ( )
n
S
factor Safety n
stress Effective
S
y
y
=
= + + =
o
o
o o o o o o o
:
:
] [
2
1
2 / 1 2
3 1
2
3 2
2
2 1
( ) ( ) ( )
n
S
factor Safety n
stress Effective
S
y
y xz yz xy z x z y y x
=
= + + + + + =
o
o
t t t o o o o o o o
:
:
] ( 6 [
2
1
2 / 1 2 2 2 2 2 2
z
x
y
o
2
o
1

3
11/22/2012
41
81
Failure Theory for Ductile Materials
Example
Failure analysis
for an L shaped bar
subjected to a vertical
force at its tip

F
L
a
?
3
) ( 16
32
64 /
) 2 / ( ) (
2 2
3
3 4
=
= + =
= =
=
-
= =
F
n
S
criterion Mises von
d
FL
J
Tr
d
Fa
d
d Fa
I
Mc
y
t o o
t
t
t t
o
Critical site
82
Summary- Failure Theory Selection
For ductile Materials
Von Mises criterion preferred
Tresca criterion

For brittle Materials
Max. normal stress criterion
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42
II. Stress Concentration and
Stress Concentration factors
Examples revealed by experimental method Radiometric Thermo-elasticity
The method creates temperature differences in the
material proportional to the stress levels. Cameras
which sense differences in temperature can be used to
display the stress field in the parts

A photoelastic model subjected to a load
when viewed through a polariscope displays
distinctively colored fringe patterns

Interpretation of the pattern reveals the
overall stress distribution and the stress
concentration .
Reflective
polariscope
Stress concentration
Example revealed by photoelasticity
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43
Causes for stress concentration
in a structure member
Abrupt geometric changes in a section
(notches, holes, groves)
Surface contact stress
Material discontinuities (defects,
inclusions, voids)
Residual stress due to manufacturing
Cracks
Almost all engineering components and machines
have to incorporate design features which
introduce changes in cross-section
These changes cause localized stress
concentrations
Severity of concentrations depends on the
geometry of the discontinuity and nature
of the material.
Stress concentration factor,
K
t
= S
max
/S
av
S
max
, maximum stress at discontinuity
S
av
, nominal stress
K
t
, value depends only on geometry of the part
11/22/2012
44
Stress concentration K
f
, fatigue stress
concentration factor,



endurance limit of notch free
K
f
=
endurance limit of notched part

Stress Concentration in fatigue

Guidelines for design

Abrupt changes in cross-section should be avoided.
Fillet radii or stress-relieving groove should be provided.
Slot and grooves should be provided with generous run-out
radii and with fillet radii in all corners.
Stress relieving grooves or undercut should be provided at
the end of threads and splines.
Sharp internal corners and external edges should be avoided
Weakening features like bolt and oil holes, identification
marks, and part number should not be located in highly
stressed areas.
Weakening features should be staggered to avoid the
addition of their stress concentration effects.
Stress Concentration
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45
Factors of Stress Concentration S
cc

11/22/2012
46
Directions for using Neubers diagram
Neubers diagram
11/22/2012
47
Example for using Neubers diagram
11/22/2012
48
In simple cases, stress concentration
factors can be analytically obtained
using Theory of Elasticity


More complicated cases using
numerical methods such as Finite
Elements simulations

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49
III. Fatigue Failure
Damage effect on materials subject to
alternating force (failure under a live load)

The level of repeated load causing fatigue
failure is below that of a non-repeated failure
load.

Approximately 80% 90% of all structural
failures occur through some sort of fatigue
mechanism
Fatigue process
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50
Examples for
fatigue failure
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51
A variety of analytical tools and techniques are used to identify
fatigue fractures and their root cause. These include macroscopic
examination, microstructural analysis, hardness testing, chemical
analysis, microprobe chemical analysis and scanning electron
microscopy (SEM)
Stress amplitude
Range of stress
Mean stress
Materials fatigue failure under repeated cyclic loading
Definitions of terms used in
modeling prediction
For Reversed cycle fatigue
R = -1
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52
Fatigue Limit
Maximum stress a material can sustain under the action of
an infinite number of reversals of stress

For Metallic Alloys the stress level is usually between one-
third and one-half of the static tensile strength
Causes of Fatigue Failure
Member is stressed above its fatigue limit such that stress
alternates/fluctuates
Presence of high-frequency vibrations that might not be
noticed
Crack growth and damage cumulate assisted by the
environment (chemical)
High-Cycle Fatigue
Features:

Deformation is primarily elastic
Stress is controlled
More than 100,000 cycles
Crack has not started
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53
Fatigue Limit
Stress
Log (Fatigue Life) 10
6
10
7
Steel
Aluminum
S-N curve for High cycle fatigue failure prediction
c
f
p
N) 2 (
2
'
c
c
=
A
Low-Cycle Fatigue
Stress is high enough for plastic deformation to occur
Strain is controlled
Failure occurs at less than 1000 cycles

p
/2 is the plastic strain amplitude

c
f
is an empirical constant known as the fatigue
ductility coefficient, the failure strain for a single
reversal

2N is the number of reversals to failure (N cycles)

C is a constant called the fatigue ductility exponent
(-0.5 to -0.7) for metals
Fatigue prediction:
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54
Types of cyclic loading
Stress terms in relation to fatigue
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55
One of failure analysis goals = prediction of fatigue life of component
knowing service constraint and conducting Lab tests
Ignores crack initiation
and fracture times
IV. Fracture mechanics, fatigue &
fracture fatigue of engineering metals

Modes of fracture depending on types of load
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56
FRAC
Fracture is the separation of a
body into two or more pieces due
to stress

Modes of fracture differ by ductile
and brittle fracture

Ductile fracture in copper
nucleating around inclusions
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57
Cup and Cone fracture Brittle fracture
Example of a fatigue fracture in a bicycle
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58
A close look of
Cracks developed and propagated in a metal
FRACTOGRAPHY
Pictures taken by scanning electron microscope (SEM) for microscopic
examination of the fracture surface OF ALUMINUM ALLOY 2024-T3
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59
Replicas of cracktip profiles and grid distortion at various loads
Stress concentration
factor vs. specimen
geometry/configuration
Question:
what will happen if
a crack intersects a
hole?
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60
Griffith Energy criterion
Crack propagates where
situation is favorable for
reducing the materials strain
energy
Material behind
crack-tip is stress-
relaxed so that the
Elastic strain energy
is released
Crack surfaces have
surface energy (
s
)
a
o
Fracture Mechanics
Classical Description of Strength of Materials
Based on o - curves obtained in uni-axial testing
E, v and G for linear elastic materials, plus o
Y
and o
u
for elasto-plastic
materials
Simple but powerful failure theories
Widely used in the industry

But has some major shortcomings in handling sharp notches or cracks

Fracture Mechanics
Quantifies crack-induced effects
Predicts failure load accurately
Safer design
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61
Modes of Crack Loading
Mode 1 Opening Mode


Mode 2 Sliding (In-Plane Shear)
Mode


Mode 3 Tearing (Anti-Plane Shear)
Mode
Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM)
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62
( ) ( ) ( ) | | u u u o ij
III
III
ij
II
II
ij
I
I ij
f K f K f K
r
+ + ~
1
Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM)
Stress distribution near tip of a crack

Stress intensity factor
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63
How Fracture Mechanics handle cracks?
Stress Intensity Factors (SIF)

Characterizes stresses and displacements near a crack-
tip
SIF is dependent on
Crack geometry
Far-field stress
Determined SIF by analytical or numerical approaches or
experimentally
Determine critical SIF (fracture toughness) by standard
testing
Fracture toughness is a material property to determine
the failure of the material with the presence of a crack,
similar to yield or ultimate strength of a material
( ) a g f K
I
t o =
r K
v
u
I

Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM)

Distribution of displacement near the tip of a crack:
Definition of SIF for a opening mode crack:
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64
Fracture toughness K
c
The stress intensity factor K was initially
used to quantify crack-tip stress distribution

Fracture occurs when the crack-tip stress
intensity factor reached a critical value Kc

Kc is found to be independent of crack size
or applied stress

Kc is called fracture toughness, a parameter
for material property
Metal Fatigue is a process which causes premature failure or damage
of a component subjected to repeated load variation/cycle

Fatigue life of an initially defect-free structure can be written as the
sum

NT = NI + NP

where
NI corresponds to a period for crack initiation
NP is crack propagation period, including stable as well as accelerated
stages of fatigue crack growth
Fatigue and fatigue life for a metal
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65
Features of Materials Fatigue Failure
Damage effect on materials subject to alternating
force (failure under a live load)

The level of repeated load causing fatigue failure is
below that of a non-repeated failure load.

Approximately 80 90 per cent of all structural
failures occur through some sort of fatigue
mechanism
Ductile fracture process
Ductile process normally develops in five stages:

1) Necking
2) Formation of small cavities or micro-voids in interior of cross
section
3) Growth of micro-voids in size and coalesce to form elliptical
shaped crack with long axis perpendicular to the stress direction
4) Crack growth in direction parallel to major axis of the ellipsis
5) Failure takes place by rapid propagation of a crack around the
outer perimeter of the neck due to shear deformation along 45
o

degree or maximum shear stress direction
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66
Fatigue fracture of metals -
Crack growth under repeated loads
Stress intensity factor K initially used to quantify
crack-tip damage for fracture scenarios

Fracture occur when the crack-tip stress intensity
factor reached a critical value, Kc,1 independent
of crack size or net applied stress
K is related to fatigue crack growth rates da/dN, or
increment of crack growth per load cycle
K range of variation of SIF
for a crack under cyclic loading
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67
Fatigue crack growth behavior
Plastic zone
For ductile materials :
consider o
y
(i.e. y means direction not yield)
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68