PRACTICAL NO.1.

STUDY & USE OF DUMPY LEVEL AND LEVELLING STAFF AIM: To find reduced levels of various points using Dumpy level and levelling staff. LEVELLING:
Levelling is defined as an operation of measuring relative heights or elevations of points on or above the surface of the earth. It includes measurement in the vertical plane. The heights are measured with respect to datum or arbitrary assumed level surface. The mean sea level is generally referred as the datum all over the earth. DUMPY LEVEL: The dumpy level is used to provide a horizontal line of sight after the instrument is set up and leveled. The dumpy level has following parts 1. Tripod stand: It is used to support dumpy level. 2. Levelling head: It levels the dumpy level by bring bubble in the center of its run. It consists of two parallel plates with three foot screws. 3. Telescope: The telescope is rigidly fixed to its supports and bubble tube is placed parallel to it. Telescope has movable eyepiece and objective on either side of it. A diaphragm with cross hairs is placed before eyepiece. The focussing screw is provided for making image clear and distinct. Ray shade may be provided to avoid direct entry of sun rays.

Dumpy Level

AXES OF DUMPY LEVEL: 1. Line of collimation: It is the line joining center of diaphragm to the optical center of the object glass and continues further to infinity. It is also called line of sight 2. Axis of telescope: It is line joining optical center of eyepiece and object glass. 3. Axis of bubble tube: It is the imaginary line tangential to the longitudinal curvature of the bubble tube at its center. It is also called bubble tube axis. 4. Vertical axis: It is the axis about which the telescope can be rotated in a horizontal plane.

Principal axis of Dumpy Level Inter-relationship between various axes: 1. 2. 3. Line of collimation and axis of telescope are parallel and coincides with each other. Axis of telescope and line of collimation are parallel to bubble tube axis Vertical axis is perpendicular to the axis of telescope.

TELESCOPIC LEVELLING STAFF: It is made of aluminum and is usually of 4m in length. It consists of three parts which can extend fully. The top solid piece of 1.2m long slides in central box of 1.3m length. The central box further slides in lower box 0f 1.5m length. The readings on the self reading staff appeared to be inverted and hence reading are taken from top to bottom. The staff has white background with meter readings painted in red and decimeter reading painted in black. Its least count is 5mm. It is mainly used for measuring the vertical distance by which the station is above or below the line of sight

TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS OF DUMPY LEVEL: A) Setting up the level: this includes 1) Fixing the instrument on the tripod 2) Leg adjustment: Bring all the foot screws of the level in the centre of their run .Fix any two legs firmly into the ground by pressing them with hand and move the third leg to right or left until the main bubble is roughly in the centre. Finally the legs are fixed after centering approximately both bubbles. B) Levelling: - Levelling is done with the help of foot screws and bubble tube. The purpose of levelling is to make the vertical axis truly vertical. 1) Place the telescope parallel to pair of foot screws. 2) Hold these two foot screw between the thumb and first finger of each hand and turn them uniformly so they are rotated either outward or inward simultaneously until the bubble is in centre. 3) Turn the telescope through 90so that it lies over the third foot screw. 4) Turn this foot screw only until the bubble is at center of its run. 5) Bring the telescope back to its original position without reversing the eye piece and object glass ends. 6) Again bring the bubble to the centre of its run and repeat these operations until the bubble remains in the centre of its run in both position which are at right angle to each other. 7) Now rotate the instrument through 180, the bubble should remain in centre provided the instrument is properly adjusted. If not, it needs permanent adjustment.

C) Focussing the eye piece: To focus the eye piece, hold a white paper in front of the object glass, and move the eye piece in or out till the cross hairs are distinctly seen. D) Focussing the object glass: Direct the telescope to the leveling staff and on looking through the telescope, turn the focusing screw until the image appears clears and sharp. IMPORTANT TERMS USED IN LEVELLING: Bench marks: Bench mark is a fixed reference point of known elevation with respect to some datum. Reduced Level (RL): It is the vertical distance of a point measured above or below the datum. Backsight (BS): It is the first staff reading taken on a point of known elevation i.e. at benchmark or change point after the level is set up and levelled. Foresight (FS): It is the last reading observed before shifting the level i.e. before taking the change point. Intermediate sight (IS): All readings between back sight readings and foresight readings are the intermediate sight (IS). Height of instrument (HI): It is also called collimation plane level. HI is obtained by adding BS reading to the RL of Bench mark. Change point (CP): It is a point on which foresight and back sight readings are taken for the further levelling work to be carried out and progressed.

METHODS FOR FINDING THE REDUCED LEVEL (R.L.) 1. HEIGHT OF INSTRUMENT METHOD (HI METHOD) OR COLLIMATION PLANE METHOD

In this system, the R.L. of plane of collimation (H.I) is found out for every set-up of the level and then the reduced levels of the points are worked out with the respective plane of collimation as described below. 1. To prepare the format of level page Staff B.S. I.S. F.S. H.I. R.L. Remarks Station (Collimation plane level) B.M. B.M. 1 2 3 C.P.1. C.P.2. 2. Determine the R.L. of plane of collimation for the first set up of the level by adding B.S. to the R.L. of B.M. i.e. R.L of plane of collimation= R.L. of B.M. + B.S. 3. Obtained the R.L. of the intermediate points and first change point by subtracting the staff readings (I.S. and F.S. from the R.L. of plane of collimation (H.I). R.L. of a point=R.L of plane of collimation H.I. - I.S or F.S. 4. When the instrument is shifted and set up at new position a new plane of collimation is determined by addition of B.S. to the R.L of change point. Thus the levels from two setups of the instruments can be correlated by means of B.S. and F.S. taken on C.P. 5. Find out the R.L.s of the successive points and the second C.P. by subtracting their staff readings from this plane of collimation R.L. 6. Repeat the procedure until all the R.Ls are worked out. 7. Arithmetical check: The difference between the sum of the back sights and the sum of the fore sights should be equal to the difference between the last and first reduced levels. i.e. B.S - F.S. = LAST R.L FIRST R.L

2. RISE AND FALL METHOD:

In this system, there is no need to determine R.L. of plane of collimation .The difference of level between consecutive points are obtained as described below. 1. Prepare the format of level page before levelling work start. Staff B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Remark Station B.M. B.M. A B C . Determine the difference in staff readings between the consecutive points by comparing each point after the first with that immediately proceeding it. Obtained the rise or fall from the difference of their staff reading accordingly to the staff reading at the point is smaller or greater than that of proceeding point. Find out the reduced level of each point by adding the rise to or subtracting fall from the R.L. of a proceeding point. Arithmetic check: The difference between the sum of back sight and the sum of fore sight = difference between the sum of rise and the sum of fall = the difference between the last R.L. and the first R.L. B.S- F.S = RISE - FALL =LAST RL - FIRST RL

2. 3. 4. 5.

OBSERVATION TABLE: 1. HEIGHT OF INSTRUMENT METHOD (HI METHOD) OR COLLIMATION PLANE METHOD Staff B.S. I.S. F.S. H.I. R.L. Remarks Station (Collimation plane level) 1 B.M. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Arithmetical check B.S - F.S. = LAST R.L FIRST R.L
2. RISE AND FALL METHOD

Staff B.S. Station A B C D E F G H I J K Arithmetic check

I.S.

F.S.

Rise

Fall

R.L.

Remark B.M.

B.S- F.S = RISE - FALL =LAST RL - FIRST RL

PRACTICAL NO.2. STUDY AND USES OF MAPS AIM: To study any four types of maps and writing their uses.
MAPS: It is defined as graphical representation of features on or near the surface of the earth in small scale on a horizontal plane. CHARACTERISTICS OF MAPS: 1. After surveying next step is to plot maps. 2. Maps are used to show many features about portion of earths surface on paper so it can be carried and transported easily. 3. Maps are not photographs of the earth surface. 4. Maps are drawn with appropriate scale. TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS: It shows three dimensional world in two dimensions by using contour lines. Engineers use for planning roads, buildings or other man made structures. Trackers or mountaineers use topographic maps while mountain tracking. Scale is 1cm = 2.5 km to 1cm = 0.25 km LOCATION MAPS: It shows boundary location of site with respect to nearby marks. Scale used is 1:2500 to 1:500 CADASTRAL MAPS: Cadastral is the French word which means extent, value and ownership of land for taxation purpose. Cadastral maps are used for: 1. Help government for legal transfer of land 2. Keep record of land ownership 3. Decide valuation and taxation of land Scale used is 1:100, 1:2000, 1:5000 and 1:25000

FOREST MAPS: It shows record of national parks, sanctuaries, forest classes, boundaries and density of vegetation. Satellite images are used to upgrade or renew information on maps. Scale used is 1:50000 to 1:2500000 GEOLOGICAL MAPS: It shows different types of rocks that are below earths surface. By studying these maps geologists can find the suitable location for the source of mineral resources, oil and gravel deposits. ENVIRONMENTAL MAPS: These maps shows physiographic features like forests, grasslands, woodlands, ocean floors and ocean sediments, grazing lands etc. Meteorological maps are also the environmental maps which shows climate, weather and wind changes. Meteorologists, oceanographers, city planners use meteorological maps to record and forecast their views about a particular area. Example: meteorological map showing hourly maximum rainfall at various places. BIOGEOGRAPHIC MAPS: Scientists studying animals, plants and other living organism use maps to show where these groups live and migrate. Zoologists can study where organisms live and where they move. Use to study migration of endangered species. ROAD MAPS: It shows road routes spread over the area, It denotes highways and places connected by it. It also shows distances and also the highway number.

PRACTICAL NO.3. DIGITAL PLANIMETER

AIM: Measurement of area of irregular figures by digital planimeter. INTRODUCTION: It is used for finding areas of irregular figures on sheet. The planimeters of conventional type requires lots of time for setting of the tracing arm or scale. But digital planimeter has reduced the time and area of figures can be determined very fast. The planimeter gets power supply from AC or DC source. CONSTRUCTION: The digital planimeter has roller on one side and tracing arm on other side. The tracing arm actually moves along the periphery of the figure whose area is to be measured.

Digital Planimeter Function keys: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. SCALE key: It indicate scale factor HOLD key: It can frozen the displayed reading MEMO key: The displayed figure is stored in memory END key: To display final answer after performing all operations BATT: It indicates low battery level E: It indicates the reading has exceeded more than eight digits.

MEASUREMENT PROCEDURE: 1. Place sheet on horizontal plane. The planimeter is set with its roller and tracer arm at right angle to each other. 2. Press ON/ C key. The display shows 0 3. Select the scale by pressing or function key 4. By pressing UNIT key select unit either cm2 or m2 or km2 5. Then trace the area. First mark the starting point on the outline of area. Place the point of tracer arm on the start point. Press START key and see display is 0 with a beep sound. Move tracer arm clockwise along the line till it again come back to start point. At last press HOLD key which will hold the final reading which is showing the area of figure in terms of unit chosen. OBSERVATION TABLE: 1. Area of Regular Figure: Sr. No. 1 Description Area of figure (Using Standard formula) Area (cm2)

Area of figure (Using digital planimeter)

2. Area of Irregular Figure: Sr. No. 1 2 Average Description Area (cm2)

Result: Area of regular figure (Using digital planimeter) = Area of Irregular figure (Using digital planimeter) =

PRACTICAL NO.4. ELECTRONIC DISTANCE METER (EDM) AIM: Study basic principle and construction of Electronic distance meter. INTRODUCTION: The direct measurement with tape is not possible when site is congested
or very undulating. In such case EDM is used. The least count of EDM is 1 mm. These are highly accurate and quick in distance measurement. In EDM electromagnetic waves are generated and transmitted and distance is measured indirectly using the characteristics of these waves. These waves can travel even through vacuum. NECESSITY OF ELECTRONIC DISTANCE METER 1. Alignment of transmission towers carrying electric cables 2. Alignment of columns and center to center distance between columns of industrial buildings 3. Contour maps for given piece of land 4. Curves on the roads and railway tracks are located by EDM and digital theodolite. DIFFERENT TYPES OF EDMs: Telescope mounted instruments: The line of sight of theodolite and EDM are parallel to each other Total station: EDM and digital theodolite are built as one unit. The output is in digital form. EDM base on range: The type of EDM is based on the range of measurement 1. Short range EDM: Range upto 5 km and uses infrared light as signal 2. Medium range EDM: Range upto 100 km and uses microwaves 3. Long range EDM: Range greater than 100 km and uses radio-waves. Distomat: It uses infrared light waves to measure distance in the range of 20m to 10km. The instrument can be used for day as well as night operation Geodimeter: This instrument emits modulated pulses of light from a tungsten filament that are reflected back by a reflector system having prisms at the other station. The reflected light returned to the instrument is converted into electric pulses by photocell and then comparison is made between the transmitted and received signal. It can measure distance upto 25km.

BASIC PRINCIPLE: Let D be the distance between P & Q which is to be measured. A wave is transmitted from the transmitter at station P with certain phase angle. There is reflector at other end Q which consists of prism. The wave strikes on the reflector at Q and then gets reflected from Q. It is received back at transmitter end P with different phase angle. For finding distance, phase angle between transmitted and reflected wave is measured and converted into distance.

Working Principle of EDM PARTS OF EDM: 1. 2. 3. 4. Levelling head: It makes line of collimation of LCD display horizontal. Control panel: For actual measurement of angles or distances. Horizontal clamp and tangent screw: To set at particular horizontal angle. Vertical clamp and tangent screw: It is operated for measuring inclined distances and vertical angles. 5. Optical plummet: It is used for checking the centering of the instrument 6. Aiming telescope: To sight the target station or prism.

Electronic Distance Meter ADVANTAGES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Measurement of horizontal distance accurately. Measurement of vertical distances accurately. Measurement in rough terrain Measurement of north and east co-ordinates Measurement of inclined distances on slope

TYPES OF WAVES: 1. Electromagnetic waves: These are also called measuring waves. The waves in frequency range 500MHz to 705MHz are used for measuring distances. These waves cannot be transmitted individually. 2. Carrier waves: Electromagnetic waves are superimposed on these waves. These waves have very high frequency. The waves are superimposed by modulation process. For the reflected waves demodulation process is done where measuring wave and carrier waves are separated and the phase difference of the measuring wave is determined and finally distance is measured.

PRACTICAL NO.5. VISIT TO CONSTRUCTION SITE AIM: Visit to a construction site to study various construction materials used, type of structure,
type of foundation and components of superstructure.

A) STUDY OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS.

CEMENT: Cement is a binding material which gets hardened when mixed with water and attains strength. Naturally cement is obtained by burning and then crushing natural cement stones which contains argillaceous and calcareous materials. Artificial cement obtained by burning appropriate proportioned argillaceous and calcareous materials at very high temperature and then grinding the resulting burnt mixture to a fine powder. Cement is used in the form of cement mortar or cement concrete. Types of cement: Ordinary Portland cement (most commonly used), Rapid hardening cement, White or coloured cement, High Alumina cement, Pozzolona cement, Quick setting cement. Uses of cement: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Construction of building: Ordinary Portland cement Construction of Highway: Rapid hardening cement Dams, retaining walls, bridges( mass concrete): Low heat cement Under water structures: Blast furnace slag cement Plastering work: White and coloured cement

Field Tests on Cements: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. There should not be any visible lumps. The colour of cement should be normally greenish grey On heating, colour of cement should not change. Take a pinch of cement and feel between fingers it gives smooth feeling. Take a handful of cement and throw it on a bucket full of water, the particles should float for some time before they sink. 6. If a regular block is made from thick paste of cement, keep in water for 2 hours. It should retain original shape and size. This testing is used for small works

BRICKS: Bricks are obtained by moulding plastic mass of earth (clay) that contains silica and alumina in timber or steel moulds. Moulded bricks are dried and then burnt in kilns to get strength. Bricks are rectangular with length two times the width. As per Indian Standards size is 19 cm 9 cm 9 cm with a suitable frog at top for proper locking of one layer with other.

Standard Brick or Conventional Brick Clay bricks are divided as ordinary bricks and fir bricks Ordinary bricks are further divided as 1st class, 2nd class, 3rd class and zhama bricks Requirements of Good bricks: 1. It should be sound hard well burnt uniform in size, shape and colour. 2. It should not absorb water more than 20 % of its weight, when immersed in water for 24 hours. 3. The surface of brick should be such that no marks should appear when scratched. Uses of Bricks: 1. 1st class & 2nd class bricks used for construction of buildings, bridge piers, tunnel lining, and water structures. 2. 3rd class bricks for compound wall 3. Zhama bricks as road metal 4. Fire bricks in acid plants, steel furnaces. STONES: The rock quarried from quarries is called stone. Classification: 1. Geological classification: Igneous rock( basalt, granite), Sedimentary rocks (sandstone, limestone), metamorphic rocks( schist, marble)

2. Physical classification: Stratified, Unstratified, laminated rocks. 3. Chemical classification: Siliceous, Argillaceous, calcareous rocks. 4. Based on rock hardness: Very hard, hard, medium, soft rock. Requirements of good building stones: 1. It should have high strength, hardness, resistance to fire, weathering, decomposition and have water resisting capacity, durability, impact value and toughness. 2. It should be less porous 3. It should be free from cracks, joints and other defects. 4. It should be easy to work with and able to take finish, 5. Specific gravity should be between 2.3 to 2.5 Uses of stone: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Broken stones in foundation, road metal, railway ballast Quartzite for rubble masonry, road metal, aggregate Limestone for flooring Granite for kitchen platform Marble for ornamental and superior type of building.

SAND: It is formed by decomposition of sandstones due to various weathering effects. It is a form of silica. It may be natural sand or artificial sand. Natural sand is formed by decomposition of stone due to weathering effects. It is obtained from pits, shores, river beds and sea beds. Artificial sand is obtained by crushing of stone. Sand is used in mortar and concrete. As per Indian standards two types: sand passing through Sieve of 4.75 mm is fine sand and retaining on sieve is coarse sand. Uses: 1. Used in cement mortar for masonry, plastering work. 2. Used in PCC, RCC STEEL: Alloy of iron and carbon, containing 0.25 to 1.25 % carbon. Steel are elastic, ductile, malleable, forgeable, and weldable. Mild steel used in from of I-section, Channel section, Angle, round bars as reinforcement in concrete.

Tor steel obtained from steel is mainly used as reinforcement in RCC. Wires or tendons are used in prestressed concrete.

Standard Steel Sections Uses: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Structural members: Trusses, beams Non structural members: Stairs, Windows, Doors Fabrication of steel pipes, tanks Corrugated sheets as roofing material Mild steel and tor steel used as reinforcement in RCC

CONCRETE: Cement concrete is a building material obtained by mixing cement, fine aggregates (sand), coarse aggregates and water in definite proportion. Classification: Plain cement concrete (PCC), Reinforced cement concrete (RCC), Precast concrete, Prestressed concrete. Plain Cement Concrete: (PCC): It is obtained by mixing of cement, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and water. It has high compressive strength. It is used in construction of; Name of construction Levelling course below footing and mass concreting work Concrete flooring, compound walls, ordinary machine base and pavement Damp proof course at plinth Mix proportion of PCC 1:4:8 1:3:6 1:2:4

Reinforced Cement concrete: (RCC): To strengthen concrete against tensile stress, steel bars as reinforcement bars embedded in concrete. This combination of steel and concrete is called RCC. The reinforcement is generally in the form of mild steel and tor steel. RCC is used for construction of multistoried building, marine structure, road, water tank, bridges.

Cast in situ concrete: Concrete which is prepared and casted at site is called as cast in situ concrete. Precast concrete: A concrete which is prepared in factory and transported to the site is called precast concrete. Prestressed concrete: A concrete in which permanent internal stresses of known magnitude is purposefully introduced to counteract desired degree of stresses caused in member in service. B) SUBSTRUCTURE TYPES OF FOUNDATION: If depth of foundation (D) is less then width of foundation (B) then it is shallow foundation otherwise it is deep foundation.

Types of Foundation SHALLOW FOUNDATION: SPREAD FOOTING: They distribute load of superstructure over a wide area so that the soil bed can provide safe and firm support STRIP FOOTING: (Wall footing) Used for light structures like garden walls. One or more number of steps is provided on either side of the wall.

ISOLATED FOOTING: In framed structure the support individual columns. They have square, rectangular, circular or sloped in shape.

Square

Rectangular Isolated column footing

COMBINED FOOTING: If loads on two adjacent columns is very high or bearing capacity of the soil is relatively less than the two columns are grouped together to form a combined footing. If loads on both columns are same then provide rectangular combined footing or else provide a trapezoidal footing.

Rectangular Combined footing

Trapezoidal Combined footing

C) SUPERSTRUCTURE Superstructure is the part lying above the ground level. It includes walls, roof, doors and windows, flooring. Superstructure provides privacy and safety to the occupants. 1. Masonary units: Main function of wall is to enclose or divide space in building to make it more useful. Wall provides privacy, afford security and give protection against wind, rain and heat. 2. Flooring: These are horizontal structural members which divide building into different level vertically. They provide support for occupant, furniture and equipment. Components of flooring; a) Base floor or subfloor: Structural component which impart strength and stability to support superimposed load. b) Floor finishing: Provide hard smooth non absorbent surface to floor. 3. Roofing: Roof is the uppermost part of the building. Main function is to provide covering on the top of the building to protect from adverse effect of the weather. 4. Openings: Openings are to have natural light, ventilation and circulation of occupants on the floor. a) Doors: It helps to move horizontally on floor of building. It consists of two parts. Door frame Door shutter Doors are made up of timber, steel or plastic. Door is located at the end of longer wall for better privacy.

b) Windows: Openings made in external walls of the building for the purpose of providing daylight, vision and ventilation. Windows consists of two parts Window frame Window shutter Minimum area of window shall be 1/10th of floor area for residential building and 1/15th of the floor area for public building for better light and ventilation. 5. Ventilators: Openings provided above doors and windows to allow hot air to escape from room so that there is better circulation of air.