Group Operations, Orbits, Permutations, Counting and Related Techniques

Set of g so that g*h=h (g*H=H) H Set of g*h (g*H) possible Cosets (Set of ()) Image Equation Counting formula (Lagranges Theorem) = [ : ] = ker im

Left multiplication of G on subgroup H Homomorphism ( = ()) operating on Kernel with , . Group Stabilizer operation (G) on elements Conjugation of elements Centralizer

Orbit

= Orbit equation =
orbit

||

Conjugacy class

= Class equation =
conjugacy class

| | :

Conjugation of subgroup Operation of conjugation by H on subgroups H with the same order/ index.

Normalizer

Conjugates of H

Stabilizer under Orbit under conjugation conjugation

Orbit equation [ : ()] =

orbit

||

Cayleys Theorem: Every group is isomorphic to a subgroup of a permutation group. Define : Perm( ) (set of permutations of G) by associating with g the permutation of G induced by left multiplication by g. For G a finite group, if = , (p prime), and H is a subgroup of order , then H is a p-Sylow subgroup (p-SSG) of G. First Sylow Theorem: G contains a p-SSG for all primes p. Second Sylow Theorem: Any two p-SSG are conjugate in G, and any subgroup of G which is a p-group is contained in some p-SSG. Third Sylow Theorem: If is the number of p-SSG then 1(mod ) and = : divides the order of G.

Every p-group has a center Z(P){1}. Burnsides Lemma: number of orbits =

|

|, = { | = }.

Let p be a prime. Then every group of order is abelian. Size of center divides 2 . Write class equation; all terms divide 2 , so center has p or 2 elements. If p, then take any element not in Z; its centralizer contains Z and so is the entire group. , contradiction. Center is entire group. [PiGT 2.13] G is a disjoint union of double cosets AxB. Show that = [: ]. B acts on the set of right cosets Ax. [PiGT 2.20] Let . The only proper subgroup of index less than n in is . Lemma: If G contains a subgroup H of index m, then it contains a normal subgroup K with : |!. Pf: Let : Perm be the permutation representation of operation of G on cosets of H, where S=set of cosets. Take the kernel K. (Any kernel is a normal subgroup.) If : = < , then get normal , : ! 1 ! The only proper normal subgroup of is , so = , : = = 2. so = = . [PiGT 3.32] Let G be a group generated by k elements. There are at most ! normal subgroups with index at most n. Each normal subgroup N with index is the kernel of the map : Perm . If 1 , , are generators, homomorphism is completely defined by 1 , , . At most ! possible homomorphisms into , at most ! possible kernels. [Putnam 2007/A5] Suppose that a finite group has exactly n elements of order p, where p is a prime. Prove that either n=0 or p divides n+1. Soln. 1: G of order m divisible by p. Let S be set of p-tuples multiplying to 1. = 1 divisible by p. Split into orbits under cyclic permutation; all in orbit of size p or 1. The ones in orbit of 1 are fixed points; number of them is multiple of p. Soln. 2A: Let H be subgroup, order p. S= set of elements in G-H with order p. H acts on G by conjugation, split into orbits of size p or 1. The ones in orbits of size 1 generate group of order 2 with H, can be grouped. Soln. 2B: Let P be set of cyclic subgroups of order p; take 1 . Let the elements of 1 operate on P by conjugation, decomposing P into orbits of size p and 1. For the subsets Q in an orbit of 1, use PIE on 1 . Soln. 3: S=elements with order p. H elementary abelian p-group, maximal order in G. H acts on S by conjugation. T=set of fixed points. Size of H-orbits divide (). = by maximality.

Remark: Special case of a theorem of Frobenius. See [ToG 9.1]. [RHTC#5] Let G be a finite group and let p be the smallest prime which divides |G|. If H is a subgroup of G such that [G:H]=p, prove that H is normal in G. Suppose that H is not normal in G. The number of conjugates of H divides the index of H in G, so H has p conjugates: : : = : 1 = Let C be the set of conjugates, H any conjugate. H operates on C by conjugation; this induces a permutation representation : Perm 1 . Then im() divides 1 = 1 ! and =

, so is {1}. So (), : > 1, contradiction.

Let G be a simple group, H be a proper subgroup, and p the largest prime dividing |G|. Prove that H has at least p conjugate subgroups (including itself). Let S be the set of conjugate subgroups of H; let k=|S|. G operates on S transitively. This defines a homomorphism : Perm(). If < , Perm = ! is not divisible by p, so im < | | and the kernel is a proper normal subgroup, contradiction. Let G be a group of order 4n+2. Prove that G is not a simple group. Since 2 divides |G|, there exists an element x of order 2. Let : Perm 4 +2 be the permutation representation. Note is injective, and a permutation in the image cannot fix any element, unless the permutation is the identity permutation. () has order 2, so it is made up of 2n+1 disjoint transpositions; it is an odd permutation. Let = im considered as a subgroup of 4 +2 . Then 4 +2 is a proper subgroup of 4 +2 . 4 +2 has index 2 in so = 2 + 1. Let H be the preimage of H. H is a subgroup of G with order 2n+1. The left and right cosets partition G so = for any x (if both equal H, else both equal G\H), i.e. H is normal. [PiGT 1.44, RHTC#4] Every finite simple group is either prime cyclic or contains a non-abelian proper subgroup. Suppose G is simple but satisfies neither condition. Let M be a maximal subgroup. M is its own normalizer. For , 1 , 1 is normal in 1 = so it is {1}. Let |M|=m and |G|=n. From counting, + 1 elements are in a conjugate of M. Say u is such an element, and let K be a maximal subgroup containing u. Let |K|=k. 1 1 = {1} for any x,y since this is a normal subgroup of 1 1 = . + 1 + References
1 1

nonidentity elements are in a conjugate of K.

> , contradiction.

[A] Algebra, by Michael Artin [PiGT] Problems in Group Theory, by John Dixon [ToG] Theory of Groups, by Marshall Hall, Jr. [RHTC] MIT Random Hall Team Contest, 9/1/09