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SAE TECHNICAL
PAPER SERIES
2006-01-0081
Potential Benefits in Heavy Duty Diesel
Engine Performance and Emissions from
the Use of Variable Compression Ratio
D. T. Hountalas, T. C. Zannis and G. C. Mavropoulos
School of Mechanical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens
Reprinted From: Compression Ignition Combustion Process 2006
(SP-2012)
2006 SAE World Congress
Detroit, Michigan
April 3-6, 2006
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Copyright 2006 SAE International
ABSTRACT
Worldwide demand for reduction of automotive fuel
consumption and carbon dioxide emissions results in the
introduction of new diesel engine technologies. A
promising technique for increasing the power density of
reciprocating engines, improving fuel economy and
curtailing engine exhaust emissions is the use of
variable compression ratio (VCR) technology. Several
automotive manufacturers have developed prototype
vehicles equipped with VCR gasoline engines. The
constructive pattern followed to alter the compression
ratio varies with the manufacturer. The implementation
of VCR technology offers two main advantages: the
reduction of CO
2
emissions due to optimal combustion
efficiency in the entire range of engine operating
conditions and the increase of power concentration due
to high boosting of a small engine displacement (i.e.,
engine downsizing). However, the aforementioned
benefits concern mainly spark ignition engines, where
the increase of compression ratio during part-throttle
operation results in a noticeable reduction of brake
specific fuel consumption (bsfc) because of their
thermodynamic operating cycle and the relatively low
CR used. On the other hand, the application of VCR
technology in heavy-duty diesel engine, if any, is
extremely limited whereas is not expected to provide a
similar benefit since their compression ratio is already
higher than spark-ignition engines. In addition, high
values of compression ratio are necessary in diesel
engines to ensure proper auto-ignition of injected diesel
fuel. The variation of compression ratio in heavy-duty
diesel engines confronts with the excessive increase of
peak combustion pressure (Pmax) mainly at high engine
loads. Specifically, studies conducted in the past by the
present research group dealing with the application of
internal measures in diesel engines, revealed the
possibility for reducing bsfc and NOx emissions without
significant penalty on soot using advanced injection
timing and high EGR rates. However, this resulted in a
considerable increase of peak combustion pressure,
which generates serious structural problems at high
engine load. Therefore, the use of a variable
compression ratio in heavy-duty diesel engines can be a
promising technique to control peak combustion
pressure. In this case, a high compression ratio can be
maintained at part load while a lower one can be used at
full load where peak firing pressure is a problem.
However, it is still doubtful if the expected improvement
in fuel economy will be overwhelmed by the
manufacturing complexity and the subsequent cost
aggravation and reliability implications, which will
accompany the application of this technology in diesel
engines. For this reason, in the present study, an engine
simulation model is used to investigate potential benefits
in specific fuel consumption of a heavy duty DI diesel
engine by varying its compression ratio. Additionally, the
implications on engine exhaust emissions and peak
combustion pressure from the implementation of VCR
technology at both part and full load conditions are
examined. The main objective of the study is to identify
the necessary variation of compression ratio with engine
operating conditions to achieve optimum fuel
consumption, avoid excessive peak combustion
pressures, and assess its repercussions on engine out
emissions with regard to future emission standards. This
analysis will facilitate the determination of a possible
optimized variation law of compression ratio with
engine speed and load for heavy-duty diesel engines.
The results of this theoretical examination in conjunction
with serious technical issues accompanying the variation
of compression ratio will judge the applicability of this
technique in heavy-duty diesel engines.
INTRODUCTION
Diesel engines indicate the lowest brake specific fuel
consumption (bsfc) among all thermal engines used for
vehicle propulsion [1
*
]. This is due to higher
thermodynamic efficiency of their operating cycle
compared to spark ignition engines. Their superior
thermal efficiency can be ascribed mainly to the diesel
combustion mechanism and to the use of relatively high
compression ratios. During recent years, various efforts
were made to improve further diesel engine efficiency [2-

*
Numbers in brackets designate references at the end of
the paper
2006-01-0081
Potential Benefits in Heavy Duty Diesel Engine
Performance and Emissions from the Use
of Variable Compression Ratio
D. T. Hountalas, T. C. Zannis and G. C. Mavropoulos
School of Mechanical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens

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7]. The use of advanced injection timing, high boost
pressure and engine downsizing can significantly reduce
specific fuel consumption of DI diesel engines [2-7].
However, these techniques result in a considerable
increase of peak combustion pressure, which can prove
to be harmful to engine durability. Specifically, forces
generated by in-cylinder gases aggravate the durability
of several piston and crankcase assembly parts such as
piston crown, cylinder liner, connecting rod and
crankcase bearings. The limit of peak pressure rise is
designated by the material strength limit of the engine
parts. For some engines, the strength of the head gasket
is the limiting factor for peak combustion pressure.
Hence, the use of VCR can offer the possibility to limit
the increase of peak combustion pressure keeping it
within acceptable limits.
Improvement of DI diesel engine efficiency can be
attained by improving the thermodynamic efficiency of
the operating cycle or by reducing its mechanical losses
[6,8-10]. Increase of engine mechanical efficiency and
thus, curtailment of mechanical losses on a percentage
basis can be attained by the increase of engine power
output without changing its displacement volume (engine
downsizing) [6,10]. This is ascribed to the fact that the
rate of increase of power output is higher than the rate of
aggravation of frictional losses, which is caused by the
increasing in-cylinder pressure. As already experienced
from turbocharged diesel engines, a reduction of
compression ratio (CR) at full load is obligatory due to
excessive peak combustion pressures. However, this
results in the weakening of engine efficiency at part load
operation, where the values of peak combustion
pressure are not of concern. Hence, the use of variable
compression ratio can be a promising path to improve
engine efficiency at the entire engine operating range.
This technology has already been proven effective in
spark ignition engines [11-17]. The use of variable
compression ratio results in a significant reduction of
overall fuel consumption especially at part load
operation. As reported in ref. [12], an overall reduction of
bsfc at the order of 30% can be achieved in spark
ignition engines. In this type of engines, the increase of
compression ratio is usually limited by the knocking
because of the high in-cylinder pressures and
temperatures.
According to the literature, there is a limited number of
studies examining the effect of variable compression
ratio on diesel engine performance and emissions
[8,9,18-20]. Specifically, Ladommatos and Balian [18]
increased the clearance volume by moving the cylinder
head using a shim (i.e. equivalent to a thicker gasket) to
alter the compression ratio in order to confront with
combustion problems in a DI diesel engine. Rychter et
al. [19] assessed theoretically the effect of compression
ratio on the performance of a turbocharged diesel
engine by giving different expansion and compression
ratios. Their concept was based on the variation of
connecting rod length to crank radius ratio. Rychter et al.
[19] declared a 2% reduction of fuel consumption and a
reduction of ignition delay, which resulted in a decrease
of combustion noise by 6 dB at 75% of full load.
Sobotowski et al. [20] developed a novel diesel engine
with variable compression ratio by changing the phase
relation between two pistons linked to separate
crankshafts and operated in two cylinders arranged in an
opposed engine or interconnected through a transfer
port. Their mechanism offered: a) mechanical simplicity
and compact design, b) capability to externally control
compression ratio during engine operation, c) automatic
variation of valve timing and d) Compatibility with current
production technology. In addition, Abou Al-Sood et al.
[8.9] used a single-zone phenomenological model to
assess the implications on bsfc, NOx and soot
emissions of a DI diesel engine from the variation of
engine compression ratio. They assumed variable
compression ratio to attain during the entire engine
operating range: a) constant bsfc, b) constant maximum
brake power, c) constant minimum soot emissions and
d) constant minimum NOx engine-out value. In
summary, they claimed that the increase of compression
ratio results in a significant reduction of bsfc and soot
emissions, which was accompanied by a tolerable
increase of peak combustion pressure and temperature
and a substantial increase of NOx emissions. However,
their predicted relative changes of diesel emitted
pollutants from compression ratio variation based on
theoretical data were derived using a single-zone model,
which is obviously not suitable for such calculations.
Furthermore, the predicted effect of compression ratio
on bsfc was surprisingly high. Moreover, as evidenced
from the literature, there is a lack of information
regarding the combined effect of compression ratio and
injection advance on diesel engine performance and
exhaust emissions.
Hence, in the present work, it is examined the possibility
of varying compression ratio in heavy-duty diesel
engines. The purpose of this study is the assessment of
the potential benefits in engine performance and
exhaust emissions from the application of VCR
technology on heavy duty DI diesel engines. Unlike the
past, the impact of compression ratio is examined under
various injection timings facilitating the comparative
evaluation of both parameters on engine performance
characteristics and exhaust emissions. This is required
since both parameters have a similar effect on engine
performance and emissions but a different one on peak
combustion pressure. The results concerning expected
benefits can obviously be extrapolated to the case of
high speed DI diesel engines. Predictions are made
using an engine simulation code based on a multizone
combustion model, which has been proven suitable for
predicting engine performance and emissions [3-6]. The
theoretical examination is carried out for a commercial
heavy-duty diesel engine under various loads at
constant engine speed. Calculation of the benefits in
bsfc is made while the influence on peak combustion
pressure and emitted pollutants is considered. The
impact of VCR on diesel engine performance and
emissions is evaluated by comparing the relative change
of bsfc, peak combustion, soot and NO emissions to the
reference case, which corresponds to the standard
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compression ratio of the engine. Utilization of such
simulation models with well-proved success [3-6,21] is
most suitable for such examinations because it is a time
efficient way to decide whether it is worthwhile to apply
VCR technology in diesel engines. The expected
benefits in engine performance characteristics and
exhaust emissions are contrasted with the constructing
complexity of VCR technology, which in diesel engines
is quite high due to increased cylinder pressures.
REASONS FOR CONSIDERING THE USE OF
VCR TECHNOLOGY
Reduction of specific fuel consumption of modern diesel
engines is essential for complying with future CO
2
and
pollutant emissions regulations [1,2]. During recent
years, the development and use of flexible high-pressure
injection systems resulted in the noticeable improvement
of combustion efficiency [2-7]. Hence, a considerable
decrease of the bsfc of heavy-duty diesel engines was
attained. However, there is space for further
improvement of fuel economy by developing advanced
combustion and engine management strategies.
Previous studies showed that significant improvement of
engine efficiency could be achieved by increasing peak
combustion pressure [3,4,6]. This was achieved using
advanced injection timing. The combined computational
and experimental study revealed a directly inversed
relation between engine bsfc and peak combustion
pressure (up to a certain peak pressure value).
Nonetheless, this had a significant negative impact on
NO emissions requiring the adaptation of an additional
technology for their control (use of EGR or after-
treatment devices). Another way to increase peak
combustion pressure appears to be the use of a high CR
where possible. Thus, two different possibilities exist if
we are to achieve the same peak combustion pressure,
use a high CR and retarded injection or low CR and
advanced injection. However, each solution is expected
to have a different impact on engine performance and
emissions. For example, the first solution appears to be
more attractive considering emissions since due to the
late start of ignition the peak temperatures inside the
combustion chamber will be lower resulting to lower NO
emissions. On the other hand, the second initially
appears more attractive for reducing bsfc and soot.
Therefore, an analysis is required to estimate the
optimum combination of both technological solutions
with respect mainly to engine load.
However, the use of a high CR as mentioned can be a
problem at high load due to excessive peak combustion
pressures. The problem could be possibly confronted
using a low compression ratio at high load and a higher
one at part load where peak pressure is not a problem.
From this point of view, adaptation of a VCR technology
for heavy-duty diesel engines could be promising. This
solution could also contribute to overcome the problem
with peak combustion pressure to be experienced in
future high bmep engines.
Up to now, various VCR technologies have been
developed and put into practice almost exclusively for
spark ignition engines [11-17]. Therefore, there is a
technological gap for diesel engines concerning VCR
technology, which justifies the present investigation. The
findings of the present analysis can be utilized to assess
whether the application of such technology to diesel
engines is worthwhile considering the constructive
difficulties. The selection of the proper manufacturing
solution for varying compression ratio becomes more
difficult in modern high-bmep diesel engines. This is due
to the higher forces acting on the cylinder block, the
connecting rod and the crank bearings.
OVERVIEW OF VCR CONCEPTS
According to the literature, various automotive
manufacturers and research institutes have suggested
different constructive patterns for the application of VCR
technology in reciprocating engines. However, only a
few of them have been put into practice. The most
important VCR concepts are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Constructive patterns of VCR technology [12]
Technologic solution
Effect on
combustion
chamber
geometry
Additional force
for adjustment
of CR
Additional
inertia
forces
Controllability Cost
Movable cylinder-head -* + -- O ++
Use of an auxiliary piston to vary
the combustion chamber volume
+ -- -- ++ O
Piston with adjustable
compression height
- -- + - O
Eccentric connecting rod bearing - O O O O
Crankshaft position connecting
rod
- -- -- + O
Tow-piece pivoted connecting rod - + ++ + +
*++ Very High, + High, - Low, -- Very Low, O Neutral
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The main advantages and disadvantages of the
aforementioned manufacturing choices for varying
compression ratio are the following:
- Movable cylinder-head: This concept does not
cause any changes to combustion chamber
geometry, offers the possibility for a variable
combustion chamber volume and introduces no
additional inertia forces. However, it has high cost
and requires the use of additional force for the
adjustment of compression ratio.
- Use of an auxiliary piston to vary the combustion
chamber volume: This design has the disadvantage
of varying the combustion chamber geometry
whereas it requires no additional force for the
variation of compression ratio. Moreover, it
introduces no additional inertia forces and it has high
controllability.
- Piston with adjustable compression height: This
pattern creates additional inertia forces and
indicates low controllability. Oppositely, it does not
bring any change to combustion chamber geometry
and requires no additional force for the adjustment
unit.
- Eccentric connecting rod bearing: This concept does
not alter significantly the combustion chamber
volume whereas it indicates satisfactory
performance concerning all the other parameters.
- Crankshaft position connecting rod: This is also a
very good design requiring no additional forces for
the adjustment unit, it introduces no additional inertia
forces and has good controllability and does not
alter significantly the combustion chamber geometry.
- Tow-piece pivoted connecting rod: This solution has
a small effect on the combustion chamber geometry
but requires an additional force for the adjustment of
compression ratio. It introduces also significant
additional inertia forces. On the other hand, it has a
good controllability and a medium cost.
According to the previous descriptions, the most
advantageous VCR architecture seems to be the use of
eccentric connecting rod bearing whereas adaptation of
two-piece pivoted connecting rod appears to aggravate
mostly the manufacturing cost and the operation of the
integrated kinematic mechanism inside the combustion
chamber. During mid-nineties, a variable compression
concept was suggested, which was based on the use of
a split connecting rod and an additional articulated rod
[12,14]. This pattern has been implemented in several
engines and it has also been used in vehicles. The basic
principle of repositioning the cylinder or the cylinder
head has recently been put into practice by Saab [14].
The engine block is more or less folded up and thus
the compression volume is changed.
A new trend-setting technology is currently developed
[12]: According to this concept, the crankshaft rotates
using eccentric bearings. Through rotation of the
eccentrics, the vertical position of the bearing is changed
and thus the top and bottom dead center of the piston
are evenly shifted. In attempt to conduct an overall
evaluation of the above mentioned technologies it can
be stated that:
- Combustion chamber geometry is affected
considerably only in the case of an auxiliary
chamber. The other solutions do not affect the
combustion chamber geometry.
- For the positioning systems located at piston and
connecting rod, disadvantages arise concerning the
inertia forces since both the reciprocating and the
rotating weight increase. In addition to the increased
reciprocating and rotating weights for the split
connecting rod, the changed kinematics result in
increased inertia forces. Hence, a balancing of
masses appears to be inevitable for engines with
more than two cylinders.
- Apart from the forces acting on the positioning
mechanism, the adjustability of the compression
ratio depends on the accessibility. Here the
secondary piston in the cylinder head and the
solutions using an adjustable eccentric present
themselves favorably.
- With regard to the design effort, the production
changes are assessed in comparison to the base
engine. A split connecting rod and a folding
mechanism respectively require the biggest
intervention in the base engine. The other solutions
lead to comparably small alterations. In this case the
solution with the crankshaft positioning presents
itself rather favorably.
Therefore, there are several available technological
solutions for the application of VCR technology on diesel
engines. Of course, decisive factors will be the
anticipated improvements in engine performance
parameters and reductions of exhaust missions.
ENGINE SIMULATION MODEL
BRIEF DESCRIPTION - The effect of variable
compression ratio on DI diesel engine performance and
emissions is examined employing an engine simulation
code [3-6], The simulation model has been significantly
improved during a number of European projects [3-6,10],
where it was used to examine various technological
solutions for improvement of heavy duty diesel engine
performance and emissions. Detailed descriptions of the
model have been given in previous studies [4-6].
However, for the sake of completeness, a brief
description of the main mechanisms involved in the
simulation model is given herein.
The engine simulation code is based on a
phenomenological multi-zone combustion model. The
fuel jet formed after initiation of injection is divided into
distinct volumes called zones in the three dimensions
using a concentric concentration [5]. The number of
zones in the axial direction depends on the injection
duration and the adopted calculation time step. In the
present study, a time step of 0.5
o
CA is used whereas the
fuel jet is divided into five zones in the circumferential
direction. This enables the detailed estimation of the
thermodynamic parameters inside the fuel jet and their
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effect on the formation of pollutant emissions [4-6]. The
pressure is considered uniform throughout the
combustion chamber. Each zone has its own
temperature and composition that are determined by
applying the first thermodynamic law and the
conservation equations for mass and momentum. Most
of the subsystems included in the model have been
presented in detail by the authors in previous
publications [3-6]. Thus, only an outline of each sub-
model will be given below.
HEAT TRANSFER The characteristic velocity for heat
transfer calculations is determined using a turbulent
kinetic energy viscous dissipation k~s
t
model [22]. The
overall heat transfer rate is obtained from [23]:
( ) ( )
(
= +

4 4
c g w r g w
Q A h T T c T T

(1)
where T
g
is the bulk temperature of the cylinder content
defined by:
=
=
=
_
_
n
k vk k
k 1
g
n
k vk
k 1
m c T
T
m c
(2)
(index k denotes the k
th
zone of a total number n).
The heat transfer rate estimated is then distributed
among the jet zones according to the formula:
( )
=
=
_
k vk k
k
n
k vk k
k 1
Q m c T
AQ
m c T

(3)
AIR SWIRL - The swirling motion of the intake air is
modeled rather efficiently assuming solid body rotation
surrounded by a potential flow region [22,24,25]. This
scheme takes into account air viscosity, which creates a
boundary layer near the cylinder walls. Details for the
method of solution to determine the swirling velocity are
provided in [26].
SPRAY MODEL - The velocity along the spray axis after
break-up is determined by differentiating a correlation for
spray penetration [26] with respect to time resulting to:

| |
= |
|
\ .
0.25
0.5 0.5
p inj
g
2.95 AP
u d t
2 p
(4)
The penetration of the peripheral zones depends on
their radial distance from the jet centreline. Their
penetration velocity is calculated by multiplying Eq.(4)
with the following coefficient:
( | |
= ( |
|
(
\ .
2
n
j,i
j,i 1
inj
r
n exp n d
r
(5)
where r
j,i
is the zone j,i position relative to the jet axis
and n
1
, n
2
are constants. Using this approach, a velocity
distribution similar to the actual one is obtained.
The spray angle, which is used to estimate the geometry
of the jet and position of the zones, is given by the
following relation [26]:
| |
| =
|
\ .
0.25
2
inj a
2
a
d p AP
d 0.05

(6)
After wall impingement, zones are assumed to follow a
path parallel to the cylinder walls, which is close to
reality.
AIR ENTRAINMENT - Air entrainment is estimated using
the conservation of momentum, which has been proven
stable, simplistic, and requires practically no adjustment
with engine operating conditions. The total amount of air
entrained into a zone from the moment of injection is
determined from the following relation:
( ) = + =
inj
f inj a f p d f f
p
u
m u m m u m m m
u
(7)
DROPLET EVAPORATION AND BREAKUP - The
injected fuel is distributed to the zones according to the
instantaneous injection rate. The Sauter Mean diameter
D
SM
of each package of fuel is obtained from the
following semi-empirical formula:

| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
0.37 0.47
0.25 0.32 f f
SM,1 inj inj inj
a a
0.54 0.18
0.12 0.75 f f
SM,2 inj inj inj
a a
v p
D 0.38Re We d
v p
v p
D 4.12Re We d
v p
(8)
where subscripts 1 and 2 stand for complete and
incomplete sprays, respectively. The Sauter mean
diameter is taken to be the maximum of the above two
values. For the evaporation process, the model of
Borman and Johnson [27] is followed. The rate of
change of the droplet mass is given by:
| |
=
|

\ .
ev v
fv m v
dm 2rD P P
ln Sh
dt R T P P
(9)
where the Sherwood number:
= +
1/ 2 1/ 3
Sh 2 0.6Re Sc (10)
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with D
v
the mass diffusivity for the fuel air mixture, T
m
the mean temperature of the fuel air mixture and P
v
the
partial pressure of the fuel vapour at the liquid surface.
The droplet temperature is obtained by integrating the
following energy balance equation:
( )
(
= +
(

ev l
l pl m a l f
z
dm dT z
mc 2r/ T T Nu L
dt dt
e 1
(11)
where the Nusselt number is given by:
= +
1/ 2 1/ 3
Nu 2 0.6Re Pr (12)
and z is a dimensionless correction factor for heat
transfer that takes into account the effect of mass
transfer:
=
ev
pf
m
dm 1
z c
dt 2r/ Nu
(13)
while /
m
is the thermal conductivity of the fuel-air mixture
and L
f
is the latent heat of vaporization of the fuel
droplet. By integrating equations EQ(9) and EQ(11) we
calculate the history of each group of droplets inside the
zones.
COMBUSTION MODEL - The amount of air entering a
zone is considered to mix with the evaporated fuel and
ignition commences after an ignition delay period, which
is calculated as follows [28]:
( )

= =
)
1
pr
2.5 1.04
del g eq g 0
1
S dt 1
a P 4 exp 5000 T
(14)
where 4
eq
is the local equivalence ratio of the fuel air
mixture inside the zone, and a
del
is a constant. After
ignition and mainly during premixed combustion the
combustion rate of fuel is obtained from the following
relation [24]:
| |
=
|
\ .
af ao c
fb b f o
E 1
m K C C exp
r 6N
(15)
where K
b
is a constant, E
c
the reduced activation energy
(K) and C
f
, C
o
the mass concentrations of fuel and
oxygen respectively. During diffusion combustion, the
combustion rate is practically controlled from the air
entrainment rate and its mixing with evaporated fuel.
FUEL INJECTION - In the present work, the injection
pressure history was measured during experiment and
was used to calculate the instantaneous fuel injection
rate as follows:
=
f D n f
m C A 2p AP

(16)
where A
n
is the nozzle area, C
D
is the discharge
coefficient, p
f
is the fuel density and AP is the pressure
drop across the nozzle.
GAS EXCHANGE The method of filling and emptying
is used to calculate the mass exchange rate between
the inlet and exhaust manifolds. This method has been
used successfully in the past in diesel engine
simulations [23].
FORMATION OF NITRIC OXIDE - The formation of
nitric oxide is controlled by chemical kinetics [23,26]. In
the present work, the extended Zeldovich mechanism is
used involving the following three equations [29]:
( )
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
10
2 1f
6
2 2f
10
3f
N NO N O k 1.6x10
N O NO O k 6.4x10 Texp 3125 T
N OH NO H k 4.2x10

(17)
The variation of NO concentration in each zone is
expressed by:
| | ( ) ( )

=
| |
+
|
+
\ .
2
1
1
2 3
2 1 R
d NO V
1
V dt R
1
R R
(18)
Where: | | | | =
1 1f
e e
R k N NO , | | | | =
2 2f 2
e e
R k N O and
| | | | =
3 3f
e e
R k N OH with | | | | =
e
NO NO In the previous
relation index e denotes equilibrium. Integrating the
previous differential equation, we obtain the NO
concentration inside each zone.
SOOT FORMATION AND OXIDATION - For the
prediction of soot formation rate, the semi-empirical
model of Hiroyasu is used [30] considering in each zone
for two rates, a formation rate and an oxidation rate of
soot formed, which are described by the following
equations:
| |
=
|
\ .
`
| |
| |
=
|
|

\ .
\ .)
0.5 sf sf
f f,ev
mol
O
1.8 sox sox 2
ox s
mol
dm E
A m P exp
dt R T
dm E P
A m P exp
dt P R T
(19)
where f stands for soot formation, b for burning, mf,ev
is the amount of evaporated fuel inside the zone and P
O2
the partial pressure of oxygen. The net soot formation
rate is then obtained from the expression:
=
s sf sox
dm dm dm
dt dt dt
(20)
The adjustment of soot values (model calibration) is
accomplished through the variation of the formation
coefficient A
f
while the value of the oxidation constant
A
ox
is kept constant at 6500.
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ENGINE DESCRIPTION
The engine considered herein is a standard production
heavy-duty supercharged DI diesel engine having a bore
of 130 mm, a stroke of 150 mm and compression ratio of
18:1. The maximum allowable peak combustion
pressure for the specific engine is set at 170 bar. This
value sets the upper boundary for the increase of
cylinder pressure at the entire engine operating range.
The engine is equipped with a common-rail injection
system allowing the variation of both injection pressure
and injection advance. In the present investigation
injection pressure has been maintained at the standard
level.
TEST CASES EXAMINED
Three different operating modes were considered during
the present analysis namely mode A at 1400 rpm, mode
B at 1800 rpm and mode C at 2200 rpm. These modes
cover the entire range of engine speed. The sensitivity of
engine performance parameters and emissions to the
variation of compression ratio was assessed at four
engine loads for each operating mode: 25%, 50%, 75%
and 100%. Hence, the variation of the relative impact of
compression ratio on engine performance and emissions
with engine load can be evaluated. For each
compression ratio and operating condition, various
injection timings were examined to vary peak
combustion pressure beyond the nominal value.
However, for the sake of brevity of space, results are
presented herein only for mode B (1800 rpm) since for
all the other operating modes similar results were
obtained. The engine operating modes and the
corresponding variation of compression ratio are
tabulated in Table 2. As the normal compression ratio
(CR=18) of the specific diesel engine is already high, the
theoretical study was conducted considering mainly
values of compression ratio lower than standard (up to
14). This was mandatory to avoid excessive combustion
pressures mainly at high engine load. However, a small
increase of compression ratio with respect to the
standard value up to 20 was considered to identify the
effect on bsfc, soot and NO emissions under high peak
combustion pressures.
Table 2. Engine operating conditions
Mode
Speed
(rpm)
Engine Load
(% of full
load)
Injection
Timing
(
o
CA ATDC)
CR
25
50
75
A 1400
100
-2-13 14-20
25
50
75
B 1800
100
-2-13 14-20
25
50
75
C 2200
100
-2-13 14-20
MODEL VALIDATION
Prior of using the simulation code to make calculations
with varying compression ratio, it is of utmost importance
to ensure that the model predicts accurately the main
engine performance characteristics and emissions of the
standard configuration (CR=18) of the diesel engine. For
this reason, a comparison is made between calculated
and measured data for specific fuel consumption (bsfc),
peak combustion pressure, tailpipe soot and NO values.
Model calibration was made at 1800 rpm and full load.
The calibration procedure is described in detail by
Hountalas et al. [3].
A comparison between calculated and measured values
of bsfc is given in Fig.1a at mode B for all engines
loads considered. As observed, the simulation model
captures the variation of bsfc with engine load. Predicted
and experimentally obtained peak combustion pressure
values are presented in a comparative manner in Fig.1b.
As evidenced, the model describes with adequate
accuracy the variation of peak combustion pressure with
engine load. Hence, it is reasonable to assume that the
engine simulation model offers a good representation of
the diesel combustion mechanism, which is suitable for
the present investigation.
Comparison between calculated and measured values
of NO and soot emissions is given in Figs.1c and 1d
respectively facilitating this models ability to predict
exhaust emissions. As revealed, the simulation captures
quite well the variation of NO and soot emissions with
engine load. In the case of soot emissions, calculated
absolute values are close to the measured ones at the
entire range of engine load enhancing thus, the validity
of simulations for exhaust smokiness. It must be
underlined that due to its configuration, the developed
model, once calibrated at 1800 rpm (Mode B) and full
load, does not require any further tuning of its constants.
Therefore, the results presented for the other engine
loads at mode B are pure predictions and the fact that
these are close to the corresponding measured values
reveals the validity of the simulation model. This
motivates the use of the engine simulation code to
assess the effect of variable compression ratio on DI
diesel engine performance and emissions.
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25 50 75 100
Engine Load (%)
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
b
s
f
c

(
g
/
k
W
h
)
1800 rpm
Calculated
Experimental
25 50 75 100
Engine Load (%)
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
P
e
a
k

C
o
m
b
u
s
t
i
o
n

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
b
a
r
)
(a) (b)
25 50 75 100
Engine Load (%)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
E
x
h
a
u
s
t

N
O

(
g
/
k
W
h
)
25 50 75 100
Engine Load (%)
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
E
x
h
a
u
s
t

S
o
o
t

(
F
S
N
)
(c) (d)
Fig. 1. Comparison between calculated and measured values of (a) bsfc, (b) peak combustion pressure, (c) exhaust NO and (d) tailpipe soot for various
engine loads.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
EFFECT OF COMPRESSION RATIO ON ENGINE
PERFORMANCE AND EMISSIONS Fundamental
thermodynamics implies that the increase of diesel cycle
efficiency is strongly related to the increase of peak
pressure inside the combustion chamber. The
advancement of injection timing is an efficient method to
increase peak combustion pressure and subsequently.
engine efficiency (up to certain peak pressure). Similar
results can be obtained by increasing compression ratio.
Figure 2 facilitates the comparative assessment of the
two approaches regarding reduction of bsfc for constant
peak firing pressure. In the first case, results are given
for varying compression ratio from 14 to 20 keeping
constant injection timing (-4
o
CA ATDC-standard timing)
and in the other case, results are presented for varying
injection timing (-4 to -13
o
CA ATDC) keeping constant
compression ratio (CR=14). As observed, for the same
change of peak combustion pressure, the higher
reduction of brake specific fuel consumption is
evidenced when varying the start of injection and
keeping compression ratio constant. Hence, it appears
that specific fuel consumption is more sensitive to
injection advance than to compression ratio for the same
peak pressure penalty.
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120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190
Peak Combustion Pressure (bar)
200
204
208
212
216
220
b
s
f
c

(
g
/
k
W
h
)
1800 rpm - 100% load
CR = 14
SOI = -4
o
CA ATDC
CR = 14
CR = 16
CR = 18
CR = 20
SOI = -7
O
CA ATDC
SOI = -10
O
CA ATDC
SOI = -13
O
CA ATDC
SOI = -4
O
CA ATDC
Fig. 2. Comparison of calculated bsfc/peak combustion pressure trade-
offs at 1800 rpm and at full load. Results are given for variable SOI (-4
to -13
o
CA ATDC) keeping constant compression ratio (CR=14) and for
variable compression ratio (14 to 20) keeping constant SOI.
Figures 3-6 depict the effect of variable compression
ratio on the bsfc-peak combustion pressure (Pmax),
bsfc-NO and soot-NO tradeoffs. Theoretical results are
given at constant engine speed and at four different
engine loads (25%, 50%, 75% and full load). As
mentioned, peak combustion pressure can be a problem
at high engine load making necessary the decrease of
compression ratio. For this reason, in order to consider
for peak firing pressure limit, two maximum allowable
peak combustion pressures are considered: one equal
to the maximum allowable value for the present engine
(170 bar) and a second one lower by 10 bar (160 bar).
At 75% and full load are marked on all trade-off curves
the points, where these pressures are exceeded (since
at lower load peak pressure is not a problem). The
presentation of the results in the form of trade-offs
facilitates the study of the impact of compression ratio
and injection timing on a comparative basis. In addition,
the influence of VCR and SOI on engine performance
parameters and exhaust emissions is examined under
three different prospects:
1. Effect on bsfc-Pmax trade-off
2. Effect on bsfc-NO trade-off
3. Effect on soot-NO trade-off
Effect on bsfc-Pmax Trade-off Figures 3-6(a) display
the effect of compression ratio on bsfc/Pmax trade-offs
for mode B and four engine loads namely 25%, 50%,
75% and 100%. As observed, the increase of
compression ratio from 14 to 20 results in a decrease of
bsfc mainly at medium and high load. At 25% load, a
worsening of bsfc is noticed when increasing
compression ratio beyond the value of 16. As evidenced,
a steeper reduction of bsfc is observed with advancing
injection timing compared to varying compression ratio..
However, this results to a higher peak pressure penalty.
Obviously, the highest reduction of bsfc is experienced
for high values of compression ratio and injection
advance. Nevertheless, peak combustion pressure is
significantly increased in this case.
Effect on bsfc-NO Trade-off The implications on
bsfc/NO trade-off at various engine loads from the
variation of compression ratio and injection timing can
be assessed through the examination of Figures 3-6(b).
The gradual increase of compression ratio from 14 to 20
results at all loads in higher NO values and in a
reduction of engine bsfc. The positive effect of
compression ratio on bsfc increases with engine load
and is more pronounced at retarded injection timing.
Furthermore, a very small improvement is observed over
the value of 18. Optimized results regarding bsfc-NO
tradeoff values are obtained for high values of
compression ratio and low injection advance.
Effect on soot/NO Trade-off Another important issue
for heavy duty DI diesel engines is soot emissions. For
this reason, the impact of compression ratio on the Soot-
NO trade-off is displayed in Figures 3-6(c) for the
various loads considered herein. As observed, the
increase of compression ratio acts beneficially on the
Soot-NO tradeoff at 25% and 50% load whereas for
higher engine loads the influence is negligible. Hence,
the effect of compression ratio on the Soot-NO trade-off
weakens with increasing engine load. Consequently, at
high engine load, where peak combustion pressure can
cause problems to engine operation and endurance, a
lower value of compression ratio can be chosen without
any significant effect on engine out emissions.
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40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
Peak Combustion Pressure (bar)
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
b
s
f
c

(
g
/
k
W
h
)
CR
20
18
16
14
1800 rpm - 25% load
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
NO (g/kWh)
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
b
s
f
c

(
g
/
k
W
h
)
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
NO (g/kWh)
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
S
o
o
t

(
F
S
N
)
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 3. Effect of compression ratio on (a) bsfc-peak combustion pressure, (b) bsfc-NO and (c) soot-NO trade-offs at 1800 rpm and at 25% of full load.
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
Peak Combustion Pressure (bar)
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
b
s
f
c

(
g
/
k
W
h
)
CR
20
18
16
14
1800 rpm - 50% load
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
NO (g/kWh)
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
b
s
f
c

(
g
/
k
W
h
)
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
NO (g/kWh)
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
S
o
o
t

(
F
S
N
)
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 4. Effect of compression ratio on (a) bsfc-peak combustion pressure, (b) bsfc-NO and (c) soot-NO trade-offs at 1800 rpm and at 50% of full load.
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
Peak Cylinder Pressure (bar)
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
b
s
f
c

(
g
/
w
W
h
)
CR
20
18
16
14
1800 rpm - 75% load
Peak Pressure
160 bar
170 bar
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
NO (g/kWh)
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
b
s
f
c

(
g
/
k
W
h
)
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
NO (g/kWh)
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
S
o
o
t

(
F
S
N
)
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 5. Effect of compression ratio on (a) bsfc-peak combustion pressure, (b) bsfc-NO and (c) soot-NO trade-offs at 1800 rpm and at 75% of full load.
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
Peak Combustion Pressure (bar)
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
b
s
f
c

(
g
/
k
W
h
)
CR
20
18
16
14
1800 rpm - 100% load
Peak Pressure
160 bar
170 bar
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
NO (g/kWh)
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
b
s
f
c

(
g
/
k
W
h
)
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
NO (g/kWh)
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
S
o
o
t

(
F
S
N
)
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 6. Effect of compression ratio on (a) bsfc-peak combustion pressure, (b) bsfc-NO and (c) soot-NO trade-offs at 1800 rpm and at full load.
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EFFECT OF COMPRESSION RATIO ON ENGINE
PERFORMANCE AND EMISSIONS ON A
PERCENTAGE BASIS - The previous analysis revealed
that compression ratio affects both engine performance
and emissions in a different way. Specifically, the
increase of compression ratio has a positive effect on
engine bsfc especially at medium and high load, a
negative effect on NO emissions and a positive one on
soot at low and part load operation. The preceding
analysis revealed that the amplitude of CR effect
depends on injection advance. Generally, the effect is
higher at retarded injection timings whereas it
deteriorates for high values of injection advance.
Considering the previous initially it appears that the use
of a compression ratio in the range of 18 for the specific
engine appears to be the optimum one for its entire
operating range. Beyond this point little improvement
can be obtained since the thermodynamic efficiency of
the thermal cycle cannot be considerably increased. The
same stands for emissions where almost no
improvement is observed for CR values over 18.
Therefore the use of a variable CR can be justified only
if we are forced to use a low CR to control peak
combustion pressure, this is most significant for
downsized engines. In this case to estimate the possible
benefits it is required to express the effect of CR on
engine performance and emissions on a percentage
basis. For this reason the effect of CR is presented on a
percentage basis using the values of the various
parameters for the nominal CR of 18 as basis.
Effect of Compression Ratio on Peak Combustion
Pressure - In Figures 7a,b is given the effect of
compression ratio on the relative change of peak
combustion pressure for all loads considered at normal
and at advanced injection timing. This way is taken into
account the effect of injection timing. As observed, there
is an almost linear variation of the relative change of
peak combustion pressure with compression ratio. The
variation of the relative change of peak firing pressure is
almost invariable with engine load for both standard and
advanced injection timing. Therefore, the effect of
compression ratio on the percentage change of peak
pressure is the same regardless of engine operating
conditions. The average percentage change of peak
combustion pressure is approximately 6-7% per unit
change of compression ratio.
14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Compression Ratio
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
P
e
a
k

C
o
m
b
u
s
t
i
o
n

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
(
%

c
h
a
n
g
e
)
Engine Load
100%
75%
50%
25%
1800 rpm - Standard SOI
14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Compression Ratio
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
P
e
a
k

C
o
m
b
u
s
t
i
o
n

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
(
%

c
h
a
n
g
e
)
1800 rpm - 9
o
CA Advanced SOI
(a) (b)
Fig. 7. Variation of the relative change of peak combustion pressure with compression ratio (a) for standard injection timing and (b) for 9
o
CA advanced
injection timing at various engine loads.
Effect of Compression Ratio on bsfc - The effect of
compression ratio on the variation of the relative change
of engine bsfc is given in Figs 8a, b for all engine loads
examined, using normal and advanced injection timing.
As evidenced, the percentage change of bsfc decreases
slightly with increasing compression ratio. An exception
to this is the case of 25% load, where for values of
compression ratio higher than 18, a curtailment of bsfc
relative decrease is observed. For values of
compression ratio higher than 18, the improvement in
specific consumption is insignificant because the relative
decrease of bsfc is less than 0.5% per unit of CR
increase. The overall possible improvement in bsfc is
approximately 4% for values of compression ratio
ranging from 14 to 18. Hence, the gain in fuel economy
is approximately 1% per unit variation of compression
ratio. In the case of advanced injection timing, the
overall percentage change of bsfc at high and full load is
similar to the case of nominal injection timing. However,
compression ratio has a weaker impact on the relative
change of bsfc at 25% and 50% load compared to
higher engine loads resulting in lower overall relative
variation of specific fuel consumption.
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14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Compression Ratio
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
b
s
f
c

(
%

c
h
a
n
g
e
)
Engine Load
100%
75%
50%
25%
1800 rpm - Standard SOI
14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Compression Ratio
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
b
s
f
c

(
%

c
h
a
n
g
e
)
1800 rpm - 9
o
CA Advanced SOI
(a) (b)
Fig. 8. Variation of the relative change of bsfc with compression ratio (a) for standard injection timing and (b) for 9
o
CA advanced injection timing at
various engine loads.
Effect of Compression Ratio on NO Emissions - As
mentioned, the increase of compression ratio results in
higher NO emissions due to increase of in-cylinder
temperatures. Hence, Figures 9a,b facilitate the
quantification of the impact of compression ratio on the
percentage change of NO emissions at all loads for
mode B using standard and advanced injection timing.
As observed, the effect is different only for the case of
25% load where an increase is observed for values of
compression ratio lower than 15. As revealed from the
simulation, this is ascribed to the increase of ignition
delay, which results in the increase of the percentage of
fuel burned under premixed conditions. For medium up
to full load a similar behavior is experienced showing an
almost linear variation of the relative change of NO
emissions. The percentage change of exhaust NO is
approximately 1% per unit variation of compression ratio
at nominal injection advance. On the other hand, Figure
9b reveals that the effect is stronger at advanced
injection timing. In this case, the slope of change of the
relative variation of NO emissions with CR is similar for
all engine loads. However, the impact of compression
ratio on the overall percentage variation of NO increases
with decreasing engine load. Specifically, exhaust NO
varies approximately by 5% for each unit of compression
ratio variation at 25% load whereas at full load this
pertinent relative change drops to 1%. Therefore,
compression ratio appears to have a more significant
effect at part load and advanced injection timings.
14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Compression Ratio
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
N
O

(
%

c
h
a
n
g
e
)
Engine Load
100%
75%
50%
25%
1800 rpm - Standard SOI
14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Compression Ratio
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
N
O

(
%

c
h
a
n
g
e
)
1800 rpm - 9
o
CA Advanced SOI
(a) (b)
Fig. 9. Variation of the relative change of exhaust NO with compression ratio (a) for standard injection timing and (b) for 9
o
CA advanced injection timing
at various engine loads.
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Effect of CR on Soot Emissions According to the
aforementioned analysis, the increase of compression
ration results in a decrease of soot emissions. Hence,
the variation of soot emissions with compression ratio is
presented in Figures 10a, b for all loads examined
herein at both, normal and advanced injection timing. An
overall examination of both figures yields that the
variation of the percentage change of exhaust soot with
compression ratio is almost linear for all engine loads.
The influence of compression ratio on soot emissions is
higher at part load and advanced injection timing. The
latter can be attributed to the fact that for advanced
injection timing, the absolute values of soot are
significantly reduced and thus, even a small change of
absolute values of soot when expressed on a
percentage basis can be significantly high. For normal
injection timing, soot values are reduced by 4% to 6%
per unit increase of compression ratio at both partial and
full load. Oppositely, a higher percentage reduction is
evidenced at advanced injection, which varies from 10 to
40% per unit of CR variation at full and low load
respectively. Considering the effect of compression ratio
on NO and Soot emissions, it can be concluded that
compression ratio is more influential on a percentage
basis on soot rather than on nitric oxide emissions.
14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Compression Ratio
-50
-25
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
S
o
o
t

(
%

c
h
a
n
g
e
)
Engine Load
100%
75%
50%
25%
1800 rpm - Standard SOI
14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Compression Ratio
-50
-25
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
S
o
o
t

(
%

c
h
a
n
g
e
)
1800 rpm - 9
o
CA Advanced SOI
(a) (b)
Fig. 10. Variation of the relative change of exhaust NO with compression ratio (a) for standard injection timing and (b) for 9
o
CA advanced injection timing
at various engine loads.
ESTIMATED BENEFITS FROM THE APPLICATION OF
VCR TECHNOLOGY ON HDDI ENGINES The
objective in this section is to describe the potential
benefits from the application of VCR technology in
heavy-duty diesel engines based on the findings of the
previous analysis. Hence, preceding investigation
showed that the increase of compression ratio results in:
- A decrease of bsfc by approximately 1% per unit
variation of compression ratio except for low load,
where a smaller variation was observed. The
positive effect of compression ratio on bsfc weakens
for values above 18.
- An increase of exhaust NO, which is more
pronounced at advanced injection timings. For
retarded injection timing, the increase ranges from
1-1.3% per unit variation of compression ratio
whereas for advanced injection timings the
corresponding values are 1.0 to 5%, values
decreasing with increasing load. Therefore, it
appears that for high load operation the reduction of
NO is approximately 1% per unit variation of CR
regardless of injection timing used.
- A decrease of soot emissions, which is
approximately 4 to 8% per unit variation of
compression ratio at retarded injection timings and
10 to 30% at advanced injection timings. The higher
reduction of exhaust soot was observed at low load.
It is reminded that the higher soot reduction values
for advanced injection are due mainly to the low
absolute values of soot.
Considering the previous, it appears that compression
ratio has a higher percentage effect on Soot emissions
and a lower one on NO. The corresponding one on bsfc
is even lower. Overall, it appears more favorable to use
a high CR ratio regardless of engine load to optimize
both engine performance and emissions. However, in
this case peak combustion pressure can be a problem.
The maximum allowable value of peak firing pressure
confines the range of issue of the aforementioned
effects of compression ratio on bsfc, NO and soot
emissions. The computational investigation yield that
excessive increase of peak combustion pressure due to
increase of compression ratio is an obstacle at high
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engine load and especially, at advanced injection
timings. For this reason, especially in modern high-bmep
(downsized) diesel engines, it may be necessary to
reduce compression ratio in order to maintain peak
combustion pressure at acceptable levels at high engine
load. As shown, this will have a detrimental effect on
bsfc and soot emissions at medium and part load
operation, where moderate values of peak firing
pressure are encountered.
Therefore, the use of VCR can prove to be beneficial to
engine performance and emissions using a lower
compression ratio at full load and a higher one at part
load. The expected benefits in bsfc appear to be in the
range of 2 to 3%. In addition, considering soot/NO trade-
off curves, it is expected to have a decrease of NO by 5-
10% whereas soot emissions can be reduced up to
15%. These benefits are justified considering the
percentage variation of bsfc, NO and soot per unit
change of CR as already mentioned. For example, in the
case the peak pressure limit is set to 170 bar,
compression ratio must be kept below or equal to 18. In
this case, no significant benefit can be expected.
However, if the peak pressure limit is set to 160 bar,
then compression ratio must be maintained
approximately around 16-17 at full load yielding thus, a
penalty at low and part load operation. Therefore, the
decision for the application of a VCR technology strongly
depends on the maximum allowable peak combustion
pressure. Benefits from VCR technology are expected at
part load operation and depend on the required
reduction of CR at full load and thus, on the maximum
allowable peak combustion pressure value. A feasible
approach could be to use two fixed values of
compression ratio: a higher than standard during
medium and part load operation and a lower than
nominal at high and full engine load. Therefore, the
variation of compression ratio is an effective mean for
controlling peak firing pressure in downsized engines
avoiding thus, excessive values especially at high
engine loads.
The improvements in bsfc, soot and NO emissions from
the aforementioned optimum variation of compression
ratio must be contrasted to the complexity introduced to
the engine configuration from the application of VCR
technology in diesel engines. Another reason for
assessing the implications on diesel engine dynamic
behavior from the implementation of VCR technology is
the fact that the potential benefits are not as significant
as for spark ignition engines.
CONCLUSIONS
The main purpose of the present study was to examine
the potential benefits in engine performance and
exhaust emissions and thus, to assess the necessity of
implementing VCR technology on heavy-duty diesel
engines. The investigation was conducted using a
simulation code, which has been validated against
experimental data to ensure its ability to predict
adequately performance and engine out emissions. The
theoretical analysis revealed that the increase of
compression ratio results in:
1. Reduction of bsfc due to the improvement of the
operating cycle thermodynamic efficiency. The
improvement is significantly lower compared to the
spark ignition engine and is in the order of 1% per
unit increase of compression ratio. The increase is
lower at part load operation.
2. Significant increase of peak combustion pressure,
which is almost linear and on a percentage basis is
the same regardless of engine load.
3. Increase of NO emissions, which on a percentage
basis is lower at full load operation. The increase is
in the range of 1-5% per unit increase of
compression ratio, higher values observed for low
load and advanced injection timings.
4. Reduction of soot emissions, which on a percentage
basis is higher compared to the variation of NO. The
decrease ranges from 4 to 30% per unit variation of
compression ratio and the highest reduction
observed at part load and advanced injection timing.
Best results are expected using a high compression ratio
and retarded injection timing. This optimizes the Soot-
NO tradeoff and at the same time provides relatively low
values for bsfc. Brake specific fuel consumption can be
significantly improved using a moderate CR and
advanced injection timing but this will obviously have a
negative impact on emissions. However, for current
technology engines with a relatively high bmep and
future downsized engines, extremely high values of peak
firing pressure can be proved harmful to engine
operation and long-term endurance. For this reason, the
reduction of compression ratio at full load may be
required. This will have a small negative impact on
engine bsfc and soot emissions at medium and part load
operation. Thus, on this aspect, the use of a variable
compression can be advantageous but the overall
expected benefits appear to be 2-3 % in bsfc, 5-10% in
NO and 10-15% in soot depending on the required
reduction of compression ratio according to the value of
maximum allowable peak combustion pressure.
Obviously, the complexity of such system must be taken
into consideration and especially the high forces
resulting from the high peak combustion pressures.
Taking into account the findings of this preliminary
analysis the use of a VCR system on diesel engines
appears to be questionable and could be considered
only as a mean to control peak combustion pressure for
down sized engines offering a higher benefit in this case.
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CONTACT
Dr. D.T. Hountalas
School of Mechanical Engineering, National Technical
University of Athens, Greece
e-mail: dx1961@central.ntua.gr
NOMENCLATURE
A area, m
2
A
f
constant in soot formation mechanism
A
n
nozzle orifice area, m
2
A
ox
constant in soot oxidation mechanism
a
del
ignition delay constant
C mass concentration
C
D
discharge coefficient
c
r
radiation constant, W/m
2
K
4
c
pl
specific heat capacity of liquid fuel mass, J/kgK
c
v
specific heat capacity under constant volume,
J/kgK
d
inj
injector hole diameter, m
D
SM
Sauter mean diameter, m
D
v
mass diffusivity of the fuel-air mixture, m
2
/s
E activation energy, J/kmol
K
b
constant in premixed combustion model
K
if
forward reaction rate constant for the ith
reaction
L
f
latent heat of vaporization of the fuel, J/kg
m mass, kg
m
ev
evaporated fuel mass, kg
f
m

injected fuel mass flow rate, kg/s

m
l
liquid fuel mass, kg
n total number of zones or axial velocity correction
coefficient
P pressure, Pa
O
2
P partial pressure of oxygen, bar
P
v
partial pressure of the fuel vapour at the liquid
surface, Pa
Q

heat transfer rate, W

r droplet radius, m
R
i
one-way reaction rate for the ith reaction
R
mol
universal gas constant, J/kmolK
S
pr
ignition delay integral
t time, s
T temperature, K
T
a
air temperature, K
T
l
liquid fuel temperature, K
T
m
mean temperature of the fuel-air mixture, K
u velocity, m/s
u
p
axial spray velocity, m/s
V volume, m
3
Greek
d initial jet angle, rad
AP pressure difference in fuel injector, Pa
/
m
thermal conductivity of the fuel-air mixture,
W/mK
dynamic viscosity, kg/ms
v kinematic viscosity, m
2
/s
p density, kg/m
3
4 equivalence ratio
Subscripts
a air
del delay
eq equivalence
ev evaporated
f fuel or formation
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fb fuel burnt
g gas
i zone identification number (r direction)
j zone identification number (z direction)
inj injection
l liquid
m mean
r direction normal to the x axis
ox oxidation
pr preparation
s soot
SM Sauter mean
v vapour
Abbreviations
ATDC after top dead centre
bmep brake mean effective pressure
bsfc brake specific fuel consumption
CA crank angle
CR compression ratio
DI direct injection
EGR exhaust gas recirculation
HDDI heavy duty direct injection
NO nitric oxide
SOI start of injection
VCR variable compression ratio
Dimensionless numbers
Nu Nusselt number
Re Reynolds number
Sc Schmidt number
Sh Sherwood number
We Weber number
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