VEL TECH

Dr.RR &Dr.SR
TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE
ENGINEERING
AU 2351- AUTOMOTIVE ENGINE COMPONENTS DESIGN
COURSE MATERIAL
Prepared By:
Mr.V.Deepan M.E Asst.Pr!."A#t
1
UNIT I
INTRODUCTION
PART A
1. Mention classiication o en!inee"in! #ate"ials.
The engineering materials are mainly classified as
a. metals and their alloys, such as iron, steel, copper, aluminium, etc.
b. non-metals such as glass, rubber, plastics, etc.
The metals may be further classified as
1. Ferrous metals
2. Non-ferrous metals.
2. $%at is &e""o's #etals(
The ferrous metals are those which have the iron as their main constituents. Eamples!
cast iron, wrought iron and steel.
3. $%at is non)e""o's #etals(
The non-ferrous metals are those which have metals other than iron as main constituents
such as copper, aluminium, brass, tin, "inc, etc.
The non-metals are ceramic materials and organic materials. The ceramic materials are
oides, carbides and nitrides of various metals. Eamples! glass, bric#, concrete, cement, etc. The
organic materials are polymeric materials composed of carbon compounds. Eamples! $aper,
rubber, plastic, wood, paints, etc.
*. Mention selection c"ite"ia o" #ate"ials.
The selection of material for designing purposes depends upon the following factors.
1. availability
2. suitability
%. cost
&. physical properties
'. mechanical properties
The material selected should serve the desired ob(ective at a minimum cost.
5. Mention so#e +%,sical +"o+e"ties o #etals.
The physical properties of metals are colour, si"e, shape, density, electrical, thermal
conductivity and melting point.
2
-. Mention so#e Mec%anical +"o+e"ties o #etals.
The mechanical properties of the metal are strength, stiffness, elasticity, plasticity, ductility,
brittleness, malleability, toughness, resilience, creep and hardness.
.. Deine st"en!t%.
)t is the ability of a material to resist the eternally applied forces without brea#ing. The
internal resistance offered by a part to an eternally applied force is called stress.
/. Deine Stiness.
)t is the property of a material to resist deformation or deflection under eternal load. *
material which suffers only a slight deformation under eternal load is said to possess high degree
of stiffness. +tiffer materials have a high value of young,s modulus. Eample! steel and wrought
iron possess high degree of stiffness. *luminium and timber possess low degree of stiffness.
0. Deine Elasticit,.
)t is the property of a material to regain its original shape after deformation when the
eternal forces are removed. Eamples! mild steel, wrought iron.
11. Deine Plasticit,.
)t is the property of a material which retains the deformation produced under load
permanently. This property is necessary for forging, stamping of images on coins and in
ornamental wor#. Eamples! lead and clay.
11. Deine D'ctilit,.
)t is the ability of the material to be drawn into thin wire without rupture. Eamples! mild
steel, copper, aluminium.
13. Deine 2"ittleness.
)t is the property of a material to brea# without much deformation due to an eternal load.
Eamples! glass, cast iron, stone, etc.
1*. Deine Mallea3ilit,.
)t is the ability of a material to be hammered out into thin sheets. These materials withstand
deformation under compression. Eamples! lead, copper, gold.
15. Deine To'!%ness.
)t is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high impact loads li#e hammer blows.
%
This property is most important for structural and machine parts sub(ected to shoc# and vibration.
Eamples! manganese steel, mild steel, wrought iron etc.
1-. Deine Resilience.
)t is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shoc# and impact loads. This
property is essential for spring materials.
1.. Deine C"ee+.
-hen a part is sub(ected to constant stress at high temperature for a long period of time, it
will undergo a slow permanent deformation called creep. .reep occurring at room temperature is
#nown as mechanical creep. The creep occurring at elevated temperature is #nown as
temperature creep. )t is used in the design of white metal bearings, steam and chemical plants,
gas turbines, roc#ets and missiles.
1/. Deine 4a"5ness.
)t is the ability of a material to resist abrasion, scratching, cutting and wear. Eamples!
diamond, hardened steel etc.
The hardness of a material can be determined by the following test!-
a/ 0rinell hardness test
b/ 1oc#well hardness test
c/ 2ic#ers hardness test
d/ +hore scleroscope
10. Deine &ati!'e.
+ometimes, the machine components are sub(ected to loads 3due to vibration/ which vary
in magnitude with time. The stress induced is called fluctuating stress. 4nder this stress, the
materials fail at a stress which is lower than the ultimate strength of the material. This failure is
called fatigue failure.
21. Deine &ati!'e st"en!t%.
)t is defined as the stress at which a metal fails by fatigue.
21. Deine En5'"ance li#it.
)t is defined as the limiting stress below which a load may be repeatedly applied for an
infinitely large number of times without causing failure.
22. Mention ca'se o" 6a"io's o"ces acts on #ac%ines +a"t.
1. Energy or power transmitted.
&
2. -eight of the machine
%. Frictional resistance
&. )nertia of reciprocating parts
'. Temperature change
5. 4nbalanced moving part
23. Deine 7oa5.
)t is defined as any eternal force acting upon a machine part.
2*. Disc'ss 3"iel, 6a"io's t,+es o loa5.
i. Dea5 o" stea5, loa58
* load is said to be steady or dead load, when it does not change in magnitude and
direction. Eample! -eight of the component.
ii. 7i6e o" 6a"ia3le loa58
* load is said to be live load, when it continuously changes in magnitude and direction.
Eample! cutting forces in machine tool, varying weight of car in passing over a bridge.
iii. S'55enl, a++lie5 loa5 o" s%oc9 loa58
)t is said to be shoc# load, when it is applied suddenly or removed. Eample! blows of a
hammer, reactions of wheels and ales of motor car due to rough road.
i6. I#+act loa58
* load is said to be an impact load, when it is applied with some initial velocity. Eample!
machining operation in shaper, planer.
* machine part can resist a dead load more easily than a live load and a live load more
easily than a shoc# load.
25. Deine St"ess.
-hen some eternal system of load acts on a body, the internal forces are setup at various
sections of the body which resists the eternal load. The internal resistance per unit area is #nown
as stress. 6athematically,
2
load -
stress f 7 N8mm
area *

where - 9 eternal load or force in N

* 9 cross-sectional area in mm
2
.
'
2-. Deine St"ain.
-hen a system of load acts on a body, it undergoes some deformation. This deformation
per unit length is #nown as unit strain or simply strain. 6athematically,
+train, 7
l
l

-here l 9 change in length in mm

l 9 original length in mm
2.. Disc'ss Tensile st"ess an5 st"ain.
-hen a body is sub(ected to two e:ual and opposite aial pulls - as shown in figure, the
stress induced at any section is called tensile stress. ;ue to tensile load, there will be an increase
in length of the body. The ratio of increase in length to the original length is #nown as tensile
strain.
Then, the tensile stress f
t
7
2
-
N8 mm
*
Tensile strain e
t
7
l
l

&i!. Tensile st"ess an5 st"ain

2/. Disc'ss Co#+"essi6e st"ess an5 st"ain.
-hen a body is sub(ected to two e:ual and opposite aial pushes - as shown in figure, the
stress induced at any section fo the body is #nown as compressive stress. ;ue to the compressive
load, there will be an increase in cross sectional area and decrease in length of the body. The ratio
of decrease in length to the original length is #nown as compressive strain.
Then, the compressive stress f
c
7
2
-
N8mm
*
.ompressive strain e
c
7
l
l

5
&i!. Co#+"essi6e st"ess an5 st"ain
20. Disc'ss Mo5'l's o Elasticit, :E; an5 4oo9<s la=.
<oo#,s law states that when a material is loaded within the elastic limit, the stress is directly
proportional to strain, mathematically.
f e or f 7 E.e
f -.l
E 7
e *. l

where E - young,s modulus or modulus of elasticity in N8mm

2
- - eternal load in N
l - original length of the body in mm
* - cross sectional area of the body in mm
2
l - change in length of the body in mm
31. State linea" an5 late"al st"ain.
7inea" an5 late"al st"ain
.onsider a circular bar of diameter d and length l, sub(ected to a tensile force =-, as shown
in figure 3a/
&i!. 7inea" an5 late"al st"ain
;ue to the application of tensile force, the length of the bar increases by an amount l and
the diameter decreases by an amount d as shown in figure 3b/. +imilarly, if the bar is sub(ected to
compressive load, the length of bar will decrease which increases the diameter of bar.
Therefore, every direct stress is accompanied by a strain in the direction of force #nown as
linear strain and an opposite #ind of strain in every direction at right angle to it #nown as lateral
strain.
>
31. State Poisson<s "atio.
-hen a body is stressed within the elastic limit, the lateral strain 3e
lat
/ is directly proportional
to linear strain 3e/ mathematically,
lat
lateral strain 3e / 1
constant or 2
linear strain 3e/ m

This constant is #nown as poisson,s ratio and denoted by 18m or 2.
The poisson,s ratio for some commonly used materials are given in Table.
S. No. Mate"ial Poisson<s "atio :1>#; o" V
1.
2.
%.
&.
'.
+teel
.ast iron
.opper
0rass
*luminium
?.2' to ?.%%
?.2% to ?.2>
?.%1 to ?.%&
?.%2 to ?.&2
?.%2 to ?.%5
32. State Vol'#et"ic st"ain.
Vol'#et"ic st"ain
-hen a body is sub(ected to a system of forces, the body undergoes some changes in its
dimensions. )n other words, the volume of the body is changed. 2olumetric strain is defined as the
ratio of change in volume to original volume, mathematically.
v
change in volume
2olumetric strain e
original volume
2

2

1. For a rectangular body sub(ected to aial load, the volumetric strain is given by
( )
v
2 2
e e 1
2 m
e 1 22
_


,

2. For a rectangular body sub(ected to three mutually perpendicular forces, the volumetric strain is
given by
e
v
7 e

@ e
y
@ e
"
where e

- strain in the direction of A-ais

B
e
y
- strain in the direction of C-ais
e
"
- strain in the direction of D-ais
33. State 2'l9 Mo5'l's.
)t is defined as the ratio of direct stress to the corresponding volumetric strain
0ul# modulus E 7
;irect stress
2olumetric strain

v
f
e

.
3*. Mention "elation 3et=een E? G? @ an5 1># o" V.
Relation 3et=een E? G? @ an5 1># o" V.
The following e:uations show the relationship between young,s modulus 3E/, rigidly
modulus 3F/, bul# modulus 3E/ and poisson,s ratio 318m or 2/.
1. 0ul# modulus E 7
( ) ( )
m.E E
% m 2 % 1 22

2. 1igidity modulus F 7
( ) ( )
m.E E
2 m 1 2 1 2

+ +
%. Coung,s modulus E 7
G F E
F %E

+
.
35. $"ite Ge"3e" eA'ation.
Dete"#ination o En5'"ance 7i#it o" D'ctile Mate"ials
Four methods are used to calculate the endurance limit of ductile materials,
Ge"3e" eA'ation
)t is a parabolic relation between fluctuating stress and mean stress.
*ccording to it
e 2
m
u
e
+
+
+
1
+
+ endurance strength in reverse bending
+ var iable or fluctuating stress

G
ma min
m
ma min
u
+ +
7
2
+ mean stress
+ +
7
2
+ ultimate tensile strength.
+

3-. $"ite Goo5#an eA'ation.

Goo5#an eA'ation
The Ferber e:uation being little cumbersome to use, Foodman proposed a simple relation
as follows!-
e
m
u
+
+
+ 1
F+ +

F+ 7 31.' to %/ factor of safety to account for variation in material properties,

uncertainty of loading, wor#manship, lac# of test data, accuracy of assumption.
3.. $"ite So5e"3e"! eA'ation.
So5e"3e"! eA'ation
4ses yield stress in place of ultimate tensile stress.
*ccording to it
e
m
u
+
+
+ 1
F+ +

or
m
e
+ + 1
+ + Fs

+
This e:uation is further modified to use more realistic value of endurance limit by ta#ing
stress concentration, si"e effect, type of variable loading etc. into account.
)f E
a
7 actual stress factor based on notch sensitivity
.
1
7 si"e correction factor.
1?
.
2
7 )t depends upon whether surface is machined or hot rolled, and on
4ltimate strength.
.
%
7 .orrection for type of loading other than reversed bending 37?.> for reversed
ciial loading and 7 ?.5 for reversed torsional loading/.
Then soderberg formula becomes,
a m
s e 1 2 %
E + + 1
F + + . .. ..

+
3/. Mention #et%o5s o En5'"ance 7i#it. Calc'lation.
1. Ferber e:uation
2. Foodman e:uation
%. +oderberg e:uation
&. Ellipse :uadrant e:uation
30. Deine St"ess Concent"ation.
The irregularity in stress distribution caused by abrupt changes of form is called stress
concentration and, it is represented by stress concentration factor 3E/.
%
2
+
E
+
<ighest value of actual stress at change of cross-section
E
Nominal stress as given by elementary e:uation for
minimum cross-section

*1. Deine Notc% sensiti6it,.

)t has been eperienced that the stress concentration effects of #eyways, filets, notches,
holes and similar stress raisers are less under conditions for fatigue loading than for static loadingH
the effect being #nown as notch sensitivity, which varies widely with the geometry of the stress
raiser and with the material involved. The notch sensitivity factor : is defined as
( )
e en
t
+ 8 + 1
:
E 1

where +
e
7 endurance limit of the material without any stress concentration
notch in the specimen.
+
en
7 endurance limit of the material with a stress concentration notch in the specimen.
E
t
7 theoretical stress concentration factor without ta#ing notch sensitivity into account.
11
*1. Deine no#inal siBe in li#it s,ste#.
)t is the si"e of a part specified in the drawing as a matter of convenience.
*2. Deine 2asic siBe in li#it s,ste#.
)t is the si"e of a part to which all limits of variation 3i.e., tolerances/ are applied to arrive at
final dimensioning of the mating parts. The nominal or basic si"e of a part is often the same.
*3. Deine Act'al siBe.
)t is the actual measured dimension of the part. The difference between the basic si"e and
the actual si"e should not eceed a certain limit, otherwise it will interfere with the
interchangeability of the mating parts.
**. Deine li#its :o"; 7i#its o siBes.
There are two etreme permissible si"es for a dimension of the part as shown in fig. the
largest permissible si"e for a dimension of the part is called upper or high or maimum limit,
whereas the smallest si"e of the part is #nown as lower or minimum limit.
*5. Deine Allo=ance.
)t is the difference between the basic dimensions of the mating parts. The allowance may
be positive or negative. -hen the shaft is less than the hole si"e. Then the allowance is positive
and when the shaft si"e is greater then the hole si"e then the allowance is negative.
*-. Deine tole"ance an5 eC+lain 3"iel, t,+es o tole"ance.
)t is the difference between the upper limit and lower limit of a dimension. )n other words, it
is the maimum permissible variation in a dimension. The tolerance may be unilateral or bilateral.
-hen all the tolerance is allowed on one side of the nominal si"e, e.g.,
?.???
?.??&
2?
+

, then it is said to be
12
unilateral system of tolerance. The unilateral system is mostly used in industries as it permits
changing the tolerance value while still retaining the same allowance or type of fit.
&i!. Met%o5 o assi!nin! tole"ances
-hen the tolerance is allowed on both sides of the nominal si"e, e.g.,
?.??2
?.??2
2? ,
+

then it is said
to be bilateral system of tolerance. )n this case @?.??2 is the upper limit and -?.??2 is the tower
limit.
The method of assigning unilateral and bilateral tolerance is shown in fig. 3a/ and 3b/
respectively.
*.. Deine Tole"ance Bone.
)t is the "one between the maimum and minimum limit si"e.
&i!. Tole"ance Bone.
*/. Deine Be"o line.
)t is a straight line corresponding to the basic si"e. the deviations are measured form this
line. The positive and negative deviations are shown above the below the "ero line respectively.
*0. Deine '++e" an5 lo=e" 5e6iation.
U++e" 5e6iation
)t is the algebraic difference between the maimum si"e and basic si"e. the upper deviation
1%
of a hole is represented by a symbol E+3Ecart +uperior/ and of a shaft, it is represented by es.
7o=e" 5e6iation
)t is the algebraic difference between the minimum si"e and the basic si"e. The lower
deviation of a hole is represented by a symbol E) 3Ecart )nferior/ and of a shaft, it is represented by
ei.
51. Deine Act'al De6iation.
)t is the algebraic difference between an actual si"e and the corresponding basic si"e.
51. Deine Mean 5e6iation.
)t is the arithmetical mean between the upper and lower deviations.
52. Deine 'n5a#ental 5e6iation.
)t is one of the two deviations which is conventionally chosen to define the position of the
tolerance "one in relation to "ero line, as shown in fig..
&i!. &'n5a#ental 5e6iation.
53. Deine &it? clea"ance an5 inte"e"ence.
The degree of tightness or looseness between the two mating parts is #nown as a fit of the
part. The nature of fit it characteri"ed by the presence and si"e of clearance and interference.
The clearance is the amount by which the actual si"e of the shaft is less than the actual
si"e of the mating hole in an assembly as shown in fig. 3a/. )n other words, the clearance is the
difference between the si"es of the hole and the shaft before assembly. The difference must be
positive.
The interference is the amount by which the actual si"e of a shaft is larger than the actual
finished si"e of the mating hole in an assembly as shown in fig. 3b/. )n other words, theinterference
1&
is the arithmetical difference between the si"es of the hole and the shaftH before assembly. The
difference must be negative.
5*. Mention t,+es o it.
1/ .learance fit.
2/ )nterference fit.
%/ Transition fit.
55. Mention 2asis o li#it s,ste#.
1/ <ole basis system
2/ +haft basis system
5-. Deine 4ole 2asis s,ste#.
<ole basis system. -hen the hole is #ept as a constant member 3i.e., when the lower
deviation of the hole is "ero/ and different fits are obtained by varying the shaft si"e. as shown in
fig. 3a/ then the limit system is said to be on a hole basis.
&i!. 2ases o li#it s,ste#
5.. Deine S%at 2asis s,ste#.
-hen the shaft is #ept as a constant member 3i.e., when the upper deviation of the shaft is
"ero/ and different fits are obtained by varying the hole si"e, as shown in fig. 3b/, then the limit
system is said to be on a shaft basis.
:3; S%at 3asis s,ste#
1'
5/. Mention =a,s o eC+"essin! s'"ace "o'!%ness n'#e"icall,.
1. .entre line average method
2. 1oot mean s:uare method.
50. Deine C7A #et%o5 o" eC+"ess s'"ace "o'!%ness.
The centre line average method is defined as the average value of the ordinates between
the surface and the mean line, measured on both sides of it. *ccording to )ndian standards, the
surface finish is measured in terms of =.I*, value and it is denoted by 1a.
.I* value or 1a 3in microns/ 7
1 2 % n
y y y ....y
n
+ + +
where, y
1
,y
2
,Jy
n
are the ordinates measured on both Hsides of the mean line and n are the number
of ordinates.
-1. Deine RMS #et%o5.
The root mean s:uare method is defined as the s:uares root of the arithmetic mean of the
s:uares of the ordinates. 6athematically,
1.6.+. 2alue 3in microns/7
2 2 2 2
1 2 % n
y y y ....y
n
+ + +
-1. Mention t%e inl'ence o s'"ace inis% on +"o+e"ties.
1/ +trength
2/ 0earing loads
%/ Fatigue life
&/ 0eay properties
'/ -ear :ualities
&i!.
-2. Deine Real s'"ace.
15
1eal surface! )s the surface limiting the body and separating ) from the surrounding surface.
-3. Deine Geo#et"ical s'"ace.
Feometrical +urface! is the surface prescribed by the design or by the process of manufacture,
neglecting the errors of form and surface roughness.
-*. Deine Eecti6e s'"ace.
Effective surface! is the close representation of a real surface obtained by instrumental means.
-5. Deine s'"ace "o'!%ness.
+urface 1oughness! )t concerns all those irregularities which form surface relief and which
are conventionally defined with in the area where deviations of form and waviness are eliminated.
--. Deine P"i#a", teCt'"es.
$rimary Teture 31oughness/! )t is caused due to the irregularities in the surface roughness
which result from the inherent action of the production process. These are deemed to include
transverse feed mar#s and the irregularities within them.
-.. Deine secon5a", teCt'"es.
+econdary Teture 3-aviness/! )t results from the factors such as machine or wor#
deflections, vibrations, chatter, heat treatment or warping strains. -aviness is the component of
surface roughness upon which roughness is superimposed.
-/. Deine 7a,.
)t is the direction of the =predominant surface pattern, ordinarily determined by the method
of production used.
-0. Deine T"a6e"sin!.
Traversing length is the length of the profile necessary for the evaluation of the surface
roughness parameters. The traversing length may include one or more sampling lengths.
.1. Deine Sa#+lin! len!t%.
+ampling length 3l/ is the length of profile necessary for the evaluation of the irregularities to
be ta#en into account. This is also #nown as the =cut-off, length in regard to the measuring
instruments. )t is measured in a direction parallel to the general d reaction of the profile.
.1. Deine Mean line o t%e +"oile.
1>
6ean line of the profile is the line having the form of the geometrical profile and dividing the
effective profile so that within the sampling length the sum of the s:uares of distances 3y
1
, y
2
,
J..,y
n
/ between effective profile points and the mean line is a minimum.
&i!.
.2. Deine Cent"e line o +"oile.
.entre line of profile. )s the line parallel to the general direction of the profile for which the
areas embraced by the profile above and below the line are e:ual. -hen the waveform is
repetitive, the mean line and the centre line are e:uivalent.
.3. Deine s%at.
* shaft is a rotating machine element which is used to transmit power from one place to
other. )n order to transfer the power from one shaft to another, the various members such as
pulleys, gears etc are mounted on it. )t is used for the transmission of tor:ue and bending moment.
The various members are mounted on the shaft by means of #eys and splines.
.*. Mention s%at #ate"ials.
The material used for ordinary shaft is mild steel. -hen high strength is re:uired for high
speed machines, alloy steels such as nic#el, nic#el chromium, chrome vanadium steels are used.
.opper alloys be used where resistance to corrosion is desired.
.5. 4o= s%ats a"e #a5e.
+hafts are generally formed by hot rolling and finished to si"e by cold drawing or turning
and grinding. The cold rolled shafts are also available, they are stronger than hot rolled shafts are
also available, they are stronger than hot rolled shafts. The shafts of larger diameters are usually
forged and turned to si"e in a lathe. The shafts of smaller diameters are called spindles. They
rotate and impart motion to a cutting tool or a wor# piece.
.-. Mention t,+es o s%at.
1/ Transmission shaft
2/ 6achine shaft
1B
... Deine T"ans#ission s%at.
Transmission shafts! These shafts transmit power between the source and machines
absorbing power. These shafts carry machine parts such as pulleys, gear etc. They are sub(ected
to bending and twisting. EamplesH counter shafts, line shafts, over head shafts and all factory
shafts.
./. Deine Mac%ine s%at.
6achine shaft! machine shaft forms and integral part of the machine. They are sub(ected to
bending moment only Eample! cran#shaft.
.0. Mention st"esses actin! on s%ats.
The following stresses are induced in the shafts
1. +hear stress due to the transmission of tor:ue
2. 0ending stress due to the forces acting upon the machine elements li#e gears, pulleys etc
as well as self weight of the shaft.
%. +tresses due to combined twisting and bending moment.
/1. On =%at 3asis s%at a"e 5esi!ne5.
The shaft may be designed on the basis of
1. +trength 2. 1igidity and stiffness
/1. Gi6e o'" a++lications o 4elical s+"in!s.
1. 0ra#e 9 lever
2. +pring 9 balance
%. *utomobiles
&. Toys
1G
PART 2
1. Disc'ss 3"iel, a3o't s%ea" st"ess? s%ea" #o5'l's? s%ea" st"ain.
S%ea" st"ess? s%ea" st"ain an5 s%ea" #o5'l's :Mo5'l's o "i!i5it,;
-hen a body is sub(ected to two e:ual and opposite forces, acting tangentially across the
resisting section, it results to shear of the section as shown in figure, then the stress induced is
called shear stress 3f
s
/. The corresponding strain is #nown as shear strain 3/ and it is measured
by angular deformation. )t is measured in radians.
Then,
+hear stress f
s
7
Tangential force
1esisting area
+hear strain 7
l
l

&i!. Sin!le s%ea"in! o a "i6ete5 Doint

&i!. Do'3le s%ea"in! o a "i6ete5 Doint
For elastic materials, shear stress is directly proportional to shear strain within the elastic limit.
Then, shear stress shear strain
s
s
f
f constant

This proportionality constant is #nown as modulus of rigidity 3or/ shear modulus. )t is

denoted by F or N.
2?
1esisting area can be determined as follows!-
1. )n case of single riveted lap (oints as shown in figure, causes a single shear. Then,
1esisting area * 7
2
d
&

-here d - dia of rivet in mm.

2. )n case of single riveted butt (oint as shown in figure, causes a double shear. Then,
1esisting area,
2
* 2 d
&

Fenerally
* 7
2
d n
&

3for single shear/

2
* 2 d n
&

3for double shear/

where n 9 number of rivets per pitch length.
%. )n case of holes to be punched in metal plates, the area resisting shear,
* 7 .d.t. mm
2
where d 9 dia of hole to be punched in mm
t 9 thic#ness of metal plate in mm
Force re:uired to punch a hole, i.e.,
- 7 shear stress area resisting shear.
Note! 4nits!
1 $a 7 1 N8m
2
7 1 1?
-5
N8mm
2
1 E.$a 7 1 1?
%
N8m
2
7 1 1?
-%
N8mm
2
1 6.$a 7 1 1?
5
N8m
2
7 1 N8mm
2
1 F.$a 7 1 1?
G
N8m
2
7 1 1?
%
N8mm
2
21
2. Disc'ss 3"iel, a3o't 2ea"in! st"ess :
3
;.
.onsider the riveted (oint as shown in figure, when the plates are pulled, the hole surface
eerts a force - on the rivet and the rivet eerts an e:ual and opposite force on the hole surface
as shown in figure.
Then, the bearing stress is given by
b
force
f
bearing surface area
-

d.t

where - - force or load in N

f
b
- bearing stress in N8mm
2
d - diameter of rivet in mm
t - thic#ness of plate in mm.
)f =n, be the number of rivets per pitch length, then
b
-
f
d.t.n

where n 9 number of rivets per pitch length

&i!. 2ea"in! a"ea
22
&i!. :a; 2ea"in! +"ess'"e in a Do'"nal 3ea"in!
:3; Dist"i3'tion o 3ea"in! +"ess'"e
.onsider a (ournal rotating in a fied bearing as shown in figure 3a/. The (ournal eerts a
bearing pressure on the curved surface of the bearing below it. The distribution of bearing
pressure is not uniform as shown in figure 3b/. )n that case, it is difficult to determine the actual
bearing pressure. <ence the pro(ected area of curved surface in contact is ta#en for determining
the average bearing pressure. Then the average bearing pressure of a (ournal bearing is given by
b
-
$
l.d

where - 9 radial load in N

l - length of (ournal in mm
d 9 dia of (ournal in mm
3. Disc'ss 3"iel, a3o't st"ess)st"ain 5ia!"a# o" 5'ctile #ate"ial :#il5 steel; an5 3"ittle
#ate"ial.
St"ess)st"ain 5ia!"a# o" 5'ctile #ate"ial :Mil5 steel;
+tress-strain diagram is a graph plotted with strain in A-ais and stress in y-ais, when a
material is sub(ected to gradual tensile load during tension test.
&i!. St"ess st"ain 5ia!"a# o" a #il5 steel
2%
The stress-strain diagram for a mild steel specimen is shown in figure. The tensile load is
gradually applied and elongation of the specimen is noted using strain gauge or etensometer.
+tress and strain at different loads are calculated and it is plotted in the graph.
1. P"o+o"tional li#it8)
From the stress-strain diagram, it is clear that K* is a straight line which represents that the
stress is proportional to strain. 0eyond the point *, the curve slightly deviates from straight line.
<ence <oo#,s law holds good upto the point *, it is #nown as proportional limit.
2. Elastic li#it8)
-hen the load is increased beyond the point between * to 0, the material will regain its
shape and si"e, when the load is removed. )t means that the material has elastic properties upto
the point 0. This point 0 is #nown as elastic limit.
3. Eiel5 +oint8)
)f the material is stressed beyond the point 0, it becomes plastic i.e., the material will not be
able to recover its original shape and si"e, when the load is removed. 0eyond the point 0, the
strain increases at a faster rate with any increase in stress until the point . is reached. *t this
point, the material yields before the addition of load and there is an appreciable strain without any
increase in stress. )n case of mild steel, it will be seen that small load drops to ;, immediately after
yielding commences. <ence there are two yield points . and ;. The point . and ; are called
upper and lower yield point respectively. The stress corresponding to the point is #nown as yield
point stress.
*. Ulti#ate st"ess8)
*t ;, the specimen regains some strength and higher value of stresses is re:uired for
higher strains, than those between * and ;. )f the load is applied beyond the point ;, the gradual
increase in strain is followed with the uniform reduction of its cross sectional area. +tretching of
specimen between ; and E, the wor# done on the specimen is largely transformed into heat and
the specimen become hot. *t E, the stress which attains the maimum value is #nown as ultimate
stress.
5. 2"ea9in! st"ess8)
*fter the specimen has reached the ultimate stress, a nec# is formed which decreases the
cross sectional area of specimen and stress or load re:uired to brea# away the specimen is less
than the ultimate stress. Therefore the stress s reduced until the specimen brea#s away at point F.
The stress corresponding to point F, is #nown as brea#ing stress.
LNote! The formation of nec# at E reduces area of cross section and the specimen suddenly fails
at F. 0rea#ing stress seems to be lower than ultimate stress. The original area of cross-section of
specimen is ta#en for calculating the stress and we have the curve EF. )f the actual cross-
sectional area 3reduced area due to nec#ing/ is ta#en for calculating the stress, the true stress-
2&
strain curve would be EF as shown by dotted lineM.
-. Pe"centa!e "e5'ction in a"ea8
)t is the ratio of reduction in area of cross section at the nec# to the original cross-sectional
area.
Iet * be the original cross sectional area in mm
2
a
a be the cross-sectional area at nec# in mm
2
percentage reduction in area 7
* a
1??
*

.. Pe"centa!e elon!ation8)
)t is the ratio of increase in gauge length after fracture to the original length of specimen.
Iet l be the gauge length or original length of specimen in mm
I be the final length of specimen after fracture in mm.
N elongation 7
I l
1??
l

.
St"ess)st"ain 5ia!"a# o" 3"ittle #ate"ial
+tress-strain curve for brittle material is shown in figure. 0rittle materials have the little
elongation after the proportional limit *. They undergo low values of strain before the fracture
occurs at point 0.
&i!. St"ess)st"ain 5ia!"a# o" 3"ittle #ate"ials
*. Disc'ss 3"iel, a3o't acto" o saet, an5 allo=a3le st"esses.
&acto" o saet, an5 allo=a3le st"esses
Fenerally, factor of safety is the ratio of maimum stress to the wor#ing stress or design
2'
stress.
Factor of safety 7
maimum stress
wor#ing or design or
allowable stress
)n case of ductile material, e.g. mild steel, the yield point is clearly defined. <ence the factor
of safety is based on yield point stress.
Factor of safety
yield point stress
3for ductile material/ wor#ing or design or
allowable stress

i.e. *llowable stress
yield point stress
3for ductile material/ factor of safety

)n case of brittle material, e.g. cast iron, the yield point is not well defined. <ence the factor
of safety is based on ultimate stress.
Factor of safety
4ltimate stress
3for brittle material/ -or#ing or design stress or
allowable stress

4ltimate stress
i.e. *llowables stress 7 for brittle material.
Factor of safety
5. Disc'ss 3"iel, a3o't selection o acto" o saet,.
Selection o acto" o saet,
The selection of factor of safety in designing any machine components depends upon the
number of un-#nown variables such as material, mode of manufacture, type of stress, service
condition and shape of parts. 0efore selecting a factor of safety, the design engineer should
consider the following points.
1. reliable and change of properties during service.
2. reliability of test results and accuracy of application of these results to actual machine parts.
%. reliability of applied load.
&. certainty as to eact mode of failure.
'. etent of simplifying assumption.
5. etent of locali"ed stresses.
>. etent of initial stresses setup during manufacture.
B. etent of loss of life, if failure occurs.
25
G. etent of loss of property, if failure occurs.
Each of the above factors must be carefully considered and evaluated. The high factor of
safety results in heavy sections and wastages of material, whereas low factor of safety results in
unnecessary ris# of failure. The values of factor of safety for different materials are given in table.
Ta3le 8 Val'es o acto" o saet,
Mate"ial Stea5, loa5 7i6e loa5 S%oc9 loa5
.ast iron
-rought iron
+teel
+oft materials
and alloys
Ieather
Timber
' to 5
&
&
5
G
>
B to 12
>
B
G
12
1? to 1'
15 to 2?
1? to 1'
12 to 15
1'
1'
2?
-. Desc"i3e Gene"al 5esi!n +"oce5'"e o" 5esi!nin! #ac%ine ele#ents.
Gene"al 5esi!n +"oce5'"e o" 5esi!nin! #ac%ine ele#ents
)n designing a machine component, there is no rigid rule. The problem may be attempted in
several ways. <owever, the general procedure to solve a design problem is as follows!-
1. 1ecognition of need! First of all, ma#e a complete statement of the problem, indicating the
need, purpose for which the machine is to be designed.
2. +ynthesis 3mechanism/! +elect a possible mechanism or group of mechanisms which will
give the desired motion.
%. *nalysis of forces! Find the forces acting on each member of the machine and energy
transmitted by each member.
&. 6aterial selection! +elect the material best suited for each member of machine.
'. ;esign of elements 3+i"e and stresses/! Find the si"e of each member of machine by
considering the forces acting on the member and the permissible stresses for the materials
used. )t should be #ept in view that each member should not deflect or deform than the
permissible limit.
5. 6odification! 6odify the si"e of member to agree with the past eperience and (udgement
to facilitate the manufacture. The modification may also be necessary by consideration of
manufacturing to reduce overall cost.
2>
>. ;etailed ;rawing! ;raw the detailed drawing of each component and assembly of the
machine with complete specification for the manufacturing processes suggested.
B. $roduction! The component as per the drawing is manufactured in the wor#shop.
.. A 3"ass "o5 o 21 ## 5ia#ete" an5 1.5 # lon! is s'3Decte5 to an aCial +'ll o *@N. &in5
t%e st"ess? st"ain an5 elon!ation o t%e 3a"? i E F 1 11
5
N>##
2
.
Gi6en Data8)
;iameter of brass rod d 7 2? mm
Iength of rod l 7 1.' m 7 1'?? mm
Ioad - 7 & EN 7 &??? N
Coung,s modulus E 7 1 1?
'
N8mm
2
To in5 8
1. +tress 2. +train %. Elongation
2B
Sol'tion8)
-e #now
+tress f 7
Ioad
*rea
*rea of cross section of rod * 7
2
d
&

2 2
2? %1&.15mm
&

2
*rea * 7 %1&.15 mm
+tress f 7
-
*

2
&???
12.>% N8mm
%1&.15

+train e 7
f
E

'
12.>%
?.???12>%
1 1?

Elongation l 7 e l
7 ?.???12>% 1'?? 7 ?.1G1 mm.
The elongation can also be found out directly by using the formula.
'
-.l &??? 1'??
l ?.1G1 mm
*.E. %1&.15 1 1?

Res'lts8)
1. +tress f 7 12.>% N8mm
2
2. +train e 7 ?.???12>%
%. Elongation l 7 ?.1G1 mm.
2G
/. In a stea# en!ine c,lin5e" o 311 ## 5ia#ete"? t%e #aCi#'# +"ess'"e ac"oss t%e +iston
is 1.-5 N>##
2
. Dete"#ine t%e 5ia#ete" o +iston "o5? i t%e #aCi#'# tensile o" co#+"essi6e
st"ess on t%e +iston "o5 is li#ite5 to *1 N>##
2
. :Octo3e" 2113;
Gi6en Data8
.ylinder ;iameter ; 7 %?? mm
$ressure across the piston p 7 ?.5' N8mm
2
6aimum tensile or compressive stress 7 f
t
or f
c
7 &? N8mm
2
.
To in58
;iameter of piston rod d
Sol'tion8)
*rea of cross section of cylinder * 7
2
;
&

* 7
2 2
%?? >?5B'.B% mm
&

Ioad on the piston rod -
7 pressure area of cross section of cylinder
7 ?.5' >?5B'.B% 7 &'G&5 N
Iet =d, be the dia of the piston rod.
Tensile or compressive stress f
t
of f
c
7
2
-
d
&

2
c
& -
d
f
& &'G&5
1&52.'
&?
d %B.2 mm

The net standard diameter is &? mm

;iameter of piston rod 7 &? mm.
Res'lt8)
;iameter of piston rod d 7 &? mm.
%?
0. T=o ci"c'la" "o5s o 51 ## 5ia#ete" a"e connecte5 3, a 9n'c9le Doint 3, a +in o *1 ##
in 5ia#ete". I a +'ll o 121 @N acts at eac% en5? in5 t%e tensile st"ess in t%e "o5 an5 s%ea"
st"ess in t%e +in.
Gi6en Data8
Ioad 3-/ 7 12? EN 7 1,2?,??? N
;iameter of circular rod 3;/ 7 '? mm
;iameter of $in 3d/ 7 &? mm
To in58
1. Tensile stress in the rod
2. +hear stress in the pin
Sol'tion8)
-e #now
The tensile stress in the road f
t
7
-
*
*rea of circular rod * 7
2
;
&

* 7
2
'?
&

7 1G5%.'? mm
2
Tensile stress in the rod f
t
7
12????
1G5%.'?
7 51 N8mm
2
*s the pin is sub(ected to double shear,
The resisting area of pin * 7
2
2 d
&

2 2
* 2 &? 52B.% mm
&

%1
+hear stress in the pin f
s
7
-
*
+hear stress in the pin 7 f
s
7
12????
52B.%
7 &B N8mm
2
Res'lt8)
1. Tensile stress in the rod f
t
7 51 N8mm
2
2. +hear stress in the pin f
s
7 &B N8mm
2
11. A %,5"a'lic +"ess eCe"ts a total loa5 o 3.5 MN. T%e loa5 is ca""ie5 3, t=o steel "o5s
s'++o"tin! t%e '++e" %ea5 o t%e +"ess. I t%e sae st"ess is /5 N>##
2
an5 E F 211 @N>##
2
?
in5 :1; 5ia#ete" o t%e "o5s an5 :2; ECtension in eac% "o5 o len!t%s o 2.5 #.
:A+"il 2111;
Gi6en 5ata8
Ioad - 7 %.' 6N 7 %.' 1?
5
N
+afe tensile stress f
t
7 B' N8mm
2
Coung,s modulus E 7 21? EN8mm
2
7 21? 1?
%
N8mm
2
Iength l 7 2.' m 7 2'?? mm
To in58
1. ;iameter of the rods
2. Etension in each rod.
Sol'tion8)
Ioad carried by each rod - 7
5
%.' 1?
2

7 1.>' 1?
5
N
+afe stress f
t
7
-
*
*rea of cross section of each rod.
5
2 2
1.>' 1?
* d 2?'BB.2& mm
& B'


%2
;iameter of each rod d 7
&*

7
& 2?'BB.2&
152 mm

d 7 152 mm
Etension is each rod
5
%
-.l 1.>' 1? 2'??
*.E 2?'BB.2& 21? 1?
1.?12 mm

Res'lts8)
1. ;iameter of each rod d 7 152 mm
2. Etension in each rod 7 1.?12 mm
11. A coil o a c"ane "eA'i"e5 to ca"", a #aCi#'# loa5 o 51 @N. &in5 t%e 5ia#ete" to t%e
lin9 stoc9? i t%e #aCi#'# +e"#issi3le tensile st"ess in t%e lin9 #ate"ial is not to eCcee5 .1
MPa.
Gi6en Data8
Ioad - 7 '? EN 7 '? 1?
%
N
$ermissible tensile stress f
t
7 >? 6$a
7 >? N8mm
2
To in58
The diameter of the lin# stoc#
Sol'tion8)
Tensile stress f
t
7
Ioad
*rea
>? 7
%
2
'? 1?
d
&

d
2
7
%
& '? 1?
G?G.&'
>?

d 7 %?.1' mm say %1 mm.

Res'lt8)
%%
The diameter of the lin# stoc# 7 %1 mm.
12. A #il5 steel "o5 s'++o"ts a tensile loa5 o 51 @N an5 t%e st"ess in t%e "o5 is li#ite5 to
111 N>##
2
. Dete"#ine t%e siBe o t%e "o5? $%en t%e c"oss section is :1; Ci"c'la" :2; SA'a"e
an5 :3; "ectan!'la"? =i5t% F 3 G t%ic9ness. :Oct. 2112;
Gi6en Data8
Tensile load - 7 '? EN 7 '? 1?
%
N
$ermissible stress f
t
7 1??N8mm
2
1ectangular section width 7 % times the thic#ness
To in58
+i"e of rod 3a/ when it is circular 3b/ when it is s:uare
3c/ when it is rectangular, b 7 %t
Sol'tion8
-e #now that
+tress f
t
7
-
*
*rea of cross-section * 7
t
-
f
%
2
'? 1?
'?? mm
1??

3a/ For a circular section,
*rea * 7
2
d 7 '??
&

& '??
d 2'.2%

7 25 mm 3say/
3b/ For a s:uare cross-section
*rea * 7 a a Lsince =a, is one side of s:uare rodM
a
2
7 '?? a 7 '?? 22.%5
7 2% mm.
%&
3c/ For a rectangular section with b 7 %t
*rea * 7 b t 7 '??
Fiven b 7 %t
%t t 7 '?? %t
2
7 '??
t 7
'??
12.GG
%

7 1% mm
b 7 % t 7 % 1% 7 %G mm.
Res'lt8)
a/ ;ia of rod if it is circular 7 25 mm
b/ +i"e of rod if it is s:uare 7 2% mm
c/ +i"e of rod if it is rectangular t 7 1% mm
b 7 %G mm.
13. Calc'late t%e o"ce "eA'i"e5 to +'nc% a ci"c'la" 3lan9 o -1 ## 5ia#ete" in a +late o 5
## t%ic9ness. T%e 'lti#ate s%ea" st"ess o t%e +late is 351 N>##
2
. :Oct. 2112;
Gi6en8
;ia of circular blan# d 7 5? mm
Thic#ness of plate t 7 ' mm
4ltimate shear stress f
s
7 %'? N8mm
2
To in5
Force re:uired 3-/
Sol'tion8
.onsidering shear of a plate,
*rea resisting shear * 7 .d.t

2
5? ' G&2.&>mm
Force re:uired to punch a blan#
7 *rea resisting shear shear stress
7 * f
s
7 G&2.&> %'?
7 %2GB5&.' N
Res'lt8)
%'
Force re:uired to punch a blan# - 7 %2GB5&.' N
1*. A sA'a"e tie)3a" o 21 ## C 21 ## c"oss)section ca""ies a loa5. It is attac%e5 to a
3"ac9et 3, #eans o - 3olts. Calc'late t%e 5ia o 3olt i t%e #aCi#'# st"ess in t%e 3a" is
151 N>##
2
an5 in t%e 3olt is .5 N>##
2
. :A+"il 2113;
Gi6en Data8
.ross section of tie-bar 7 2? 2? mm
No. of bolts 7 5
6aimum stress in tie-bar f
t
7 1'? N8mm
2
+tress in bolt, i.e., shear stress f
sb
7 >' N8mm
2
To in58
;ia of bolt d
b
Sol'tion8)
6aimum load can be resisted by tie-bar
7 *rea of section tensile stress
7 2? 2? 1'?
7 5?,???N
This load can be resisted by 5 bolts
.onsider shearing of bolt, tie-bar causes failure
Therefore, shearing area of 5 bolts 7
2
5 d
&

<ence shear strength or force on 5 bolts 7

2
sb
5 d f
&

This shearing force must be e:ual to load resisted by tie-bar
2
p sb
p
sb
5 d f 5?,???
&
& 5?,???
d
5 f
& 5?,???
1%.?2 mm
5 >'
7 1' mm

Res'lt8)
%5
;ia of bolt d
b
7 1'mm.
15. A "o5 o 1111 ## lon! an5 21 ## 21 ## c"oss)section is s'3Decte5 to a +'ll o
11?111 N. I t%e #o5'l's o elasticit, o t%e #ate"ial is 2 11
5
N>##
2
? 5ete"#ine t%e
elon!ation o "o5. :A+"il 2113;
Gi6en8
Iength of rod l 7 1??? mm
.ross section of rod 7 2? 2? mm
6aimum load - 7 1?,??? N
6odulus of elasticity E 7 2 1?
'
N8mm
2
To in58
Elongation of rod
Sol'tion8)
-e #now,
t
t
t
+tress,f
strain
6odulus of elasticity 3E/
f
7
E
Ioad
Tensile stress f
*rea

l
l
l l


2
1?,???
2' N8 mm
2? 2?

elongation
'
2' 1???
?.12' mm
2 1?

l
Res'lt8)
Elongation of rod ?.12' mm. l
1-. A soli5 co++e" "o5 3- ## 5ia#ete" is "i!i5l, iCe5 at 3ot% t%e en5s insi5e a steel t'3e o
*5## insi5e 5ia#ete" an5 51 ## o'tsi5e 5ia#ete". T%e co#+osite section is s'3Decte5 to
an aCial +'ll o 0/ @N. Dete"#ine t%e st"ess in5'ce5 in t%e "o5 an5 t'3e an5 total eC+ansion
o t%e co#+osite section in a len!t% o 1 #et"e. Ta9e E
steel
F 2 11
5
N>##
2
? E
co++e"
F1 11
5
N>##
2
.
%>
Gi6en Data8
;ia of rod d 7 %5 mm
Eternal diameter of steel tube 7 '? mm
Coung,s modulus for steel tube E
s
7 2 1?
'
N8mm
2
)nternal diameter of steel tube 7 &' mm
Coung,s modulus for copper rod E
c
7 1 1?
'
N8mm
2
Ioad - 7 GB EN, length of section 1m l
To in58
1. +tresses induced in copper rod and steel tube
2. Total epansion
Sol'tion8)
*rea of steel tube ( )
2 2
s 1 2
* d d
&

( )
2 2
2
'? &'
&
%>%.?5& mm

*rea of copper rod *

c
7
2 2
d 7 %5
& &

7 1?1>.B>5 mm
2
.
+train is same for both the copper rod and steel tube
. +
. +
. . + +
- -
* .E * .E

l l
l l
Ioad ta#en by the copper rod.
'
. .
. + + '
+ +
. +
* .E 1?1>.B>5 1 1? 1
- - . . - .
* .E %>%.?5& 2 1? 1
- 1.%5&2 -

l
l
%B
Total load
- 7 load ta#en by copper rod @ load ta#en by steel tube
- 7 -
.
@ -
+
GB 1?
%
7 1.%5&2 -
+
@ -
+
7 2.%5&2 -
+
Ioad ta#en by the steel tube -
+
7
%
GB 1?
2.%5&2

&1,&'1.5' N
Ioad ta#en by the copper rod -
.
7 1.%5&2 -
+
7 1.%5&2 &1,&'1.5'
7 '5,'&B.%& N
+tress in copper rod f
.
7
Ioad on copper rod
*rea of copper rod
2
'5,'&B.%&
1?1>.B>5
''.'' N8mm

+tress in steel tube f

s
7
Ioad on steel tube
*rea of steel tube
&1,&'1.5'
%>%.?5&

7 111.11 N8mm
2
-e #now
+train
+tress f
CoungOs modulus E

l
l
+train is same for both the copper rod and steel tube
%G
( )
c s
. +
c s
. +
' '
f f
or
E E
f . f .
Epansion 7 or
E E
''.'' 111.11
1??? or 1???
1 1? 2 1?
?.'''' mm.

l
l
l l
l
Res'lt8)
+tress in copper rod f
.
7 ''.'' N8mm
2
+tress in steel tube f
+
7 111.11 N8mm
2
Total epansion 7 ?.'''' mm.
1.. T%e +iston o a "eci+"ocatin! co#+"esso" %as a 5ia#ete" o -1 ##. T%e #aCi#'#
+"ess'"e on t%e +iston ace is 1.25 M.Pa. T%e +in +assin! t%"o'!% t%e s#all en5 o t%e
connectin! "o5 can 3e sael, loa5e5 in s%ea" '+to 11 M.Pa. Calc'late t%e #ini#'#
5ia#ete" o t%e !'5!eon +in.
Gi6en Data8
$iston dia ; 7 5? mm
6aimum pressure $
ma
7 1.2' 6$a
7 1.2' N8mm
2
+hear stress for pin f
s
7 1? 6$a 7 1? N8mm
2
To in58
6inimum dia of gudgeon pin d
Sol'tion8)
Force 3or/ Ioad eerted by the piston,
- 7 cross sectional area of piston maimum pressure on piston face
Ioad - 7
2
ma
; $
&

2
- 5? 1.2' %'%&.2G N
&

-e #now
&?
2
+hear load
+hear stress 7
+hear area
+hear load %'%&.2G
+hear area 7
+hear stress 1?
%'%.&2G mm

+hearing area for gudge on pin 7

2
d 2
&

Lsince the pin is sub(ected to double shearM

2
2 d %'%.&2G
&
& %'%.&2G
d 1&.GG 1'mm.
2

Res'lt8)
6inimum dia of gudgeon pin d 7 1' mm.
1/. Calc'late t%e s#allest siBe o %ole t%at can 3e +'nc%e5 in a #il5 steel +late o 15 ##
t%ic9 i t%e 'lti#ate s%ea" st"en!t% o t%e #ate"ial is 331 N>##
2
an5 allo=a3le c"'s%in!
st"ess in t%e +'nc% is 1211 N>##
2
.
Gi6en Data8
Thic#ness of plate t 7 1' mm
4ltimate shear strength i.e. stress f
s
7 %%? N8mm
2
*llowable crushing stress f
c
7 12?? N8mm
2
To in58
+i"e of hole to be punched
Sol'tion8
+hear force re:uired to
$roduce a hole 7 shear area shear stress
+hear area on a 1' mm thic#ness plate 7 d t
2
d 1' mm
&1
+hear force re:uired - 7
s
d 1' f

d 1' %%? N
1'''?.BB d N

)n general, to produce a hole

+hear force re:uired 7 crushing force on the punch
2
c
2 2
1'''?.B5 OdO 7 d f
&
d 12?? G&2.&> d
&
1'''?.B5
d 15.' mm 1> mm.
G&2.&>

Res'lt8)
+mallest si"e of hole to be punched 7 1> mm.
10. A ca" +'s%e" 5e6elo+s a o"ce o /111 N. T%e +e"#issi3le co#+"essi6e st"ess in t%e
#ate"ial o t%e o+e"atin! 3a" is li#ite5 to 3 N>##
2
. Dete"#ine t%e 5ia#ete" o o+e"atin! 3a".
Gi6en8
Force - 7 B??? N
.ompressive stress f
c
7 % N8mm
2
To in58
;ia of operating bar
Sol'tion8
-e #now,
2
Ioad B???
*rea 2555.55 mm
+tress %

.ompressive area for circular cross section of bar 3d/H
&2
2
d 2555.55
&
& 2555.55
d 7 'B.25 5? mm.

Res'lt8)
;ia of operating bar d 7 5? mm.
21. A +"ess 3lan9s o't 5iscs o 35 ## 5ia#ete" in a #ate"ial o 1.- ## t%ic9ness. T%e
'lti#ate s%ea" st"en!t% o t%e #ate"ial is 211 N>##
2
an5 t%e +"ess "a# can eCe"t a
#aCi#'# o"ce o 151 @N. Can =e 3lan9 o't i6e 5iscs si#'ltaneo'sl, in one 3lo=.
Gi6en 5ata8)
;isc dia d 7 %' mm
Thic#ness of plate t 7 1.5 mm
+hear stress f
s
7 2?? N8mm
2
6aimum force or load eerted by ram - 7 1'? EN
To in58
-hether it is possible or not, for ' discs in one blow.
Sol'tion8
Force re:uired to produce a disc on a plate
7 +hear area +hear stress
7
s
d t f %' 1.5 2??
7 %',1B'.B N
<ence
Force re:uired to produce ' disc on a plate
7 ' %',1B'.B 1>'G2G.1 N
7 1>'.G% EN
0ut the maimum force of ram 7 1'? EN
)t is not possible to produce ' discs in one blow.
Res'lt8
Force re:uired 7 1>'.G% EN
&%
Force eerted 7 1'? EN. <ence it is not possible.
21. A tie 3a" %as to ca"", a loa5 o 121 @N. $%at #'st 3e t%e =i5t% o t%e 3a" %a6in! 13 ##
t%ic9? i t%e"e is a "i6et %ole o 21 ## 5ia#ete" on its cent"e line. $o"9in! st"ess o" t%e tie
3a" is .5 N>##
2
.
Gi6en 5ata8
Ioad - 7 12? E N
Thic#ness of tie bar t 7 1% mm
;ia of rivet hole d 7 2? mm
-or#ing stress f
t
7 >' N 8 mm
2
To in58
-idth of tie bar.
Sol'tion8
-e #now,
Ioad on tie 9 bar 7 *rea resisting tensile force tensile stress
Ioad - 7 3w-d/ t f
t
-here w 9 width of tie bar
12? 1?
%
7 3w 9 2?/ 1% >'
%
12? 1?
w 2?
1% >'

12%.?> 7 w 9 2?
w 7 2? @ 12%.?> 7 1&%.?> 7 1&' mm
Res'lt8
-idth of the tie bar w 7 1&' mm
22. A steel "o+e o 111 ##
2
c"oss sectional a"ea is #a5e '+ o st"an5s :t%"ea5s o" "o+e; 1
## in 5ia#ete" %a6in! an allo=a3le tensile st"ess o 1-/ N>##
2
an5 an 'lti#ate st"en!t% o
131 @N. T%e acto" o saet, is /. I 11 st"an5s a"e 3"o9en alon! a +itc% o t%e la, o
st"an5s? is t%e "o+e it o" '"t%e" 'se(
Gi6en 5ata8
*rea of rope * 7 1?? mm
2
*llowable tensile stress f
t
7 15B N8mm
2
4ltimate strength or load - 7 1%? EN
Factor of safety 7 B
Thread dia d 7 1 mm
1? threads are bro#en
&&
To in58
)s it fit for further useP
Sol'tion8
%
4ltimate load
*llowable load - 7
Factor of safety
1%? 1?
7 7152'?N
B

*rea of one thread having 1 mm diameter

2 2 2
a d 1 ?.>B'mm
& &


)f 1? threads are bro#en,
1educed cross 9 sectional area 7 1? a 7 1? ?.>B'
7 >.B' mm
2
1emaining area in the rope 7 1?? 9 >.B'
7 G2.1' mm
2
Therefore stress induced 7
*llowable load
*rea resisting i.e. remaining area
2
152'?
1>5.%&N8 mm
G2.1'

<ere the induced stress is more than the allowable stress, hence the rope is unfit for further use.
Res'lt8
)t is unfit for further use.
23. A 6e"tical co++e" 3a" 21 ## 5ia#ete"? 3 # lon! ca""ies a tensile loa5 o 1*. @N.
Calc'late elon!ation? 5ec"ease in 5ia#ete"? 6ol'#et"ic st"ain? 3'l9 #o5'l's an5 #o5'l's
o "i!i5it, i V F 1.25? E F 01 @N>##
2
.
Gi6en 5ata8
;ia of copper bar d 7 2? mm
Iength of bar l 7 %??? mm
Tensile load - 7 1&> EN
To in58
l, d, e
v
E, F
&'
Sol'tion8
1. Elongation l
-e #now,
- l
strain l 7
* E

2 2
%
%
area of bar 7 2? 7%1&.1' mm
&
1&> 1? %???
l 7 71'.'G>mm
%1'.1' G? 1?

%
l 1'.'G>
linear strain '.1GG 1?
l %???

2. ;ecrease in diameter,
-e #now
lat
e Iateral strain
$oissonO s rati 7
Iinear strain e

Iateral strain 7 $oisson,s ratio linear strain

1'.'G>
?.2'
%???


%
1.2GG 1?

e
lat
7 ?.??12GG
-e #now,
lat
.hange in diameter d
Iateral strain e
Kriginal diameter d

.hange in diameter d 7 original diameter lateral strain
7 d e
lat
7 2? ?.??12GG 7 ?.?2'GG mm
%. 2olumetric strain e
v
7 e 3 1 9 22/
7 '.1GG 1?
-%
3 1 9 2 ?.2'/
7 ?.??2'GG
&. 0ul# modulus E
&5
-e #now
( ) ( )
%
2
E G? 1?
E 5?,???N8 mm
% 1 22 % 1 2 ?.2'

'. 1igidity modulus F
-e #now
( ) ( )
%
2
E G? 1?
F %5,???N8 mm
2 1 2 2 1 ?.2'

+ +
Res'lt8
l 7 1'.'G> mm, d 7 ?.?2'GG mm, e
v
7 ?.??2'GG,
E 7 5?,??? N8mm
2
, F 7 %5,??? N8mm
2
2*. A Do'"nal o 25 ## 5ia#ete" is s'++o"te5 in sli5in! 3ea"in!. It %as a #aCi#'# en5
"eaction o 2.5 @N. Ass'#in! t%e allo=a3le 3ea"in! +"ess'"e o 5 N > ##
2
. Calc'late t%e
len!t% o sli5in! 3ea"in!.
Gi6en 5ata8
;ia of (ournal d 7 2' mm
Ioad - 7 2.' EN 7 2.' 1?
%
N
*llowable bearing pressure $
b
7 ' N8mm
2
To in58
Iength of bearing 3l/
Sol'tion8
-e #now
0earing pressure $
b
7
0earing load 3-/
$r o(ected area of bearing
$ro(ected are of bearing * 7 l d
$ro(ected area l d 7
b
-
$
length of bearing l 7
b
-
$ d
7
%
2.' 1?
2?mm
' 2'

Res'lt8
Iength of bearing l 7 2? mm
&>
25. T%e ollo=in! o3se"6ations =e"e o3taine5 on a #il5 steel s+eci#en %a6in! an initial
!a'!e o 51 ## an5 initial 5ia#ete" o 1- ##.
7oa5 at ,iel5 +oint F -1 @N
MaCi#'# o" 'lti#ate loa5 F // @N
7oa5 at "act'"e F -* @N
Distance 3et=een !a'!e +oints ate" "act'"e F -/./ ##
Dia#ete" o t%e nec9 F 0.2 ##
&in5?
1. Eiel5 st"ess
2. Ulti#ate st"ess
3. No#inal st"ess at "act'"e
*. Pe"centa!e elon!ation
5. Pe"centa!e "e5'ction in a"ea.
Sol'tion8
Kriginal area of cross 9 section * 7
2
d
&

2 2
* 15 2?1.5mm
&

1. Cield stress 7
Ioad at yield point
Kriginal area of cross - section
7
2
5?,???
2GB.&N8 mm
2?1.?5

2. 4ltimate tensile stress 7
6aimum load
Kriginal area of cross- section
7
2
BB,???
&%>.> N8mm
2?1.?5

%. Nominal stress at fracture 7
Ioad at fracture
Kriginal area of cross- section
7
2
5&,???
%1B.%N8 mm
2?1.?5

&. $ercentage elongation
5B.B '?
1?? %>.5N
'?

'. $ercentage reduction in area
&B
2
Kriginal area - area of nec#
Kriginal area
2?1.5 G.2
&
55.G&N
2?1.5

Res'lt8
1. Cield stress 7 2GB.& N 8 mm
2
2. 4ltimate stress 7 &%>.> N 8 mm
2
%. Nominal stress 7 %1B.% N 8 mm
2
&. $ercentage elongation 7 %>.5 N
'. $ercentage reduction in area 7 55G&N
2-. A +'ll o 111 @N is t"ans#itte5 "o# one s%at to anot%e" s%at t%"o'!% a +in 3, a
9n'9le Doint. I t%e #aCi#'# +e"#issi3le tensile st"ess in t%e s%at is 111 N>## an5 t%e
+e"#issi3le s%ea" st"ess in t%e +in in /1 N > ##
2
. &in5 t%e 5ia#ete" o t%e s%at an5 o t%e
+in. :Oct. 2111;.
Gi6en 5ata8
Ioad 3-/ 7 1?? EN 7 1?? 1?
%
N
$ermissible tensile stress in the shaft f
t
7 1?? N8mm
2
$ermissible shear stress in the pin f
s
7 B? N8mm
2
Data ReA'i"e58
1. ;iameter of the shaft
2. ;iameter of the pin
Sol'tion8
-e #now the permissible
Tensile stress in the shaft
t
-
f
*

*rea * 7
2
d
*

%
2
%
2
2
1?? 1? &
1??
d
1?? 1? &
d
1??
d 12>%.2
d %'.5B say &? mm

&G
2. -e #now the permissible stress in the pin
s
-
f
*

.ross section area of the pin

2
p
* 2 d
&

L;ouble shearM
+hear stress in the pin 3f
s
/ 7
-
*
%
2
p
1?? 1? &
B?
2 d

%
2
p
p
1?? 1? &
d >G'.>>
B? 2
d 2B.2 say %? mm

;iameter of the pin d

p
7 %? mm
Res'lt8
1. ;iameter of the shaft d 7 &? mm
2. ;iameter of the pin d
p
7 %? mm
2.. Disc'ss t,+es o co#+o si3 its +"o+e"ties? %i!%l, 3, i3e" its siBe o"ientation.
2/. Disc'ss So5e"3e"! H Goo5#ann eA'ation a++lie5 to ati!'e loa5 S N 5ia!"a#
EC+lain(
20. Role o co#+'te" ai5e5 5"ats o inte"nal co#3'stion en!ine 3, to, a ca"e st'5,
31. EC+lain !"a+%ical 5ete"#ination o t%e en5'"ance li#it.
6ost of the data available for endurance limit are based on specimens with highly polished
surfaces sub(ected to conditions of fully reversed harmonic stress variations, and upon some
arbitrarily selected number of life cycles in favourable ambient atmosphere. 0ut in actual practice
the surface may not be highly polished, the ambient atmosphere may be more harmful than that in
the laboratory and a different fatigue life may be desired than the usual value for the specific
material, the further the stress variation may not be eactly harmonic. *ll these will lead to lower
value of endurance limit.
'?
&i!'"e8 A t,+ical en5'"ance 5ia!"a# o" steel
The graphical method of determining the endurance limit is found to be more convenient
than the use of formulae. * typical endurance diagram for steel is shown in figure. The diagram
can be constructed for any material whose ultimate strength, yield stress and endurance limit for
completely reversed stresses for any particular type of loading 3i.e. bending, aial, or torsion/ are
#nown. $oint 4 corresponds to ultimate strength, point C to yield stress, and the points E
1
and E
2
correspond to the endurance limit for complete stress reversals. Kbviously any point on line K4,
such as *, represents any steady or mean stress +
m.
)t has been eperienced that if a variable
stress is superimposed upon a steady stress, the plotted results will determine a maimum and
minimum stress line between which safe operation can be maintained. *ccordingly lines E
1
4, E
2
4
and K4 represent the stress is never allowed to eceed to the yield stress, so the figure E
1
0C.E
2
limits the possible stress combinations and forms the endurance diagram. The lines E
1
4

and E
2
4
are theoretically supposed to be slightly curved, but no appreciable error will be introduced if these
are assumed to be straight. Now obviously, the permissible variable stress +
v
can be determined
on C 9 ais corresponding to any mean stress +
m
as shown in figure.
This diagram can be simplified, if the point 4 be shifted to the hori"ontal ais. )n that case
the points E
1
, 0 are C will ta#e the positions as shown in figure. )n this diagram $Q represents the
variable stress, which, combined with the steady stress K$, will (ust cause failure.
'1
&i!'"e8 So5e"3e"! Goo5#en Dia!"a#
4sually portion E
1
0 is small and thus for simplicity sa#e, the straight line E
1
C can replace
the line E
1
0C as the stress limit line, and the line E
1
C is called +oderberg line. Iine E
1
4 is #nown
as modified Foodman line and hence the name for this diagram is +oderberg 9 Foodman
diagram. 0y introducing the factor of safety 3+F/ or design factor. The line -+, or wor#ing stress
limit line is obtained as shown in figure. Thus 1$ represents the variable stress that may be
superimposed on a steady stress K$.
Though this method is applicable if the time variation of +
v
relative to the mean stress +
m
is
harmonic, however, same method may be used without much loss of accuracy for non 9 harmonic
periodic variations also.
31. A #ac%ine #e#3e" is s'3Decte5 to 3en5in! st"ess 6a",in! 3et=een 2111 9! > c#
2
tensile an5 1111 9!>c#
2
co#+"essi6e. Dete"#ine t%e 'lti#ate tensile st"en!t% o t%e
#ate"ial ca+a3le o ta9in! '+ t%is loa5in! acco"5in! to
:i; Ge"3e"<s o"#'la
:ii; Goo5#an<s o"#'la
:iii; So5e"3e"!<s o"#'la
Ass'#e &S F 2 an5 S
6
F 1.55 s
'
Sol'tion8
+
ma
7 2??? #g 8 cm
2
+
min
7 - 1??? #g 8 cm
2

ma min
m
s s
s
2
+

2
2??? 1???
'??Eg8 cm
2

and
ma min
e
s s
s
2
+

'2

2
2??? 1???
1'??Eg8 cm
2
+

s
v
7 ?.' s
u
3Endurance limit in reversed bending may be ta#en as ?.' 4T+/
*ccording to Ferber,s formula
2
v m
u
+ +
1
+e +
_


,
or
2
u u
1'?? '??
1
?.'+ +
_


,
or u
u
2'?,???
%??? +
+

or +
u
2
9 %??? s
u
9 2'?,???7 ?
or
u
%??? G?????? 1??????
s
2
t +

7
2
%??? %1>?
%?5'#g8 cm
2
+

*ccording to Foodman,s formula

v m
e u
+ + 1
+ F+ +

or
u u
1'?? 1 '??
?.'s 2 +

or %'??s
u
7 R
or s
u
7 >??? #g 8 cm
2
*ccording to +oderberg formula
v m
e v
u m
s s 1
s F+ s
1'?? 1 '??
?.'s 2 ?.''s


u
s
%??? G1?
2

or 7 %G1? 2 7 >B2? #g 8 cm
2
From above, ma. value of
+
u
7 >B2? #g 8 cm
2
'%
+teel with an ultimate tensile stress of >B2? #g 8 cm
2
should be chosen to withstand
these fluctuations indefinitely without failure.
32. A s%at is to 3e 5esi!ne5 to t"ans#it to"A'es 6a",in! 3et=een /111 9! c# to 1-111 9!
c#. ass'#e &S F 2 an5 st"ess concent"ation acto" o 1.2 Ulti#ate tensile st"en!t% o
#ate"ial is -111 9! > c#
2
an5 ,iel5 st"ess is *511 9! > c#
2
. SiBe eect #a, 3e ta9en as 1./5?
s'"ace inis% acto" as 1./.
Sol'tion8
6ean tor:ue
15??? B???
12???#g8 cm
2
+

2ariable tor:ue
15??? B???
2

2
u
2
v
&??? #g8 cm
s 5??? #g8 cm
s &'?? #g8 cm

+
e
can be assumed 7 ?.' s
u
for reversed bending.
7 %??? #g 8 cm
2
+
v
3yield stress in shear/ can be assumed
7 ?.5 s
v
3in tension/
7 ?.5 &'?? 7 2>?? #g 8 cm
2
.
)t d is diameter of shaft, then
m
%
12???
s
d
15

and
v
%
&???
s
d
15

m v
v e 1 2 %
s E.s 1

F+ s s .. . .
+
3correction factor for loading may be ta#en as ?.5/
or
% %
12??? &???
1.2
d d
1
15 15
2 2>?? %??? ?.5 ?.B' ?.B?

+

'&

% s %
22.5 2? &2.5
d d d
+
or d7
%
21.% 2.>>cm.
33. A ci"c'la" #ac%ine #e#3e" o 5'ctile #ate"ial is s'3Decte5 to a 6a",in! aCial loa5 "o#
251?111 N co#+"essi6e to .51?111 N tensile. En5'"ance st"ess o" #ate"ial F 251 MN > #
2
?
tensile ,iel5 st"ess F 351 MN > #
2
. Ta9e st"ess concent"ation acto" o 1./ an5 acto" o
saet, F 2.1. Dete"#ine t%e 5ia#ete" o #e#3e".
Sol'tion8
Iet d be dia. of circular member

2
* d
&

6a, stress
%
2
>'? 1? N
* m

6in. stress
( )
%
2
2'? 1? N
compressive
* m

( )
%
m
>'? 2'?
1?
+
2 *
1 +

1
]
%
2
1? N
2'?
* m

and
( )
%
v
>'? 2'?
1?
+
2 *
1

1
]
%
2
1? N
'??
* m


5 2
e
5 2
v
+ 2'? 1? N8 m
+ %'? 1? N8 m


*ccording to soderberg formula
v m
e s v
E+ + 1
+ F +

3E 7 1.B, Fs72/
or
% %
5 5
1.B '?? 1? 1 2'? 1?
2'? 1? * 2 %'? 1? *



or
% %
%.5 ?.>1' 1
1? * 1? * 2
+
''
or
%
&.%1' 2
*
1?

%
B.5%
1?
?.??B5%

or
& ?.??B5%
d

?.?11
7 ?.1?' m
7 1?' mm
3*. A +'lle, 9e,e5 to a s%at #i5 =a, 3et=een t=o anti "iction 3ea"in!s is s'3Decte5 to a
3en5in! #o#ent 6a",in! "o# 1211 9! c# to 3-11 9! c# an5 t%e to"sional #o#ent in s%at
6a"ies "o# -11 to 1/11 9! c#. t%e "eA'enc, o 6a"iation o t%e loa5s is sa#e as t%e s%at
s%ee5. Ulti#ate st"en!t% an5 ,iel5 st"en!t% o s%at #ate"ial a"e 5511 9! > c#
2
an5 3111
9! > c#
2
. 5ete"#ine t%e 5ia#ete" o t%e s%at o" an ininite lie. St"ess concent"ation acto"
o" 9e,=a, in 3en5in! an5 to"sion #a, 3e ta9en as 1.- an5 1.* "es+ecti6el,.
&ollo=in! #a, 3e ass'#e5
Desi!n acto" F 1./
SiBe &acto" F 1./5
S'"ace co""ection acto" F 1.//
Co""ection acto" o" to"sion loa5in! F 1.-
S
s
6F 1.- S
6
S
e
F 1.5 S
'
e
Sol'tion8
E:uivalent normal stress due to bending!
Iet d be the diameter of shaft in cm
Then
ma %
%2 %5??
+
d

min %
%2 12??
+
d

ma min
m
+ +
+
2
+

2
%
%2
2&??#g8 cm
d

and
ma min
e
+ +
+
2

'5

2
%
%2
12??#g8 cm
d

E:uivalent normal stress according to soderberg design e:uation

v v
m
e 1 2 %
+ E.+
+
+ . . .
+
%
%
%2
1.5 12??
%2 %???
d
2&??
d 2>'? 1 ?.B' ?.BB

+

3s
e
7 ?.'s
u
/
% %
2
%
2&&?? 2B'??
d d
'2G??
#g8 cm
d
+

E:uivalent shear stress due to torsion

2
s ma %
2
s min %
15
+ 1B??#g8 cm
d
15
+ 5??#g8 cm
d

2
s m %
15
+ 12?? #g8cm
d

and
2
s %
15
+ v 5??#g8 cm
d

s v
v
+ v ?.5s
s ?.5 %???

7 1B?? #g 8 cm
2
E:uivalent shear stress according to soderberg e:uation.
s s
s
1 2 %
%
%
+ v Es
+ m .
+e . . .
15
1.& 5??
15 1B??
d
12??
d 2>'? ?.5 ?.B' ?.BB

+


% %
2
%
51?? 52&?
d d
12,%&?
#g8 cm
d
+

'>
E:uivalent ma, shear stress
( )
2
2 E:uivalent normal stess
E:uivalent shear +tress
2
_
+

,
and this should be e:ual to permissible shear stress
7
s
s
+ v
+
or ( )
2
%
1 '2G?? 1B??
12%&?
d 2 1.B

or
%
1????
2>.G 1.'2 1???
d
+
or d
%
7 1? '.&&
and d 7 %.B cm.
35. T%e st"esses in a coile5 6al6e s+"in! 6a", "o# 2311 9!>c#
2
to 1.11 9!>c#
2
co""es+on5in! to o+en an5 close5 +osition o t%e 6al6e. T%e ,iel5 st"ess o s+"in! #ate"ial
in to"sion is 3511 9!>c#
2
an5 en5'"ance li#it 3111 9!>c#
2
in "e6e"se5 to"sion. Ass'#in! a
acto" o saet, o 2? 5ete"#ine t%e +e"#issi3le 6a"ia3le st"ess on t%e s+"in! an5 in5 o't
=%et%e" t%is s+"in! can 3e 'se5 o" t%e 5't, assi!ne5.
Sol'tion8
The allowable shear stress
2
Ciled stress in torsion
Factor of safety
'%??
25'?#g8cm
2

and allowable endurance stress
2
Endurance limit
F+
%???
1'?? #g8cm .
2

4sing these values, the wor#ing stress line -+ can be drawn.
'B
&i!'"e8
The mean stress on spring
2
2%?? 1>??
2??? #g8cm
2
+

Ta#e K$72??? #g8cm
2
and drawn line $1K+. Then $1 represents the permissible
variable stress on the spring.
$1 $+
K- K+

or
$1 5'?
1'?? 25'?

or
2
5'? 1'??
$1 %5>#g8 cm
25'?

+ince the variable stress on the spring is only %?? #g8cm
2
, it can be used for the assigned
duty.
3-. EC+lain a3o't st"ess concent"ation an5 Notc% sensiti6it,.
St"ess Concent"ation
)t has been found that most of the failures ta#e palace due to fatigue loading at sections
where stress concentration is present 3i.e. at places where abrupt change in form of part occurs/.
Even though the average stress for the cross-section is #ept far below the elastic limit for the
material, failures are found to occur without warning or plastic deformation.
.onsider the tensile loading of a rectangular piece having a hole in its centre. )f this hole
were not there then stress induced would have been
1
F
s
*

'G
3F 7 force applied/,
* 7 area of cross-section of react angular specimen/.
&i!'"e8
;ue to drilling of the hole, in plain thin#ing the stress should be
2
1
F
s
* *

3*
1
7 area of cross-section of cut out portion./
0ut it is found that the stress distribution along the cross-section carrying hole is practically
uniform until the neighborhood of the hole is reached, where it suddenly increases to value +
2
.
The irregularity in stress distribution caused by abrupt changes of form is called stress
concentration and, it is represented by stress concentration factor 3E/.
For the case shown in Fig.
%
2
s
E
s

<ighest value of actual stress at change of cross-section

E
Nominal stress as given by elementary e:uation for minimum cross-section

The high stresses caused by stress concentration cause a fatigue crac# to start under
fluctuating loading, this crac# in due course propagates further till the part all of a sudden gives
way. +imilarly it is found that two dissimilar members 3of different cross-section/ (oined together
5?
by gradual increases in cross section also do not follow the elementary e:uation for stress at an
near the fillet region. )nstead the stress at middle of fillet is maimum.
The nominal stress in the left portion where cross-section is uniform can be found by
dividing the force F by the bigger area *
0
there. +imilarly on right side by dividing F by *
s
3smaller
area there/.
&i!'"e8
<owever, in the region where the width is changing, the internal force flow lines get
disturbed and have to get redistributed themselves to satisfy the uniformly distributed lines
condition in sections of uniform cross-sections on either side. ;ue to this stress distribution, stress
in such a cross-section is found to be as shown in Fig. i.e. heavy stresses near the edge of the
material. The stress situation in this area is more complicated and the elementary stress e:uation
is not valid.
)t is found that stress concentration in static loading is very serious in brittle materials 3/li#e
cast iron/ but is less serious in ductile materials due to relief of stress concentration by plastic flow.
<owever, stress concentration is very serious for ductile materials in case of cyclic loading.
)t is observed that stress concentration occurs for all #inds of stress. due to tensile loading,
compressive, shear, bending etc. and at all #inds of changes in cross-section e.g. due to presence
of holes, fillets, notches, #eyways, splines, tool mar#s, or even accidental scratches, so much so
that even the inclusions and flaws in the material or on the surface also serve as stress raisers.
The maimum value of the stress at such points can be found eperimentally either by
photo elastic analysis, or by direct strain gauge measurement.
51
&i!'"e8 T%eo"eticall, 5ete"#ine5 st"ess concent"ation acto" @
1
o" si#+le tensile loa5in! o
s%at =it% illete5 5ec"ease in 5ia#ete".
Typical values of the more commonly used theoretical stress concentration factors are
indicated in Fig. Each of these factors is based upon simple static tensile, bending, or shear
loading of the members involved.
52
&i!'"e8 T%eo"etical st"ess concent"ation acto" @t o" si#+le leC'"al static loa5in! o a
s%at =it% illete5 5ec"ease in 5ia#ete".
5%
&i!'"e8 T%eo"eticall, 5ete"#ine5 st"ess concent"ation acto" @
t
o" si#+le tensile static
loa5in! o a notc%e5 lat 3a".
)n addition to these values, some more commonly used values of stress concentration are
listed below!
Val'e o st"ess concent"ation acto" @
Se"6ice
Ran!e A6e"a!e 6al'e
1& R
o
involute
gears
1.' to 2.5 1.5
2?
o
stub-
tooth involute
gear
1.& to 2.' 1.'
+tead-runner
of woodruff
#eyway
1.% to 1.5 1.'
$rofiled
#eyway
1.5 to 2.? 2 to % 1.B
2.'
5&
Filleted
rectangular
#eyway
$ress and
shrin# fits
1.& to &.?
1.' for press fits without
any shoulder
S2.% for press fits in con(uction
with a shoulder

Threads and
threaded
connections
1.> to &.?
1.B for whit worth threads
of medium carbon steel
and %.% for -hitworth threads of
heat treated nic#el steel.

0ending of a
shaft with a
circular
transverse
hole
1.G to %.?
dia of hole
.orresponding to ratio from
dia.of shaft ?.% to ?.>/
Notc% sensiti6it,
)t has been eperienced that the stress concentration effects of #eyways, fillets, notches,
holes and similar stress raisers are less under conditions for fatigue loading than for static loadingH
the effect being #nown as notch sensitivity, which varies widely with the geometry of the stress
raiser and with the material involved. The notch sensitivity factor : is defined as
( )
o en
t
+ 8 + 1
:
E 1

where +
e
7 endurance limit of the material without any stress concentration notch in
the specimen.
+
en
7 endurance limit of the material with a stress concentration notch in
the specimen.
E
t
7 theoretical stress concentration factor without ta#ing notch
sensitivity into account.
The value of : varies from ? to 1, ? indicating that to notch sensitivity effect eists, and 1
indicating the full effect of the theoretical stress concentration factor as determined from static
loading consideration. The notch sensitivity factor is found to be same for all types of loadings
3aial, fleural, or torsional/, and is dependent mainly on material and the geometric configuration
descriptive of the stress raiser as shown in Fig.
The actual stress concentration factor is then determined by the relation
5'
( )
actual
E : E 1 1 +
:A; I'enc%e5 an5
te#+e"e5 steels.
:2; Anneale5 o"
no"#aliBe5
steels.
&i!'"e8 T,+ical notc% sensiti6it,
c'"6e o" steel s+eci#en %a6in!
an, t,+e o !"a5'al "e5'ction in a"ea
=it% "a5i's "? o" a %ole o "a5i's " in 3et=een s+eci#en etc.
3.. EC+lain a3o't 6a"io's T,+es o ail'"e.
T,+es o &ail'"e
6echanical failures are of two typesH
3i/ yielding-in which case permanent deformation has ta#en place.
3ii/ Fracture-i.e. separation failure.
)n the case of ductile materials, failure ta#es place by yielding because their resistance to
sliding is smaller then to separation. )n many ductile materials, the yield point is same both in
tensile as well as compression loading.
)n the case of brittle materials, failure ta#es place by fracture as these have less resistance
to separation than to sliding.
The demarcation line between ductile and brittle materials is ta#en as 'N elongation. 6ost
of the brittle materials have a considerably higher value for the ultimate strength in compression a
considerably higher value for the ultimate strength in compression than in tension.
4nder the following conditions a ductile material may have similar failure as for brittle
materials.
3i/ .yclic loading at normal temperature 3fatigue/.
3ii/ Iong-time static loading at elevated temperature 3creep/.
3iii/ )mpact or very rapidly applied loading 3especially at low temperatures/.
3iv/ -or# hardening by a sufficient amount of yielding.
3v/ +evere :uenching in heat treatment.
)n machine design the failure criterion may not be mechanical failure but a part is said to
have failed when it ceases to perform the function for which it was designed. * part may fail due
55
to fracture by static or cyclic load, ecessive elastic or inelastic deformation, general yielding 3i.e.,
the part is no more able to carry the load and hold its si"e/, buc#ling etc.
T%eo"ies o &ail'"e
Theories of failure have been devised to present the basis for the design of the machine
parts sub(ected to combined stressed. These are based upon both static and fatigue strength of
the materials.
The various theories are!
MaCi#'# No"#al St"ess T%eo",
*s already indicated, a ductile material under static loading will fail by yieldingH therefore,
the wor#ing stress should be based on the yield point stress ta#ing some suitable factor of safety.
)f the material is ductile and load is steady then effect of stress concentration can also be
neglected.
Thus wor#ing stress in tension8compression
vp
Cield point stress in tension8compression
Factor of safety
+
F+

)n the case of combination of stresses, the criterion of failure is the maimum principal
stress. <owever, it has been found by eperiments on yielding of materials, that the use of
maimum stress theory is limited only to uniaial tension or compression loading.
The maimum normal stress theory is particularly applicable to brittle materials li#e cast
iron, hard steels and glass.
MaCi#'# S%ea" St"ess T%eo", o &ail'"e. *s the ductile materials fail by shearing, the failure
by maimum shear stress which may occur anywhere should be considered.
)f a body is sub(ected to simple tension stress s, then shear stresses e:ual to s82 act at
directions &'
o
to the direction of s.
)f stress s is increased to the yield point value, the maimum shear stress theory postulates
that the material will then be at the yield point value in shear.
Then
syp
1
+ syp
2

5>
or
sma
?.'syp
+
F+

)f s
1
, +
2
and +
%
3+
1
T+
2
T+
%
/ be the three principal stresses, then maimum shear stress
occur in the plan of 3+
1
, +
2
/ and is
1 2
s
+ +
+ ma
2

and it should be e:ual to
?.'syp
F+
This theory is applicable to ductile materials such as mile steels, brasses and aluminum
alloys.
MaCi#'# St"ain T%eo", o &ail'"e.
*ccording to this theory, a material is said to have reached the yield condition when the
maimum unit strain in any direction eceeds the unit strain at the tensile yield point for the
material as determine din a pure tensile test.
*ccording to it, for biaial loading with no direct shear,
1ma 2
+ +tv + +
and
2ma tv 1
+ + + +
and for triaial loading
( )
1ma tv 2 %
+ s + + and so onH + +
where +
1
, +
2
and +
%
correspond to principal stresses.
This theory is particularly applicable to thic# cylinders and to brittle materials.
MaCi#'# Disto"tion Ene"!, T%eo",
*ccording to it, the failure occurs when the distortion per unit volume of the material e:uals
the distortion energy 3total strain energy-energy re:uired to produce change in volume/ per unit
volume for the material at the tensile yield point as determined by a simple tension test.
Thus ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
2
tv 1 2 1 % 2 %
1
+ + + + + + + M
2
+ +
This applies to most ductile materials and is one of the best available theories of failure
5B
because it agress with many of the eperimental results, and other theories do not.
3/. A 3olt is s'3Decte5 to a 5i"ect tensile loa5 o 2511 9! an5 a s%ea" loa5 o 1511 9!.
Consi5e"in! 6a"io's t%eo"ies o ail'"e? 5ete"#ine t%e s'ita3le siBe o 3olt i t%e ,iel5 st"ess
in tension is 2511 9!>c#
2
. &acto" o saet, #a, 3e ta9en as 2.5 an5 Poisson<s "atio as 1.3.
Sol'tion8
Iet d be diameter of bolt
Then tensile stress on bolt
t 2
2
2'?? 1?,???
s
d
d
&

and shear stress on bolt
s 2
2
1'?? 5,???
+
d
d
&

)f +
1
and +
%
are the maimum and minimum principal stresses, then
[ ] 2
2 2
1 t t s
2 2
2
2
2
2
a t t 2 s
2
2
+ + + &+
1???
1? 1? & 5
d
1???
1? 2&&
d
1???
2'.5 #g8cm
d
1???
+ + + &+ 1? 1'.5
d
'.5 1???
#g8 cm
d
+ +
1
+ +
]

1
+
]

-or#ing stress
2
2'??
1???#g8 cm
2.'

*ccording to maimum normal stress theory,
5G
1
+ wor#ing stress
or
2
2'.5 1???
1???
d

or
2'.5
d B.1'
2.B5cm.

*ccording to shear stress theory

vp
1 %
?.'+
+ +
2 F+

or
2 2
1 2'.5 1??? '.5 1?? ?.' 2'??
2 d d 2.'
1 _

1

,
]
or
2
%1.2 1???
1???,
d

or
%1.2
d %.15cm.

*ccording to strain theory of failure

[ ]
yp
1 %
2
+
+ +
F+
1???
1??? 2'.5 ?.% '.5
d
+

or
2&
d 2.&%cm.

*ccording to the ma. distortion energy theory

( ) ( )
2 2
yp 2
1 1 % %
2 2 2 2
1 1 % 1 % %
2 2
1 % 1 %
+
1
+ + + +
F+ 2
1
+ + + 2+ + +
2
+ + + +
_
1
+ +

]
,
1 + + +
]
+
>?
or
2
2 2 2
2
1???
1??? 2'.5 2.5 2'.5 '.5
d
1
1 +
1 ]

]
or
( )
2
2
d 5'2 %1.& 1&%.'
75B%.&-1&%.'
7'%G.G
+
or
&
2
'%G.G
d '&.B

or d 7 2.>2 cm.
6a. diameter wor#s out according to shear stress theory and is %.15 cm.
30. Desc"i3e its an5 its t,+e.
The degree of tightness or looseness between the two mating parts is #nown as a fit of the
part. The nature of fit it characteri"ed by the presence and si"e of clearance and interference.
The clearance is the amount by which the actual si"e of the shaft is less than the actual
si"e of the mating hole in an assembly as shown in fig. 3a/. )n other words, the clearance is the
difference between the si"es of the hole and the shaft before assembly. The difference must be
positive.
The interference is the amount by which the actual si"e of a shaft is larger than the actual finished
si"e of the mating hole in an assembly as shown in fig. 3b/. )n other words, the interference is the
arithmetical difference between the si"es of the hole and the shaftH before assembly. The
difference must be negative.
T,+es o &its
*ccording to )ndian standards, the fits are classified into the following three groups!
1. .learance fit. )n this types of fit, the si"e limits for mating parts are so selected that
clearance between them always occur, as shown in fig. 3a/. )t may be noted that in a
clearance fit, the tolerance "one of the hole is entirely above the tolerance "one of the
shaft.
)n a clearance fit, the difference between the minimum si"e of the hole and the maimum
si"e of the shaft is #nown as minimum clearance whereas the difference between the
maimum si"e of the hole and minimum si"e of the shaft is called maimum clearance as
shown in fig. 3a/.
>1
The clearance fits may be slide fit, easy sliding fit, running fit, slac# running fit and loose
running fit.
&i!. T,+es o its.
2. )nterference fit. )n this type of fit, the si"e limits for the mating parts are so selected that
interference between them always occur, as shown in fig. 3b/. )t may be noted that in an
interference fit, the tolerance "one of the hole is entirely below the tolerance "one of the
shaft.
)n an interference fit, the difference between the maimum si"e of the hole and the
minimum si"e of the shaft is #nown as minimum interference, whereas the difference
between the minimum si"e of the hole and the minimum si"e of the shaft is called maimum
interference, as shown in fig. 3b/.
The interference fits may be shrin# fit, heavy drive fit and light drive fit.
%. Transition fit. )n this type of fit, the si"e limits for the mating parts, as shown in fig 3./. )t may
be noted that in transition fit, the tolerance "ones of hole and shaft overlap.
The transition fits may be force fit, tight fit and push fit.
*1. Desc"i3e 2asis o li#it s,ste#.
2asis o 7i#it S,ste#
The following are two bases of limit system.
1. <ole basis system. -hen the hole is #ept as a constant member 3i.e., when the lower
deviation of the hole is "ero/ and different fits are obtained by varying the shaft si"e. as
shown in fig. 3a/ then the limit system is said to be on a hole basis.
2. +haft basis system. -hen the shaft is #ept as a constant member 3i.e., when the upper
deviation of the shaft is "ero/ and different fits are obtained by varying the hole si"e, as
shown in fig. 3b/, then the limit system is said to be on a shaft basis.
>2
:a; 4ole 3asis s,ste# :3; S%at 3asis s,ste#
&i!. 2ases o li#it s,ste#
The hole basis and shaft basis system may also be shown as in fig. with respect to the "ero line.
&i!. 2ases o li#it s,ste#
)t may be noted that from the manufacturing point of view, a hole basis system is always
preferred. This is because the holes are usually produced and finished by standard tooling li#e
drill, reamers etc., whose si"e is not ad(ustable easily. Kn the other hand, the si"e of the shaft
3which is to go into the hole/ can be easily ad(usted and is obtained by turning or grinding
operations.
*1. T%e 5i#ensions o t%e #atin! +a"ts? acco"5in! to 3asis %ole s,ste#? a"e !i6en as
ollo=s8
4ole8 25.11## S%at8 2*.0. ##
25.12 ## 2*.05 ##
&in5 t%e %ole tole"ance? s%at tole"ance an5 allo=ance.
Sol'tion8 Fiven! Iower limit of hole 7 2'mmH upper limit of hole 7 2'.?2mmH
4pper limit of shaft 7 2&.G>mmH Iower limit of shaft 7 2&.G' mm
<ole tolerance
-e #now that hole tolerance
7 4pper limit of shaft 9 Iower limit of shaft
>%
7 2'.?2 9 2' 7 ?.?2 mm.
+haft tolerance
-e #now that shaft tolerance
7 4pper limit of shaft 9 Iower limit of shaft
72&.G>-2&.G'7?.?2mm
*llowance
-e #now that allowance 7 Iower limit of hole 9 4pper limit of shaft
7 2'.??-2&.G>7?.?%mm
*3. Calc'late t%e tole"ances? 'n5a#ental 5e6iations an5 li#its o siBes o" t%e s%at
5esi!nate5 as *1 4/>..
Sol'tion8 Fiven! +haft designation 7 &?<B8f>
The shaft designation &?<B8f> means that the basic si"e is &?mm and the tolerance grade for the
hole is B 3i.e., )TB/ and for the shaft is >3i.e., )T>/.
Tolerances
+ince &?mm lies in the diameter steps of %?mm to '?mm, therefore the geometric mean diameter,
; %? '? %B.>% mm.
-e #now that standard tolerance unit,
%
%
i ?.&' ; ?.??1 ;
?.&' %B.>% ?.??1 %B.>%
?.&' %.%B ?.?%B>% 1.''G.>% or 1.'5 microns
71.'5 ?.??1 ?.??1 '5mm ....3 1 micron7?.??1 mm/


+
+
+
Q
From Table we find that standard tolerance for the hole of grade B3)TB/
72'i72'?.?1 '57?.?%Gmm
and standard tolerance for the shaft of grade >3)T>/
715i715?.??1 '57?.?2'mm
>&
Note8 The value of )TB and )T> may be directly seen from Table.
Fundamental deviation
-e #now that fundamental deviation 3lower deviation/ for hole <.
E) 7 ?
From table we find that fundamental deviation 3upper deviation/ for shaft f,
es7-'.'3;/
?.&1
7-'.'3%B.>%/
?.&1
7-2&.5% or 9 2' microns
7-2'?.??17-?.?2'mm
Fundamental deviation 3lower deviation/ for shaft f,
ei7es-)T7-?.?2'-?.?2'7-?.?'?mm
The 9ve sign indicates that fundamental deviation lies below the "ero line.
Iimit of si"es
-e #now that lower limit for hole
70asic si"e 7 &?mm
4pper limit for hole 7 Iower limit for hole @ Tolerance for hole
7&?@?.?%G7&?.?%Gmm
4pper limit for shaft 7 Iower limit for hole or 0asic si"e 9 Fundamental deviation
34pper deviation/ J3
Q
+haft f lies below the "ero line/
7&?-?.?2'7%G.G>'mm
and lower limit for shaft 7 4pper limit for shaft 9 Tolerance for shaft
7%G.G>'-?.?2'7%G.G'mm
**. Gi6e t%e 5i#ensions o" t%e %ole an5 s%at o" t%e ollo=in!8
:a; A 12## elect"ic #oto" slee6e 3ea"in!J
:3; A #e5i'# o"ce it on a 211## s%atJ an5
:c; A 51## slee6e 3ea"in! on t%e ele6atin! #ec%anis# o a "oa5 !"a5e".
Sol'tion8
>'
3a/ ;imensions for the hole and shaft for a 12mm electric motor sleeve bearing
From Table we find that for an electric motor sleeve bearing, a shaft eB should be used with < B
hole.
+ince 12mm si"e lies in the diameter steps of 1?mm to 1Bmm, therefore the geometric mean
diameter,
; 1? 1B 1%.&mm
-e #now that standard tolerance unit,
%
%
i ?.&' ; ?.??1 ;
?.&' 1%.& ?.??1 1%.&71.?>@?.?1%&71.?B%& microns
+
+
UThe tolerance values may be ta#en directly from tableU +tandard tolerance for shaft and hole of
grade B 3)TB/
72'i J3From Table/
72'1.?B%&72>microns
72>?.??17?.?2>mm ( ) ... 1 micron7?.??1 mm Q
From Table, we find that upper deviation for shaft =e,,
es7-113;/
?.&1
7-1131%.&/
?.&1
7-%2 microns
7-%2 ?.??17-?.?%2mm
-e #now that lower deviation for shaft =e,,
ei 7es-)T7-?.?%2-?.?2>7-?.?'Gmm
;imensions for the hole 3<B/
?.?2>
?.???
12
+
+

and dimension for the shaft 3eB/

?.?%2
?.?'G
12

3b/ dimensions for the hole and shaft for a medium force fit on a 2??mm shaft
From table we find that shaft r 5 with hole < > gives the desired fit.
>5
+ince 2??mm lies in the diameter steps of 1B?mm of 2'?mm, therefore the geometric mean
diameter.
; 1B? 2'? 212mm
-e #now that standard tolerance unit,
%
%
i ?.&' ; ?.??1 ;
?.&' 212 ?.??1 21272.5B@?.21272.BG2 microns
+
+
+tandard tolerance for the shaft of grade 53)T5/ from Table
71?i71?2.BG272B.G2 microns
72B.G2 ?.??17?.?2BG2 or ?.?2G mm
and standard tolerance for the hole of grade >3)T>/
715i7152.BG27&5 microns
7&5?.??17?.?&5mm
-e #now that lower deviation for shaft =r, from Table
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1
ei )T> ?.&; )T> ?to'
2
1
7 &5 ?.& 212 &5 % G?microns
2
7G? ?.??17?.?Gmm
1 + + +
]
1 + + +
]

and upper deviation for the shaft r,

es7 ei@)T7?.?G@?.?2G7?.11Gmm
;imension for the hole <>
?.?&5
?.??
12
+
+

and dimension for the shaft r5

?.11G
?.?G
12

3c/ ;imensions for the hole and shaft for a '? mm sleeve bearing on the elevating mechanism of a
road grader.
From table we find that a sleeve bearing, a loose running fit will be suitable and a shaft dG should
>>
be used with hole <B.
+ince '?mm si"e lies in the diameter steps of %?mm to '?mm to B?mm, therefore the geometric
mean diameter.
; %? '? %B.>%mm
-e #now that standard tolerance unit,
%
%
i ?.&' ; ?.??1 ;
?.&' %B.>% ?.??1 %B.>%
71.'22@?.?%B>%71.'5?>% or 1.'5 microns
+
+
+tandard tolerance for the shaft of grade G3)TG/ from Table
7&?i7&?1.'5752.& microns
752.& ?.??17?.?52& or ?.?52 mm
and standard tolerance for the hole of gradeB>3)TB/
72'i72'1.'57%G microns
7%G?.??17?.?%Gmm
-e #now that upper deviation for the shaft d, from Table
es7-153;/
?.&&
7-153%B.>%/
?.&&
7-B? microns
7-B? ?.??17-?.?Bmm
and lower deviation for the shaft d.
ei7 es-)T7?.?B-?.?527-?.1&2mm
;imension for the hole <B
?.?%G
?.???
'?
+
+

and dimension for the shaft dG

?.?B
?.1&2
'?

*5. A Do'"nal o no#inal o" 3asis siBe o .5## "'ns in a 3ea"in! =it% close "'nnin! it. &in5
t%e li#its o s%at an5 3ea"in!. $%at is t%e #aCi#'# an5 #ini#'# clea"ance(
Sol'tion8 Fiven ! Nominal or basic si"e 7 >'mm
>B
From table we find that the close running fit is represented by <B8B.>, i.e. a shaft g> should be
used with <B hole.
+ince >'mm lies in the diameter steps '?mm to B?mm, therefore the geometric mean diameter,
; '? B? 5%mm
-e #now that standard tolerance unit,
% %
%
i ?.&' ; ?.??1 ;7?.&' 5% ?.??1 5%
1.>G ?.?5% 1.B'%micron
71.B'%@?.??17?.??1 B'%mm
+ +
+
+tandard tolerance for the hole =<, of grade B3)TB/
72'i72' ?.??1 B'%7?.?&5mm
and standard tolerance for shaft =g, of grade>3)T>/
715i715?.??1 B'%7?.?%mm
From table we find that upper deviation for shaft g,
es7-2.'3;/
?.%&
7-2.'35%/
?.%&
7-1? microns
7-1? ?.??17-?.?1mm
Iower deviation for shaft g,
ei 7es-)T7-?.?1-?.?%7-?.??&mm
-e #now that lower limit for hole
7 0asic si"e >'mm
4pper limit for hole 7 Iower limit for hole @Tolerance for hole
7 >'@?.?&57>'.?&5mm
4pper limit for shaft 7Iower limits for hole 9 4pper deviation for shaft
( ) shaft g lies below "ero lines Q
7>'-?.?17>&.GGmm
and lower limit for shaft 7 4pper limit for shaft 9 Tolerance for shaft
7 >&.GG 9 ?.?% 7 >&.G5 mm
-e #now that maimum clearance
>G
7 4pper limit for hole 9 Iower limit for shaft
7>'.?&5->&.G57?.?B5mm
and minimum clearance 7 Iower limit for hole 9 4pper limit for shaft
7>'->&.GG7?.?1mm
*-. 4o= ,o' classic !eo#et"ical i""e!'la"ities at s'"ace teCt'"e.
*s we #now that any material being machined by chip removal process can,t be finished
perfectly duet to some departures from ideal conditions as envisaged by the designer. ;ue to
conditions not being ideal, the surface produced will have some irregularities and these
geometrical irregularities could be classified into four categories.
&i"st o"5e". This includes the irregularities arising out of inaccuracies in the machine tool itself
e.g., lac# of straightness of guide ways on which tool post is moving. This includes the surface
irregularities arising due to deformation of wor# under the action of cutting forces and the weight of
the material itself.
Secon5 O"5e". +ome irregularities are caused due to vibrations of any #ind such as chatter mar#s
and are included in second order.
T%i"5 O"5e". Even if the machine were perfect and completely free of vibrations, some
irregularities are caused by the machining itself due to characteristic of the process. This also
includes the feed mar#s of the cutting tool.
&o'"t% O"5e". This includes the irregularities arising from the rupture of the material during the
separation of the chip.
Further these irregularities of four orders can be grouped under two groups!
The first group includes irregularities of considerable wavelength of a periodic character
resulting from mechanical disturbances in the generating set-up. These errors are termed as
macrogenometrical errors and include irregularities of first and second order and are mainly due to
misalignment of centres, lac# of straightness of guideways and non-linear feed motion. These
errors are referred to as -aviness or +econdary Teture.
+econd group includes irregularities of small wavelength caused by the direct action of the
cutting element on the material or by some other disturbance such as friction, wear, or corrosion.
These errors are chiefly caused due to tool feed rate and due to tool chatter, i.e. it is includes
irregularities of third and fourth order and constitute the micro 9 geometrical errors. Errors in this
group are referred to as 1oughness or $rimary Teture.
Thus any finished surface could be considered to be combination of two forms of
wavelengths 3large wavelength for waviness and smaller wavelength for roughness/
superimposed upon each other. Kne of the problem in measuring surface finish is to separate the
waviness from the roughness.
B?
&i!.
The various terms used in connection with surface finish could now be shown on the
diagram 3fig/.
&'These terms are represented systematically as follows and this notation is followed
universally.
*.. 7ist ino"#ation nee5 to 3e !i6en in t%e state#ents o s'"ace "o'!%ness.
The necessary information to be furnished is given below
:i; S'"ace "o'!%ness 6al'e. )t is epressed as 1
a
value in microns. The 1
a
value is considered
as the main surface roughness criterion in practice. )n case only one value of 1
a
is given, it is
implied that 1
a
value from "ero to the stated value is acceptable. Ktherwise, two limits 3maimum
and minimum/ have to be specified.
These are epressed as
?.?5% ?.?5% ?.'
a?.' a
1 or 1

)n the symbolic form for fully defining
the surface, the characteristic 3i.e. criterion of surface roughnessH 1
a
value/ is
positioned as shown in figs.
:ii; Mac%inin! allo=ance.
:iii; Sa#+lin! len!t% :inst"'#ent c't)o;. )t is indicated in parenthesis following the roughness
value e.g. 1
a
'.?3?.B/.
<ere 1
a
value is '.? and sampling length is ?.Bmm. +ymbolically it is positioned as
shown in fig.
:i6; Mac%inin! #et%o5. The process is generally stated when it is necessary to limit the
production of a surface to the use of one particular process. )n the symbolic form, it s position is
shown in fig.
:6; Di"ection o la,. The direction of lay is represented in the symbolic form by any of the
following representations depending upon the process.
7,,A,6,.,1,
34nless, otherwise specified the surface roughness is measured across the direction of lay./
B1
)t is stated as follows!
1
a
'.? Iay straight
)t may be noted that in most of the cases, only one piece of information,s is sufficient, i.e.
the 1
a
value.
Thus e.g.a lapped surface having 1
a
value ?.1' with cut off length ?.2' and direction of lay
being multi-directional will be represented as shown in fig.
&i!.
*/. Disc'ss 3"iel, a3o't #aCi#'# +e"#issi3le =o"9in! st"ess o" s%ats.
The maimum permissible stress in tension or compression may be ta#en as
3a/ 5?N of the elastic limit in tension 3f
yt
/ but not more than %5N of ultimate tensile strength 3f
ut
/
whichever is less.
3b/ 112 N8mm
2
for shafts without considering the #eyways.
3c/ B& N8mm
2
for shafts with #eyways. The maimum permissible shear stress may be ta#en
as
(a) %?N elastic limit in tension 3f
yt
/, but no more than 1BN of ultimate tensile strength.
-hichever is less.
(b) '5 N8mm
2
for shafts without considering #ey ways
(c) &2 N8mm
2
for shafts with #ey ways.
*0. Disc'ss 3"iel, o"ces o s%at 5'e to s+'" !ea" 5"i6e.
The various position of a spur gear drive is shown in fig. The force F
n
between both the
surfaces of tooth is normal to the surface acting at the tip of the tooth. )t will act an angle to the
tangential force F
t
. The radial force F
r
is perpendicular to the tangential force F
t
B2
&i!. Die"ent +ositions o s+'" !ea" 5"i6e
$. Tangential force on the gear F
t
7
g
tor:ue transmitted, T
radius of gear, 1
%. 1adial load on the gear F
r
7F
t
A tan where - pressure angle of gear teeth
&. Normal load F
n
7
t
F
cos
51. Disc'ss o"ces on s%at 5'e to 2elt 5"i6es.
-hen two pulleys are connected by a belt 3Flat, 2-belt or rope/, the driving pulley pulls the
belt from one side and delivers it to the other side. The tension on the pulling side i.e., bottom side
or tight side will be greater than the slac# side i.e., upper side.
The various positions of belt drives are shown in fig.
a; D"i6e is 5i"ectl, 5o=n=a"5s 3; D"i6e is 5i"ectl, %o"iBontal
&i!.
)f T
1
- be the tension in the tight side in N
T
2
9 be the tension in the slac# side in N
2- be the velocity of the belt in m8sec
Then, power transmitted $7 3T
1
-T
2
/2
B%
Tor:ue transmitted by the shaft T7 3T
1
-T
2
/1
-here 1- 1adius of pulley in mm
Note8 The weight of the pulley is always acting downwards if it is not given in problem, it can be
neglected.
51. EC+lain Desi!n o s%ats on t%e 3asis o st"en!t%.
The following cases are considered for design of shafts on the basis of strength.
1. +haft sub(ected to twisting moment only!
The diameter of shaft considering twisting moment can be obtained from torsion e:uation.
s
f T
....31/
V r

where T- twisting moment in N-mm

V-polar moment of inertia in mm
&
7
&
d
%2

f
s
-allowable shear stress in N8mm
2
r-distance from neutral ais to outer most layer7
d
2
+ubstituting these values in e:uation 31/
s
&
& % s
s
f T
d
d
%2 2
f
T 2 d f d ...32/
d %2 15

From this e:n, dia of solid shaft d can be determined.
)f the hollow shafts are used in place of solid shaft,
$olar moment of inertia for hollow shaft ( )
& &
o 1
V d d
%2

-here d
o
, d
i
be the outside and inside dia of hollow shaft
1adius of hollow shaft r7
o
d
2
+ubstituting these values in e:n 31/
B&
( )
( )
( )
s
& &
o
o i
& & s
o i
o
& &
o i
s
o
f T
d
d d
%2 2
f
T72 d d
d %2
d d
7 f .....3%/
15 d

1
1
]

( )
&
&
o i
s
o o
% &
s o
i
o
d d
T f 1
15 d d
7 f d 1 # ..3&/
15
d
where #7
d
1
_
1

1
,
]

From the e:uation 32/ and 3&/, outside and inside diameters can be determined.
Note8 1. -hen a hollow shaft is to be made e:ual in strength to a solid shaft, the twisting moments
of both the shafts must be same. )n other words, for the same material of both the shafts.
( )
( )
( )
%
s
& &
o i
s
o
& &
o i
% % &
o
o
T f d
15
d d
7 f
15 d
d d
d or d 1 E
d

1
1
]

2. The twisting moment may be obtained by using the following relation in +) units.
mean
2 NT 5? $
$ watts T N 6
5? 2 NT

%. in 6.E.+. units, horse power transmitted by the shaft

2 NT $ &'??
$ <.$ or T Egf.m
&'?? 2 N

2. +haft sub(ected to bending moment only

-hen shaft sub(ected to bending moment only, the maimum allowable bending stress is given by
B'
bending e:uation.
-e #now
b
f 6
....31/
) C

<ere )-moment of inertia7

&
d
5&

C- distance from neutral ais to outer most layer 7

d
2
+ubstituting these values in e:n31/
0ending moment 67
%2

f
b
d
%
for solid shaft J32/
+imilarly for hollow shafts as in twisting moment
0ending moment 67
%2

f
b
d
o
%
31-E
&
/
-here E 7
i
o
d
d
From the e:uation 32/ S 3%/, the dia of solid shaft 3d/, the outside and inside diameter of
hollow shafts can be determined.
:3; S%at s'3Decte5 to co#3ine5 t=istin! #o#ent an5 3en5in! #o#ent8
-hen the shaft is sub(ected to combined twisting moment and bending moment, the shaft
must be designed on the basis of two moments simultaneously. For this, the following two theories
are important from the sub(ect point of view.
1. 6aimum shear stress theory of Fuest,s theory! )t is used for ductile materials such as mild
steel.
2. 6aimum normal stress theory of ran#ine,s theory! )t is used for brittle materials such as cast
iron.
*ccording to Fuest,s theory, maimum shear stress in the shaft is given by
B5
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
b s s ma
b s % %
1
f f & f .... 1
2
%2 6 15T
<ere f , f
d d
+


+ubstitute these values in e:uation 31/, a simplified form of Fuest,s theory is given by
( ) ( )
2 2 %
s s ma s ma
2 2 %
e s
6 T f d , <ere f f
15
T 6 T f d for solid shaft
15

+
The epression
2 2
6 T +
is #nown as e:uivalent twisting moment. )t is denoted by T
e
.
+imilarly for hollow shafts
( )
2 2 % &
e s o
T 6 T f d 1 E
15

+ for hollow shafts

*ccording to 1an#ine,s theory, the maimum normal stress is given by
( )
( ) ( )
2 2
b b s b ma
1 1
f f f & f
2 2
+ +
+ubstitute, f
b
and f
s
value as in above, a simplified form of e:uation we get
( )
( )
2 2
e
%
b3ma/ b b ma
1
i.e., 6 6 6 T
2
f d , <ere f f
%2
+ +

Then
( )
2 2
e
%
b
1
6 6 6 T
2
f d for solid shaft ....31/
%2
+ +

similarly for hollow shafts,

B>
( )
2 2
e
% &
b o
1
6 6 6 T
2
f d 1 E for hollow shaft ...32/
%2
1
+ +
]

)n the above epression,
2 2
1
6 6 T
2
1
+ +
]
is #nown as e:uivalent bending moment.
From the e:uations 31/ S 32/, dia of solid shaft 3d/, outside and inside in diameters of
hollow shaft can be determined.
:*; S%at s'3Decte5 to l'ct'atin! loa5s8
)n the above three conditions, we have assumed that shafts are sub(ected to constant
twisting moment and bending moments. 0ut in actual practice, the shafts are sub(ected to varying
tor:ue and bending moment. For solving the problem in such condition, a factor for combined
shoc# and fatigue factor for twisting 3#
t
/ and bending 3#
m
/ are ta#en into account. i.e.,
( )
( ) ( )
2
2 %
e m t s
2 2
e m m t
%
b
T E .6 E T/ f d and
15
1
6 E .6 E .6 E .T
2
7 f d
%2

+ +

where
E
m
-shoc# and fatigue factor for bending
E
t
-shoc# and fatigue factor for twisting
The table shows the values of E
m
and E
t
Table shoc# fatigue factors for shafts
Nature of loading E
b
or #
m
E
t
+tationary shafts!
Fradually applied load
+uddenly applied load
1.?
1.' to 2.?
1.?
1.' to 2.?
1otating shafts!
Fradually applied load
+uddenly applied minor
+hoc# loads
+uddenly applied heavy
+hoc# loads
1.'
1.' to 2.?
2.? to %.?
1.?
1.? to 1.'
1.' to %.?
52. EC+lain 5esi!n o s%at on t%e 3asis o stiness an5 "i!i5it,.
The torsion e:uation considering rigidity is given by
BB
s
f T F.
V r l


-here T- twisting moment in N-mm
V-$olar moment of inertia

( )
&
& &
o i
d for circuit shafts
%2
7 d d for hollow shafts
%2

f
s
- +hear stress in N8mm
2
r-distance from neutral ais to outer most layer
i.e. d82
F- 1igidity modulus in N8mm
2
l-length of shaft in mm
-*ngle of twist in radians.
From the above relation, the dia of solid shaft 3d/, outside and inside diameter of hollow shaft can
be determined.
I#+o"tant &o"#'lae
$. Torsion e:uation
s
f T F.
V r l


%. Twisting moment T7
%
s
f d
15

for solid shaft.

&. Twisting moment T7 ( )
% &
s o
f d 1 E 3or
15

for hollow shaft

f
s
7
( )
& &
o i
s
o
d d
f
15 d
1

1
1
]

for hollow shafts

'. $ower $7
mean
2 NT
5?

where T
mean
mean tor:ue in N-m
(. 0ending e:uation
b
f 6 E
1 C 1

). 0ending moment 67
%
b
f d
%2

for solid shafts

( )
% &
b o
f d 1 E
%2

for hollow shaft

BG
>. Fuest,s theory
( )
2 2 %
e s
2 2 % &
e s o
T 6 T f d for solid shafts
15
T 6 T f d 1 E
15
+
+

for hollow shafts.

B. 1an#ine,s theory!
( )
2 2
e
%
b
2 2
e
% &
b o
1
6 6 6 T
2
7 f d for solid shafts
%2
1
6 6 6 T
2
7 f d 1 E for solid shafts
%2
1
+ +
]
1
+ +
]

G. For fluctuating loads,

E:uivalent twisting moment
( ) ( )
2 2
e m t
T E .6 E .T +
%
s
f d for solid shafts
15

E:uivalent bending moment
[ ] ( )
2 2
e m m t
%
b
1
6 E .6 E .6 E .T
2
7 f d
%2
1
+ +
1
]

$*. $olar moment of inertia V7

&
d
%2

for solid shaft

( )
& &
o i
V d d for hollow shaft.
%2

53. A soli5 s%at is t"ans#ittin! 1M$ at 2*1 "+#. Dete"#ine t%e 5ia#ete" o s%at? i t%e
#aCi#'# to"A'e eCcee5s t%e #ean to"A'e 3, 21. Ta9e t%e #aCi#'# allo=a3le st"ess
as -1 N>##
2
.
Gi6en 5ata8
G?
$ower $ 716-711?
5
watts
+peed N 7 2&? rpm
T
ma
71.2T
mean
*llowable shear stress f
ss
75? N8mm
2
To in58
;ia of shaft d
Sol'tion8
-e #now
mean
mean
%
5
mean
5
ma mean
2 NT
$ower transmitted p7 watts
5?
5? $
Tor:ue transmitted T N.m
2 N
5? 1 1?
7 %G>BB.>%N m
2 2&?
T %G.>BB 1? N.mm
T 1.2T 1.2 %G.>BB 1?

5
7&>.>&5 1? N.mm
-e #now
%
ma ss
ma
%
s
T f d
15
15 T
d7
f

5
%
15 &>.>&5 1?
1'G.&%'
5?



715?mm 3standard si"e/
Res'lt8
;iameter of shaft d715? mm.
5*. Dete"#ine5 t%e insi5e 5ia#ete" o %ollo= 51## s%at to t"ans#it 21@$ at 2*1"+#. T%e
'lti#ate s%ea" st"ess o" t%e steel #a, 3e ta9en as 352 N>##
2
an5 acto" o saet, as /.
G1
Gi6en 5ata8
$72?E-72?1?
%
watts, N72&? rpm
Kutside dia of shaft f
us
7%'2N8mm
2
F.K.+7B
To in58
)nside dia of hollow shaft d
i
Sol'tion8
-e #now, tor:ue transmitted by the shaft
mean
%
%
mean ma
ss
2
5? $
T
2 N
5? 2? 1?
7 >G'.>>&N.m
2 2&?
T T >G'.>>& 1? N mm
4ltimate shear stress
*llowable shear stress f
F.K.+
%'2
7 &&N8 mm
B

-e #now, tor:ue transmitted by hollow shaft,

&
% i
6ean ss o
o
&
%
i
%
o
&
i
&
o
&
& & i
i &
& &
i
d
T f d 1
15 d
d 15 >G'.>>& 1?
1 ?.>%5B
d && '?
d
1 ?.>%5B
d
d
?.25%2 d '? ?.25%2
'?
d '? ?.25%2
7%'.B1mm7&?mm
1
_
1

1
,
]
1
_

1


1
,
]

Res'lt8
)nside dia of hollow shaft d
i
7&?mm
G2
5-. &in5 t%e 5ia#ete" o soli5 s%at to t"ans#it 219$ at 211"+#. T%e 'lti#ate s%ea" st"ess
o" t%e steel #a, 3e ta9en as 3-1 N>##
2
an5 a acto" o saet, as /. I a %ollo= s%at is 'se5
in +lace o soli5 s%at? in5 t%e insi5e an5 o'tsi5e 5ia#ete" o %ollo= s%at =%en t%e "atio o
insi5e 5ia#ete" is 1.5.
Gi6en 5ata8
$ower $72?1?
%
watts, N72?? rpm
4ltimate shear stress f
su
7%5? N8mm
2
, F.K.+7B
su
s
2
f
*llowable shear stress f 7
F.K.+
%5?
7 &'N8 mm
B
ratio of inside and outside diameter E7?.'

To in58
;ia of solid shaft, inside and outside diameter of the hollow shaft.
Sol'tion8
-e #now, tor:ue transmitted by solid shaft
mean ma
5? $
T T
2 N

%
5? 2? 1?
G'&.G%N.m
2 2??



6ean or maimum tor:ue T7G'&.G%1?
%
N.mm
Tor:ue transmitted by solid shaft
%
ss
T f d
15

ma
%
ss
%
%
15 T
d
f
15 G'&.G% 1?
7
&'

;iameter of solid shaft d7&>.'%

7'?mm3standard si"e/
The same tor:ue is also transmitted by hollow shaft,
G%
( )
( )
( )
% &
ma ss o
% ma
o
&
ss
%
%
&
i.e.,T f d 1 E
15
15 T
d
f 1 E
15 G'&.G% 1?
7 11'.2B1 1?
&' 1 ?.'
d7&B.55

Kutside dia of hollow shaft d

o
7'?mm
Therefore, inside dia of hollow shaft,
i
o
i o
d
E ?.'
d
d ?.' d 7?.' '?72'mm


Res'lt8
;ia of solid shaft d7'?mm
)nside dia of hollow shaft d
i
72'mm
Kutside dia of hollow shaft d
o
7'?mm
5.. A +ai" o =%eels o "ail=a, =a!on ca""ies a loa5 51@N on eac% aCle 3oC? actin! at a
5istance o 111## o'tsi5e t%e =%eel 3ase. T%e !a'!e o t%e "ail is 1.*#. &in5 t%e 5ia#ete"
o aCle? i t%e st"ess is not to eCcee5 111N>##
2
.
Gi6en 5ata8
Ioad -7'?1?
%
N
Kver hang distance l71??mm
-heel distance 71.&m
0ending stress f
b
7 1?? N8mm
2

To in58
;ia of ale d
Sol'tion8
<ere the load acting li#e a cantilever beam, therefore maimum bending moment occurs at the
wheel base.
G&
&i!.
6aimum bending moment 67Ioad distance
7'?1?
%
1??
7'?1?
'
N-mm
-e #now, bending moment on ale
%
b
%
b
'
%
6 f d
%2
%2 6
f
%2 '? 1?
7 7>G.B57B?mm
1??

Res'lt8
;ia of ale d7B?mm
5/. A s%at =it% a !ea" is #o'nte5 on 3ea"in!s as s%o=n in i!. T%e !ea" is 125##
5ia#ete" an5 3..@$ is t"ans#itte5 at 121 "+#. Ass'#e t%e allo=a3le s%ea" an5 3en5in!
st"esses a"e *2N>##
2
an5 /1 N>##
2
"es+ecti6el,. &in5 t%e 5ia#ete" o s%at.
&i!.
G'
Gi6en 5ata8
$ower $7%.>1?
%
-
N712?rmp, ;
g
712'mm
*llowable shear stress f
ss
7&2N8mm
2
*llowable bending stress f
b
7B?N8mm
2
To in58
;iameter of shaft d.
Sol'tion8
-e #now, tor:ue transmitted by the shaft
%
%
5? $
T
2 N
5? %.> 1?
7 2G&.&%5N.m
2 12?
72G&.&%5 1? N.mm

The same tor:ue is acting at the centre of gear.

Therefore, tor:ue 7 tangential force on gear radius of gear
%
t t
12'
2G&.&%5 1? F F &>1?.GBN
2

This force causes the bending moment on gear which is maimum at the centre of gear on the
shaft.
6a. bending moment 67F
1
distance 3radius of gear/
7&>1?.GB
12'
2
672G&.&%51?
%
N-mm
*ccording to Fuest,s theory,
G5
( ) ( )
2 2
e
%
ss
2 2
% %
E:uivalent twisting moment T 6 T
7 f d
15
7 2G&.&%5 1? 2G&.&%5 1?

+
+

%
%
%
7&15.%G' 1? N mm
15 &15.%G' 1?
dia of shaft d7
&2
7%5.G57&?mm

*ccording to 1an#ine,s theory
[ ]
2 2
e
%
b
%
e b
1
E:uivalent bending moment 6 6 6 T
2
7 f d
%2
1
7 6 T f d
2 %2

1
+ +
]
+

% %
'
e
%
b
1
7 2G&.&%5 1? &15.%G' 1?
2
7%''.&1' 1? N mm
%2 6
dia of shaft d7
f

1 +
]

'
%
%2 %''.&1' 1?
7
B?
7%'.5&7&?mm


+electing higher value of dia d7 &?mm
Res'lt8
;ia of shaf d7&?mm
50. A s%at #a5e o #il5 steel is "eA'i"e5 to t"ans#it 111@$ at 311 "+#. T%e s'++o"te5
len!t% o t%e s%at is 3#. It ca""ies t=o +'lle,s eac% =ei!%in! 1511N? s'++o"te5 at a
5istance o 1# "o# eac% en5s "es+ecti6el,. Ass'#e t%e sae 6al'e o st"ess as -1N>##
2
.
Dete"#ine t%e 5ia#ete" o s%at. :Oct. 2111;.
G>
Gi6en 5ata8
$ower $71??#w 7 1??1?
%
-atts
+peed N7%?? rpm
Iength of shaft I7%m7%???mm
Ioad -71'??N.
To in58
;ia of shaft d.
Sol'tion8
%
%
5? $
Tor:ue transmitted by the shaft T
2 N
5? 1?? 1?
7 %1B%.?N m
2 %??
7%1B%.? 1? N mm

The shaft carrying two pulleys line a simple supported beam, therefore the reaction at each
support is 1'??N.
i.e., 1
*
71
0
71'??N
The maimum bending occurs at each pulley
671'??1???
671'1?
'
N-mm
*ccording to Fuest,s theory.
( ) ( )
2 2
e
%
ss
2 2
' %
E:uivalent twisting moment T 6 T
7 f d
15
7 1' 1? %1B%.? 1?

+
+

5
5
%
7%.'1B 1? N mm
15 %.'1B 1?
dia of shaft d7 55.G&
5?
7>?mm




Res'lt 8
;iameter of shaft d7>?mm.
GB
-1. A line s%at is 5"i6en 3, #eans o a #oto" +lace5 6e"ticall, 3elo= it. T%e +'lle, on t%e
line s%at is 1.5# in 5ia#ete" an5 %as 3elt tensions 5.* 9N an5 1./ @N on t%e ti!%t si5e an5
slac9 si5e o t%e 3elt "es+ecti6el, 3ot% t%ese tensions #a, 3e ass'#e5 to 3e 6e"tical. I t%e
+'lle, 3e o6e" %an! "o# t%e s%at? t%e 5istance o cent"e line o t%e +'lle, "o# t%e cent"e
o 3ea"in! is *11##. &in5 t%e 5ia o s%at. Ass'#in! #aCi#'# allo=a3le s%ea" st"ess o
*2 M.Pa.
Gi6en 5ata8
;ia of pulley ;71.'m71'??mm
Kverhang distance of the pulley l7&??m
6aimum tension of tight side T
1
7'&??N
6aimum tension of slac# side T
2
71B??N
6aimum allowable stress f
ss
7&26.$a7&2N8mm
2
To in58
;ia of shaft d
Sol'tion8
-e #now, tor:ue transmitted by the shaft through belt drive,
Tor:ue T 7 3T
1
-T
2
/ radius of pulley
7 3'&??-1B??/>'?
7 2>1?
'
N-mm
Neglecting the weight of shaft and pulley, vertical load acting on the shaft
-7T
1
@T
2
7'&??@1B??7>2??N.
6aimum bending moment occurs at the centre of bearing
i.e., 67-)7>2??&??72BB1?
&
N-mm *ccording to Fuest,s theory,
( ) ( )
2 2
e
%
ss
2 2
& '
E:uivalent twisting moment T 6 T
7 f d
15
7 2BB 1? 2> 1?
15
dia of shaft d7
+
+

5
%
%.G&> 1?
>B.22
&2
7B?mm

Res'lt8
GG
;iameter of shaft d7B?mm
-1. A s%at "ecei6es 5 @$ o +o=e" at -11 "+#? #o'nte5 6e"ticall, 3elo= it. T%e +'lle, is
sit'ate5 at a 5istance o 311## "o# one 3ea"in! en5. T%e 5istance 3et=een t%e 3ea"in!s
o s%at is 511##. an!le o contact o" t%e +'lle, is 121
o
an5 co)eicient o "iction 3et=een
t%e 3elt an5 +'lle, is 1.3. S%ea" st"ess o" t%e s%at #ate"ial is 121N>##
2
. Desi!n t%e s%at?
consi5e"in! ati!'e acto". :A+"il 2113;.
Gi6en
$7'E-7'1?
%
N75??rpm
;istance between the bearing 7'??mm
*ngle of lap 712?
o
12? 2.?G&% radius
1B?

*ssume pulley dia75??mm

.o-efficient of friction 7?.%
*llowable shear stress f
++
712?N8mm
2
*ssuming gradually applied load for stationary shafts
i.e., Fatigue factor for twisting E
t
71
Fatigue factor for bending E
m
71.
To in58
;ia of shaft d
Sol'tion8
-e #now, tor:ue transmitted by the shaft,
%
%
5? $
T
2 N
5? ' 1?
7 >G.'BN.m
2 %??
7>G.'B 1? N.mm

-e #now,
Twisting moment of pulley T73T
1
-T
2
/ radius of pulley
>G.'B 1?
%
73T
1
-T
2
/%??
25'.27T
1
-T
2
J.31/
1??
1
2
T
1atio of tensions e
T


7e
?.%2.?G&%
71.B>&
T
1
71.B>& T
2
J..32/
+ubstituting 32/ in 31/
1.B>&2 T
2
-T
2
725'.2
?.B>& T
2
725'.2
T
2
7%?%.'
T
1
71.B>&T
2

71B>&%?%.'7'5B.>N
Therefore, total load acting on pulley
7T
1
@T
2
7 '5B.>@%?%.'
7 B>2.2N
.onsidering simply supported beam,
Iet 1
*
, 1
0
be the reactions at *,0
Ta#ing moments about *
1
0
'??7B>2.2%??
1
0
7'2%.%2N
0ut 1
*
@1
0
7B>2.21
*
7 B>2.2-'2%.%2
7 %&B.BB N
maimum bending moment occurs at pulley
6
$
71
*
%??
7%&B.BB%??
71?&55& N-mm
*ccording to Fuest,s theory, considering fatigue factor
1?1
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2
e m t
%
ss
2
2
%
E:uivalent twisting moment T E 6 E .T
7 f d
15
7 1 1?&55& 1 >G.'B 1?

+
+

%
71%1&B2.?N-mm
15 1%1&B2
dia of shaft d7 1>.>%
12?
71B3standard si"e/

Res'lt8
;iameter of shaft d71Bmm
-2. A s%at is s'++o"te5 3, t=o 3ea"in! +lace5 1# a+a"t. A -11 ## 5ia#ete" +'lle, is
#o'nte5 at a 5istance o 311## to t%e "i!%t o let %an5 3ea"in!. T%is +'lle, 5"i6es anot%e"
+'lle, 5i"ectl, 3elo= it 3, #eans o 3elt =it% #aCi#'# tension o 2.25 @N. Anot%e" +'lle,
o *11## 5ia#ete" is +lace5 211## to t%e let o "i!%t %an5 si5e 3ea"in!. It is 5"i6en 3, an
elect"ic #oto" an5 3elt =%ic% is +lace5 %o"iBontall, to t%e "i!%t. T%e an!le o la+ o" 3ot%
t%e +'lle, is 1/1
o
an5 F1.2*. Ass'#e to"A'e on one +'lle, is eA'al to t%at on t%e ot%e"
+'lle,. Dete"#ine t%e s'ita3le 5ia#ete" o t%e soli5 s%at allo=in! =o"9in! st"ess o -3
N>##
2
in tension an5 *2 N>##
2
in s%ea" o" t%e s%at #ate"ial. KOct. 2113L
Gi6en 5ata8
6aimum tension T
1
72.2'EN
*ngle of lap 71B?
o
.o-efficient of friction 7?.2&
*llowable tensile or bending stress f
b
75%N8mm
2
*llowable shear stress f
s
7&2N8mm
2
To in58
;ia of shaft
Sol'tion8
Iet T
1
, T
2
bet the tensions on tight and slac# side of the belt on pulley, ..
-e #now
3T
1
-T
2
/ radius of pulley .7 twisting moment
i.e., 3T
1
-T
2
/ 1
.
7T
-e #now
1?2
1atio of tensions
1
2
T
e
T


e
?.2
72.12'
T
1
72.12'T
2
[ ]
1
2
1
T
T
2.12'
22'?
7 1?'G
2.12'
T 22'? N given

Therefore vertical load acting on the pulley .

7T
1
@T
2
722'?@1?'G
7%%?GN
<ori"ontal load acting on the pulley .7?
Tor:ue at . e:uals to tor:ue at ;
3T
1
@T
2
/1
.
73 T
%
@T
&
/1
;
7 Twisting moment, T
322'?-1?'G/%??7%'>.%1?
%
N-mm
<ence 3T
%
T
&
/1
;
7%'>.%1?
%
( )
%
% &
;
%'>.% 1?
T T 1>B5.'N .......31/
1 2??

-e #now
% 1
2 &
% &
T T
2.12'
T T
T 2.12' T ....32/


+ubstituting T
%
value in e:n 31/
2.12% T
&
71>B5.'
1.12'T
&
71>B5.'
&
%
1>B5.'
T 1'BBN
1.12'
T 2.12' 1'BB %%>&.'N


<ori"ontal load acting on the pulley at ;7T
%
@T
&
1?%
7%%>&.'@1'BB7&G52.'N
2ertical load acting on the pulley at ;7?
.onsidering the vertical loading diagram,
Iet 1
*2
,1
02
be the reaction at *,0
Ta#ing moments about *
1
02
1???7%%?G%??
1
0v

%%?G %??
GG2.>N
1???

0ut we #now
1
*2
@1
02
7%%?G
1
*2
7%%?G-GG2.>72%15.%N
For simply supported beam, the bending moments at support *,07?
i.e., 6
*2
76
02
7?
0ending moment at ., 6
.2
7 1
*2
%??
7 2%15.% %?? 7 5G&.BG 1?
%
N-mm
0ending moment at ;, 6
;2
71
*2
2??
7GG2.>2??71GB.'&1?
%
N.mm.
1?&
.onsidering hori"ontal loading diagram,
Iet 1
*<
, 1
0<
be the reactions at *,0
Ta#ing moments about *
*<
0<
1 1??? &G52.' B??
&G52.' B??
1 %G>?N
1???

-e #now,
1
*<
@1
0<
7 &G52.'0
1
*<
7 &G52.'-%G>?7GG2.'N
0ending moments at *,07?
0ending moment at . 6
.<
7GG2.'N
72G>.>'1?
%
N-mm
0ending moment at ; 6
;<
7%G>?2??
7>G&1?
%
N-mm
( ) ( )
2 2
. .2 .<
% %
%
.
1esulting bending moment at . 6 6 6
7 5'&.BG 1? 2G>.>' 1?
6 >''.GG 1? N mm
+
+

( ) ( )
2 2
; ;2 ;<
2 2
% %
%
1esulting bending moment at ; 6 6 6
7 1GB.'& 1? >G& 1?
B1B.&&5 1? N mm
+
+

From the above, the maimum bending moment
Kccurs at ; 7 B1B.&&5 1?
%
N-mm.
Twisting moment T 7 %'>.%1?
%
N-mm
*ccording to Fuest,s theory,
( ) ( )
2 2
e
%
ss
2 2
% %
E:uivalent twisting moment T 6 T
7 f d
15
7 B1B.&&5 1? %'>.% 1?
+
+

%
7BG%.?%B 1? N mm
1?'
e
%
ss
%
%
15 T
dia of shaft d7
f
15 BG%.?%B 1?
7 &>.55'
&2
7'?mm

*ccording to 1an#ine,s theory

2 2
e
%
b
% %
1
E:uivalent bending moment 6 6 6 T
2
7 f d
%2
1
7 B1B.&&5 1? BG%.?%B 1?
2
1
+ +
]
1 +
]

%
e
%
e
%
b
Lsince T BG%.?%B 1? N mmM
7B''.>&2 1? N mm
%2 6
dia of shaft d7
f

%
%
%2 B''.>&2 1?
7 '1.>21
5%
7''mm

+electing higher value of dia of shaft d7''mm.
Res'lt8
;ia of shaft d7''mm
-3. A s%at is s'++o"te5 on 3ea"in!s A an5 2? /11## 3et=een cent"es. A 21
o
st"ai!%t toot%
s+'" !ea" %a6in! -11## +itc% 5ia#ete"? is locate5 at 211## to t%e "i!%t o let %an5
3ea"in! A an5 .11## 5ia#ete" +'lle, is #o'nte5 251## to=a"5s t%e let o 3ea"in! 2. T%e
!ea" is 5"i6en 3, a +inion =it% a 5o=n=a"5 tan!ential o"ce =%ile t%e +'lle, 5"i6es
%o"iBontal 3elt %a6in! 1/1
o
an!le o la+. T%e +'lle, also se"6es as a l, =%eel an5 =ei!%ts
2111 N. T%e #aCi#'# 3elt tension is 3111 N an5 tension "ation is 381. Dete"#ine t%e
#aCi#'# 3en5in! #o#ent an5 necessa", s%at 5ia#ete"? i t%e allo=a3le s%ea" st"ess in
t%e s%at #ate"ial is *1M.Pa.
Gi6en 5ata8
$ressure angle 72?
o
6aimum tension T
1
7 %???N
1?5
1atio of intensions
1
2
T
%
T

;ia of pulley ;
$
7 >??mm
-eight of the pulley -
$
7%???N
$...;. of gear ;
g
75??mm
+hear stress for shaft f
ss
7&?6.$a
7&?1?
5
N81?
5
mm
2
7&?N8mm
2
To in5
6aimum bending moment and shaft diameter d.
Sol'tion8
.onsidering the power transmission at the pulley,
Tor:ue transmitted by shaft T73T
1
-T
2
/1
$
1 1
2
2
T T %???
3given/ % T 1???N
T % %

Tension on slac# side of belt T
2
71???N
Tension on tight side of belt T
1
7%??? N3given/
T73%???-1???/%'?
7>??1?
%
N-mm
The belt drives the pulley hori"ontally
i.e., Total hori"ontal load acting on pulley 7 T
1
@T
2
7%???@1???7&???N.
1?>
:; Res'ltant 2.M. 5ia!"a#
Total vertical load on pulley -
p
7 2??? N 3given/
.onsidering the power transmission at gear,
Tangential force of gear 1adius of gear 7 Tor:ue transmitted
i.e.
%
t g
f 1 T >?? 1? Lsame tor:ue on pulley and gearM
1?B
Tangential force acting on the gear is downwards,
Therefore
Total force acting on the gear 7 f
t
@ -
g
7 f
t
N
Lweight of gear 7 ?M
Tangential force f
t
7
%
>?? 1?
%??

7 2%%% N
1esolving the forces vertically,
Normal force F
n
7
t
f
cos
t
n
f
since cos 7
F
1

1
]
n
2%%%
F 2&B%.?>B N
cos2?

2ertical component of F
n
, i.e. tangential force on gear
t
t n
n
n
f
cos f cos .F
F
cos2? 2&B%.?>B
2%%% N
2ertical load acting on gear 7 2%%% N
<ori"ontal component of F ,

r
r n
n
r
f
sin f F .sin
F
f 2&B%.?>B sin2?
B&G.25N.

<ori"ontal load acting on gear 7 B&G.2G N.

.onsidering vertical load diagram,
Iet 1
*2
, 1
02
be the reactions at *, 0
1?G
Ta#ing moments about *
02
02
1 B?? 2%%% 2?? 2??? ''?
1 1G'B.2'N
+

-e #now
1
*2
@ 1
02
7 2%%% @ 2??? 7 &%%%
1
*2
7 &%%% 9 1G'B.2' 7 2%>&.>' N
-e #now
0.6. at support *, 0, 6
*2
, 6
02
7 ?
0ending moment at .
6
.2
7 1
*2
;istance
7 2%>&.>' 2?? 7 &>&.G' 1?
%
N-mm
0ending moment at ;
6
;2
7 1
02
;istance
7 G'B.2' 2'? 7 &BG.'5% 1?
%
N-mm
.onsidering <ori"ontal loading diagram,
Iet 1
*<
, 1
0<
be the reactions at *, 0
Ta#ing moments about *
0<
0<
1 B?? B&G.25 2?? &??? ''?
1 2G52.%1'N
+

-e #now
*< 0<
*<
1 1 B&G.25 &??? &B&G.25
1 &B&G.25 2G52.%1' 1BB5.G&'N
+ +

-e #now
0.6. at support *, 0 i.e., 6
*<
, 6
0<
7 ?
0ending moment at . 6
.<
7 1BB5.G&' 2??
7 %>>.%BG 1?
%
N-mm
11?
0ending moment at ; 6
;<
7 2G52.%1' 2'?
7 >&?.'>G 1?
%
N-mm.
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2
.2 .<
2 2
% %
%
1esulting bending moment at . 7 6 6
7 &>&.G' 1? %>>.%BG 1?
5?5.5% 1? N mm
+
+

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2
.2 .<
2 2
% %
%
1esulting bending moment at ; 6 6
7 &BG.'5% 1? >&?.'>G 1?
BB>.>>5 1? N mm
+
+

6aimum bending moment occurs at ;,
7BB>.>55 1?
%
N-mm
*ccording to Fuest,s theory,
( ) ( )
2 2
e
%
ss
2 2
% %
E:uivalent twisting moment T 6 T
7 f d
15
7 BB>.55 1? >?? 1?

+
+

5
5
%
71.1%?' 1?
15 1.1%?' 1?
dia of shaft d7 '2.&1mm
&?
7''mm

Res'lt8
6a. 0ending moment 7 BB>.>55 1?
%
N- mm
+haft diameter d7''mm
-*. A #ac%ine s%at "otatin! at -11 "+# is s'++o"te5 on 3ea"in!s 1..5# a+a"t. A 15@$ is
s'++lie5 to t%e s%at t%"o'!% a 1.*5# +'lle, locate5 at 1.25# to t%e "i!%t o "i!%t 3ea"in!.
T%e +o=e" is t"ans#itte5 o"# t%e s%at t%"o'!% a 1.21# s+'" !ea" locate5 at 1.25# to t%e
"i!%t o let 3ea"in!. T%e 3elt 5"i6e is at an an!le o -1
o
a3o6e %o"iBontal. T%e +'lle, =ei!%s
011N. T%e "atio o 3elt tensions is 381. T%e !ea" %as 21
o
+"ess'"e an!le an5 #es%es =it%
anot%e" !ea" locate5 5i"ectl, a3o6e t%e s%at. T%e #ate"ial +"o+e"ties a"e ,iel5 st"en!t% F
*01 MN>#
2
? ,iel5 +oint st"ess F 3-2 MN>#
2
. Dete"#ine t%e s%at 5ia#ete". Ta9e :@
#
; @
3
F1.5
111
an5 @
t
F1.1:Oct.2111;
Gi6en 5ata8
$71'E-, N75??rpm
1atio of tensions
1
m b
2
T
%,3E /E 1.'
T

4ltimate strength f
ut
7&G?6N8m
2
Cield point stress f
yt
7%52 6.N8m
2
$ulley ;ia ;
$
7?.&'m7&'?mm
;ia of gear ;
g
7%&'?71%'?mm
To in58
;ia of shaft d
Sol'tion8
.onsidering pulley, tor:ue transmitted by the pulley T
%
%
5? $ 5? 1' 1?
2%B.>%N m
2 N 2 5??
2%B.>% 1? N mm

-e #now
3T
1
-T
2
/ radius of pulley 9 twisting moment
3T
1
-T
2
/22'72%B.>%1?
%
T
1
-T
2
71?51.?N J..31/
1
1 2
2
T
% T %T .....32/
T

substituting e:n 32/ in 31/, we get
%T
2
-T
2
71?51 2T
2
71?51 T
2
7'%?.'N
T
1
7%'%?.'71'G1.'N
Total load on pulley -7T
1
@T
2
7'%?.'@1'G1.'
72122N
112
This load is acting 5?
o
above the hori"ontal as shown in fig.
1esolving the forces hori"ontally and vertically.
<ori"ontal component of -.
11%
Fig.
<
<
-
cos - - cos
-

72122 cos 5?71?51 N
2ertical component of -,
y
2
-
sin - -. sin
-

72122 sin 5?
1B%>.>N
Therefore, <ori"ontal load on the pulley -
<
71?51N
2ertical load on the pulley -
2
71B%>.>@G??
Lsince weight of pulley is G??NM
7G%>.>N
.onsidering gear, tor:ue transmitted 7 Tor:ue transmitted on pulley
f
t
1
g
72%B.>% 1?
%
f
t
7
( )
%
g
2%B.>% 1?
2%B>.%N
1?? 1

Normal load will act through pressure angle

< <
n
n
n
- -
i.e.,cos2? F
F cos2?
2%B>.'
F 2'&?.'N
cos2?


2ertical component of F
n
2
2 n
n
-
sin 7 - F sin
F
72'&?.' sin2?7B5B.GN

11&
<ori"ontal load on gear -
<
72%B>.'N
2ertical load on gear -
v
7B5B.GN
.onsidering hori"ontal loading diagram,
Iet 1
*<
, 1
0<
be the reactions at *,0
Ta#ing moments about *
1
0<
>'?71?511???@2%B>.'2'?
1
0<
7221?.'N
1
*<
7%&&B.'-221.'712%BN
0ending moment at *,$.
6
*<
76
$<
7?
0ending moment at pulley $ 6
$<
7?
LFor cantilever, N 6 at free end 7 ?M
0ending moment at g 6
g<
7 12%B 2'?
7 @ %?G'?? N-mm
L@sign for sagging momentM
06 at 0 6
0<
71?512'?
725'2'?L-sign for hogging momentM
.onsidering vertical loading diagram,
Iet 1
*2,
1
02
be the reactions at *,0
Ta#ing moments about *
1
02
>'?@G%>.>1???7B5B.G2'?
( ) ( )
02
02
B5B.G 2'? G%>.> 1???
1 G5?.%N
>'?
1 G5?.% L*cting downwardM
L-sign for force acting in downwardM



Therefore,
+um of vertical force 7 sum of downward force
11'
1
*2
@Force at pulley 7 Force at gear@1
02
1
*2
7B5B.G@G5?.%-G%>.>
7BG1.'L@sign for upwardM
0ending moment at *,$,6
*2
76
$2
7?
L.onsidering cantilever at free endM
0ending moment at gear 6
gv
7BG1.'2'?
7-22B>' N-mm
3-sign for hogging moment/
0ending moment at 0 6
0v
7G%>.>2'?
72%&&2' N-mm
L@sign for sagging momentM
From the figure,
( ) ( )
2 2
g g< gv
2 2
1esulting bending moment at6 6 6
7 %?G'?? 222B>'
%B1%G5.BN mm
+
+

( ) ( )
2 2
0 0< 0v
2 2
1esulting bending moment at06 6 6
7 -25'2'? 2%&&2'
%'%GG'.%N
+
+

<ence the maimum bending moment occurs at gear

6
g
7%B1%G5.BN-mm
;esign or allowable stress may be obtained in the following two ways.
31/*ssuming factor of safety 32/ %?N elastic limit in tension or 1BN ultimate tensile strength.
-hichever is smaller
%?N elastic limit 7
%?
%52
1??

71?B.56.$a71?B.5N8mm
2
.
2
a
1B
1BN ultimate strength 7 &G?
1??
7BB.26$ BB.2N8 mm

Ta#e lower value of stress f

ss
7BB.2N8mm
2
-ith out #eyway
115
f
ss
with #eyway 7 >'Nof above stress
>'
BB.2
1??

7 55.1'N8mm
2
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2
e m t
%
ss
2 2
*ccording to FuestOs theory, T E 6 E T
7 f d
15
7 1.' %B1%G5.B 1 2%B>'?

+
+

%
751GG1&.BGN-mm
15 51GG1&.BG
d7 %5.2>mm
55.1'
d 7&?mm3standard si"e/

Res'lt8
;ia of shaft d7&?mm
-5. Desi!n a s+in5le o" #illin! #ac%ine o" #aCi#'# +o=e" t"ans#itte5 is 5@$ at
1111"+#. An!le o t=ist +e" #et"e len!t% o t%e s+in5le s%o'l5 not eCcee5 1.25
o
. Ta9e
GF1./ 11
5
N>##
2
. &acto" o saet,F3. Dete"#ine t%e s%ea" st"ess in5'ce5 in t%e s+in5le
an5 c%ec9 a!ainst t%e +e"#issi3le 6al'e. I!no"e 3en5in! eect. Ulti#ate s%ea" st"ess F
**1N>##
2
. :Oct.2112;
Gi6en 5ata8
$7'E-7'1?
%
-
N71???rpm
7?.2'
o
8metere length
%
1B?
?.2' &.%5 1? radians

F7?.B1?
'
N8mm
2
. F.K.+7%
4ltimate shear stress f
ss
7&&?N8mm
2
ss
2
4ltimate shear stress
*llowable shear stress f
F.K.+
&&?
7 1&5.5>N8 mm
%

To in58
11>
)nduced shear stress
Sol'tion8
-e #now the torsion e:uation
ss
f T F.
V l r

From the above

T N.
V l

%
'
5? $
Tor:ue transmitted T7
2 N
5? ' 1?
7 &>.>'N m
2 1???
7&>.>' 1? N mm

&
' ' %
&
'
&
' %
&
$olar moment of inertia for spindle V7 d
%2
Therefore,
&>.>' 1? ?.B 1? &.%5 1?

1???
d
%2
%2 &>.>' 1? 1???
d
?.B 1? &.%5 1?
d 1%

5
G.&& 1?
d71?B.5>

dia of spindle d 7 11?mm
From the relation
ss
ss
' %
f F. r.F
)nduced f
l r l
'' ?.B 1? &.%5 1?
1???

)nduced shear stress f

ss
7 1G.1B& N8mm
2
.
11B
<ere the induced shear stress, 1G.1B& N8mm
2
is less than the allowable value 1&5.5> N8mm
2
, the
design of spindle is safe.
Res'lt8
)nduced shear stress in the spindle f
ss
7 1&5.5> N8mm
2
.
--. A co#+"ession coil s+"in! #a5e o an allo, steel is %a6in! t%e ollo=in! s+eciications8
Mean 5ia#ete" o coil F 51 ## J $i"e 5ia#ete" F 5 ##J N'#3e" o acti6e coils F 21. I t%is
s+"in! is s'3Decte5 to an aCial loa5 o 511NJ calc'late t%e #aCi#'# s%ea" st"ess :ne!lect
t%e c'"6at'"e eect; to =%ic% t%e s+"in! #ate"ial is s'3Decte5.
Sol'tion8 Fiven ! ;7 '? mmH d 7 ' mmH Wn 7 2? H - 7 '?? N
-e #now that the spring inde,
; '?
. 1?
d '

+hear stress factors,
s
1 1
E 1 1 1.?'
2. 2 1?
+ +

and maimum shear stress 3neglecting the effect of wire curvature/H

2
s % %
B-.; B '?? '?
E 1.?' '%&.> N8mm
d '



7 '%&.> 6$a
-.. A %elical s+"in! is #a5e "o# a =i"e o -## 5ia#ete" an5 %as o'tsi5e 5ia#ete" o .5
##. I t%e +e"#issi3le s%ea" st"ess is 351 MPa an5 #o5'l's o "i!i5it, /*9N>##
2
in5 t%e
aCial loa5 =%ic% t%e s+"in! can ca"", an5 t%e 5election +e" acti6e t'"n.
Sol'tion8 Fiven! d75 mmH ;
o
7>' mmH 7%'? 6$a 7 %'?N8mm
2
, F7B& #N8mm
2
7B& 1?
%
N8mm
2
-e #now that mean diameter of the spring,
;7;
o
9d 7>' -5 75G mm
; 5G
+pring inde, .7 11.'
d 5

Iet -7 *ial load, and
8n 7 ;eflection per active turn..
1. Ne!lectin! t%e eect o c'"6at'"e
-e #now that the shear stress factor,
11G
s
1 1
E 1 1 1.?&%
2. 2 11.'
+ +

and maimum shear stress induced in the wire3/,

s % %
B-.; B- 5G
%'? E 1.?&% ?.B&B -
d 5

-7 %'?8?.B&B 7 &12.> N *ns.
-e #now that deflection of the spring,
%
&
B-.; .n
F.d

;eflection per active turn,
% %
& % &
B-.; B &12.>35G/
G.G5 mm *ns
n F.d B& 1? 5



2. Consi5e"in! t%e eect o c'"6at'"e
-e #now that -ahl,s stress factor,
&. 1 ?.51' & 11.' 1 ?.51'
E 1.12%
&. & . & 11.' & 11.'

+ +

-e also #now that the maimum shear stress induced in the wire 3/,
2 2
B-.. B - 11.'
%'? E 1.12% ?.G1%-
d 5



-7%'?8?.G1% 7 %B%.& N
and deflection of the spring,
%
&
B-.; .n
F.d

;eflection per active turn,
% %
& % &
B-.; B %B%.&35G/
G.25 mm *ns.
n F.d B& 1? 5



-/. Desi!n a s+"in! o" a 3alance to #eas'"e 1 to 1111 N o6e" a scale o len!t% /1 ##.
T%e s+"in! is to 3e enclose5 in a casin! o 25 ## 5ia#ete". T%e a++"oCi#ate n'#3e"
o t'"ns is 31. T%e #o5'l's o "i!i5it, is /5 9N>##
2
. Calc'late t%e #aCi#'# s%ea"
12?
st"ess in5'ce5.
Sol'tion8 Fiven -7 1??? NH 7 B?mmH n7%?H F7B' #N8mm
2
7 B' 1?
%
N8mm
2

;esign of spring
Iet ;7 6ean diameter of the spring coil,
d7 ;iameter of the spring wire, and
.7 +pring inde 7 ;8d.
+ince the spring is to be enclosed in a casing of 2' mm diameter, therefore the outer diameter
of the spring coil 3;
?
7; @ d/ should be less than 2' mm.
-e #now that deflection of the spring 3/,
% % %
%
%
B.-.. .n B 1??? . %? 2&? .
B?
F.d B' 1? d B' d
. B? B'
2B.%
d 2&?

Iet us assume that d7& mm. Therefore
.
%
72B.% d7 2B.% & 711%.2 or . 7 &.B&
and ;7..d7&.B& & 71G.%5 mm *ns.
-e #now that outer diameter of the spring coil,
;
o
7; @ d 7 1G.%5 @ & 7 2%.%5 mm *ns.
+ince the value of ;
?
72%.%5 mm is less than the casing diameter of 2' mm, therefore the
assumed dimension , d7 & mm is correct.
MaCi#'# s%ea" st"ess in5'ce5
-e #now that -ahl,s stress factors,
&. 1 ?.51' & &.B& 1 ?.51'
E 1.%22
&. & . & &.B& & &.B&

+ +

6aimum shear stress induced,
2 2
2
B-.. B 1??? &.B&
E 1.%22
d &
71?1B.2 N8mm 1?1B.2 6$a *ns

121
-0. A #ec%anis# 'se5 in +"intin! #ac%ine", consists o a tension s+"in! asse#3le5 =it% a
+"eloa5 o 31N. T%e =i"e 5ia#ete" o s+"in! is 2 ## =it% a s+"in! in5eC o -. T%e s+"in!
%as 1/ acti6e coils. T%e s+"in! =i"e is %a"5 5"a=n an5 oil te#+e"e5 %a6in! ollo=in!
#ate"ial +"o+e"ties.
Desi!n s%ea" st"ess F -/1 MPa
Mo5'l's o "i!i5it, F /1 9N>##
2
Dete"#ine8 1. t%e initial to"sional s%ea" st"ess in t%e =i"eJ 2 s+"in! "ateJ an5 3. t%e o"ce to
ca'se t%e 3o5, o t%e s+"in! to its ,iel5 st"en!t%.
Sol'tion. Fiven! -
i
7%? N H d72 mm H .7 ;8d 7 5 H n 7 1B,H75B? 6$a 7 5B? N8mm
2
H F7B?
#N8mm
2
7 B? 1?
%
N8mm
2
1. Initial to"sional $a%l<s st"ess in t%e =i"e
-e #now that -ahl,s stress factor,
&. 1 ?.51' & 5 1 ?.51'
E 1.2'2'
&. & . & 5 & 5

+ +

)nitial torsional shear stress in the wire
2 i
i 2 2
B- . B %? 5
E 1.2'2' 1&%.'N8 mm
d 2
71&%.' 6$a *ns.



2. S+"in! "ate
-e #now that spring rate 3or stiffness of the spring/,
%
% %
F.d B? 1? 2
'.1&& N8mm *ns.
B. .n B 5 1B



3. &o"ce to ca'se t%e 3o5, o t%e s+"in! to its ,iel5 st"en!t%
Iet -7 Force to cause the body of the spring to its yield strength.
-e #now that design or maimum shear stress 3/,
2 2
B-.. B- 5
5B? E 1.2'2' &.>B -
d 2

-7 5B?8&.>B 7 1&2.2' *ns.
.1. Desi!n a %elical co#+"ession s+"in! o" a #aCi#'# loa5 o 1111 N o" a 5election o25
## 'sin! t%e 6al'e o s+"in! in5eC as 5.
122
T%e #aCi#'# +e"#issi3le s%ea" o" s+"in! =i"e is *21 MPa an5 #o5'l's o "i!i5it, is
/* 9N>##
2
.
&.-1 ?.51'
Ta#e -ahlOs factor , E7 , where .7 +pring inde
&.-& .
+
Sol'tion8 Fiven! -7 1??? NH 72' mmH .7;8d 7 'H 7&2? 6$a 7 &2? N8mm
2
F7 B& #N8mm
2
7
B& #N8mm
2
7 B& 1?
%
N8mm
2
.
1. Mean 5ia#ete" o t%e s+"in! coil
Iet ;7 6ean diameter of the spring coil, and
;7 ;iameter of the spring wire.
-e #now that -ahl,s stress factors,
&. 1 ?.51' & ' 1 ?.51'
E 1.%1
&. & . & ' & '

+ +

and maimum shear stress 3/,
2 2 2
B-.. B 1??? ' 155>>
&2? E 1.%1
d d d



d
2
7 15 5>>8&2? 7%G.> or d7 5.% mm
From Table, we shall ta#e a standard wire of si"e +-F % having diameter 3d/ 7 5.&?1 mm.
6ean diameter of the spring coil,
; 7 ..d 7'd 7 ' 5.&?1 7 %2.??' mm *ns J.3 .7;8d7' Q /
and outer diameter of the spring coil,
;
?
7; @ d 7 %2.??'@5.&?1 7 %B.&?5 mm *ns
2. N'#3e" o t'"ns o t%e coils
Iet n7 Number of active turns of the coils.
-e #now that compression of the spring 3/, &IG8
( )
%
%
%
B 1??? ' n
B-.. .n
2'7 1.B5 n
F.d B& 1? 5.&?1
n7 2'81.B5 7 1%.&& say 1& *ns.

12%
For s:uared and ground ends, the total number of turns.
nO 7 n @2 7 1& @ 2 7 15 *ns
3. &"ee len!t% o t%e s+"in!
-e #now that free length of the spring
7n,.d@ @?.1' 715 5.&?1 @ 2' @ ?.1' 2'

7 1%1.2 mm *ns
*. Pitc% o t%e coil
-e #now the pitch of the coil
Free length 1%1.2
B.>'mm *ns.
nO 1 15 1


.1. Desi!n a close coile5 %elical co#+"ession s+"in! o" a se"6ice loa5 "an!in! "o# 2251 N
to 2.51 N. T%e aCial 5election o t%e s+"in! o" t%e loa5 "an!e is - ##. Ass'#e a s+"in!
in5eC o 5. T%e +e"#issi3le s%ea" st"ess intensit, is *21 MPa an5 #o5'l's o "i!i5it, ? G F
/* 9N>##
2
.
Ne!lect t%e eect o st"ess concent"ation. D"a= a 'll, 5i#ensione5 s9etc% o t%e
s+"in!? s%o=in! 5etails o t%e inis% o t%e en5 coils.
Sol'tion. Fiven! -
1
7 22'? NH -
2
7 2>'? NH 7 5 mmH .7 ;8d 7'H 7 &2? 6$a 7 &2? N8mm
2
H F
7 B& #N8mm
2
7 B& 1?
%
N8mm
2
.
1. Mean 5ia#ete" o t%e s+"in! coil
Iet ;7 6ean diameter of the spring coil for a maimum load of -
2
7 2>'? N, and
d7 ;iameter of the spring wire.
-e #now that twisting moment of the spring,
T7 -
2

; 'd
2>'? 5B>' d
2 2
J.
;
. '
d
_


,
Q
-e also #now that twisting moment 3T/,
% % %
2
5B>' d7 d &2? d B2.&B d
15 15
d 5B>'8 B2.&B B%.%' or d7 G.1% mm



12&
From Table, we shall ta#e a standard wire of si"e +-F %8? having diameter 3d/7 G.&G mm.
6ean diameter of the spring coil,
;7 'd 7 ' G.&G 7 &>.&' mm *ns.
-e #now that outer diameter of the spring coil,
;
?
7 ; @ d 7 &>.&' @ G.&G 7 '5.G& mm *ns.
and inner diameter of the spring coil,
;
i
7; - d 7 &>.&' 9 G.&G 7 %>.G5 mm *ns.
2. N'#3e" o t'"ns o t%e s+"in! coil
Iet n7 Number of active turns.
)t is given that the aial deflection 3/ for the load range from 22'? N to 2>'? N 3i.e., for -7
'?? N/ is 5 mm.
-e #now that the deflection of the spring 3/,
( )
%
%
%
B '?? ' n
B-.. .n
57 ?.5% n
F.d B& 1? G.&G
n7 58?.5% 7 G.' say 1? *ns

For s:uared and ground ends, the total number of turns,

nO7 1?@2712 *ns.
3. &"ee 7en!t% o t%e s+"in!
+ince the compression produced under '??N is 5 mm, therefore maimum compression
produced under the maimum load of 2>'? N is
ma
5
2>'? %% mm
'??

-e #now that free length of the spring.
I
F
7n,.d @
ma
@?.1'
ma
712 G.&G @%%@?.1' %%71'1.B% say 1'2 mm *ns.
12'
*. Pitc% o t%e coil
-e #now that pitch of the coil
Free length 1'2
1%.>% say 1%.B mm *ns.
nO 1 12 1


The spring is shown in figure.
&i!'"e
.2. Desi!n an5 5"a= a 6al6e s+"in! o a +et"ol en!ine o" t%e ollo=in! o+e"atin!
con5itions8
S+"in! loa5 =%en t%e 6al6e is o+en F *11 N
S+"in! loa5 =%en t%e 6al6e is close5 F 251 N
MaCi#'# insi5e 5ia#ete" o s+"in! F 25 ##
7en!t% o t%e s+"in! =%en t%e 6al6e is o+en F*1 ##
7en!t% o t%e s+"in! =%en t%e 6al6e is close5 F 51 ##
MaCi#'# +e"#issi3le s%ea" st"ess F *11 MPa
Sol'tion8 Fiven! -
1
7 &?? N H -
2
7 2'? N H ;
i
7 2' mm H l
1
7 &? mm H l
2
7 '? mmH 7 &?? 6$a 7
&?? N8mm
2
1. Mean 5ia#ete" o t%e s+"in! coil
Iet d 7 diameter of the spring wire in mm, and
; 7 6ean diameter of the spring coil
7 )nside dia. of spring @ ;ia of spring wire 7 32'@d/ mm
+ince the diameter of the spring wire is obtained for the maimum spring load 3-
1
/ ,
therefore maimum twisting moment on the spring.
125
T 7 -
1
( )
; 2' d
&?? '??? 2?? d N mm
2 2
+ _
+

,
-e #now that maimum twisting moment 3T/,
( )
% % %
'??? 2?? d d &?? d >B.'' d
15 15

+
+olving this e:uation by hit and trial method, we find that d7&.2 mm. From table, we find
that standard si"e of wire is +-F > having d 7 &.&> mm. Now let us find the diameter of the
spring wire by ta#ing -ahl,s stress factor 3E/ into consideration.
-e #now that spring inde,
; 2' &.&>
. 5.5 ...3 ;72'@d/
d &.&>
+
Q
-ahl,s stress factor,
E7
&. 1 ?.51' & 5.5 1 ?.51'
1.22>
&. & . & 5.5 & 5.5

+ +

-e #now that the maimum shear stress 3/,
1
2 2 2
B-.. B &?? 5.5 B2&B
&?? E 1.22>
d d d



d
2
7 B2&B 8&?? 7 2?.52 or d 7 &.'& mm
Ta#ing larger of the two values, we have
;7 &.'& mm
From table, we shall ta#e a standard wire of si"e +-F 5 having diameter 3d/ 7 &.B>> mm.
6ean diameter of the spring coil
;72' @d 72' @ &.B>> 7 2G.B>> mm *ns.
and outer diameter of the spring coil,
;
?
7 ; @ d 7 2G.B>> @ &.B>> 7 %&.>'& mm *ns.
2. N'#3e" o t'"ns o t%e coil
12>
Iet n7 Number of active turns of the coil.
-e are given that the compression of the spring caused by a load of 3-
1
9 -
2
/, i.e., &?? 9
2'? 7 1'? N is l
2
9 l
1
, i.e., '?-&? 7 1? mm. )n other words, deflection 3/ of the spring is 1? mm
for a load 3-/ of 1'? N.
-e #now that the deflection of he spring 3/
( )
( )
%
%
& &
%
B 1'? 2G.B>> n
B-.; .n
1? ?.>?> n
F.d
B? 1? &.B>>

J3Ta#ing F7 B? 1?
%
N8mm
2
/
n7 1?8?.>?> 7 1&.2 say 1' *ns.
Ta#ing the ends of the springs as s:uared and ground, the total number of turns of the spring,
n 7 1'@2 71> *ns.
3. &"ee len!t% o t%e s+"in!
+ince the deflection for 1'? N of load is 1? mm, therefore the maimum deflection for the
maimum load of &?? N is
ma
1?
&?? 25.5>mm
1'?

Free length of the spring,
I
F
7 n, .d @
ma
@?.1'
ma
71> &.B>> @ 25.5> @ ?.1' 25.5> 7 11%.'B mm *ns.
*. Pitc% o t%e coil
-e #now the pitch of the coil
Free length 11%.'B
>.1 mm *ns.
nO 1 1> 1


.3. Desi!n a %elical s+"in! o" a s+"in! loa5e5 saet, 6al6e :Ra#s3otto# saet, 6al6e; o"
t%e ollo=in! con5itions.
Dia#ete" o 6al6e seat F -5 ##J o+e"atin! +"ess'"e F 1.. N>##
2
J MaCi#'# +"ess'"e
=%en t%e 6al6e 3lo=s o "eel, F 1..5 n>##
2
J MaCi#'# lit o t%e 6al6e =%en t%e +"ess'"e
12B
"ises "o# 1.. to 1..5 N>##
2
F 3.5 ##J MaCi#'# allo=a3le st"ess F 551 MPaJ Mo5'l's o
"i!i5it, F /* 9N>##
2
J S+"in! in5eC F-.
D"a= a neat s9etc% o t%e "ee s+"in! s%o=in! t%e #ain 5i#ensions.
Sol'tion8 Fiven ! ;
1
75' mm H p
1
7 ?.> N8mm
2
H p
2
7 ?.>' N8mm
2
H 7 %.' mmH 7 ''? 6$a 7 ''?
N8mm
2
H F7 B& #N8 mm
2
7 B& 1?
%
N8mm
2
H c75
1. Mean 5ia#ete" o t%e s+"in! coil
let ;7 6ean diameter of the spring coil and
d7 diameter of the spring wire.
+ince the safety valve is a 1amsbottom safety valve, therefore the spring will be under tension.
-e #now that initial tensile force acting on the spring 3i.e.., before the valve lifts/
( ) ( )
2 2
1 1 1
- ; p 5' ?.> 2%2% N
& &


and maimum tensile force acting on the spring 3i.e., when the valve blows off freely/,
&i!'"e
( ) ( )
2 2
2 1 2
- ; p 5' ?.>' 2&BG N
& &


Force which produces the deflection of %.' mm,
-7-
2
9-
1
72&BG -2%2% 7155 N
12G
+ince the diameter of the spring wire is obtained for the maimum spring load 3-
2
/,
therefore maimum twisting moment on the spring,
2
; 5d
T - 2&BG >&5>d
2 2

( ) .... . ;8 d 5 Q
-e #now that maimum twisting moment 3T/,
% % %
>&5> d7 d ''? d 1?Bd
15 15


d
2
7 >&5> 81?B 75G.1& or d7 B.% mm
From Table , we shall ta#e a standard wire of si"e +-F 28? having diameter 3d/ 7 B.B%G mm *ns.
6ean diameter of the coil,
;75 d7 5 B.B%G 7 '%.?%& mm *ns.
Kutside diameter of the coil,
;
?
7 ; @ d 7 '%.?%& @B.B%G 7 51.B>% mm *ns.
and inside diameter of the coil,
;
i
7 ; 9d 7 '%.?%& 9 B.B%G 7 &&.1G' mm *ns.
2. N'#3e" o t'"ns o t%e coil
Iet n7 Number of active turns of the coil.
-e #now that the deflection of the spring 3/,
% %
%
B-.. .n B 155 5 n
%.'7 ?.%B5 n
F.d B& 1? B.B%G
n7 %.'8?.%B57 G.?5 say 1? *ns.

For a spring having loop on both ends, the total number of turns,
nO7 n@171?@1711 *ns.
3. &"ee len!t% o t%e s+"in!
Ta#ing the least gap between the ad(acent coils as 1 mm when the spring is in free state,
the free length of the tension spring,
1%?
( ) ( )
F
I n.d n 1 1 1? B.B%G 1? 1 1 G>.%G mm *ns. + +
*. Pitc% o t%e coil
-e #now that pitch of the coil
Free length G>.%G
1?.B2 mm *ns.
n 1 1? 1


The tension spring is shown in figure.
.*. A saet, 6al6e o -1 ## 5ia#ete" is to 3lo= o at a +"ess'"e o 1.2 N>##
2
. It is %el5 on
its seat 3, a close5 coile5 %elical s+"in!. T%e #aCi#'# lit o t%e 6al6e is 11 ##. Desi!n a
s'ita3le co#+"ession s+"in! a s+"in! in5eC 5 an5 +"o6i5in! an initial co#+"ession o 35
##. T%e #aCi#'# s%ea" st"ess is t%e #ate"ial o t%e =i"e is li#ite5 to 511 MPa. T%e
#o5'l's o "i!i5it, o" t%e s+"in! #ate"ial is /1 9N>##
2
. Calc'late 8 1. Dia#ete" o t%e
s+"in! =i"e? 2. Mean coil 5ia#ete" ? 3. N'#3e" o acti6e t'"ns an5 *. Pitc% o t%e coil.
Ta#e -ahl,s factor,
&. 1 ?.51'
E , where . is the spring inde.
&. & .

Sol'tion8
Fiven! 2alve dia.7 5? mmH 6a. $ressure 7 1.2 N8mm
2
H
2
71? mmH .7'H
1
7%' mm H
7'?? 6$a 7 '?? N8mm
2
, F7B? #N8mm
2
7 B? 1?
%
N8mm
2
.
1. Dia#ete" o t%e s+"in! =i"e
Iet d7 ;iameter of the spring wire,
-e #now that the maimum load acting on the valve when it (ust begins to blow off,
-
1
7 *rea of the valve 6a. pressure
( )
2
5? 1.2 %%G& N
&

and maimum compression of the spring,

ma
7
1
@
2
7 %' @1? 7 &' mm
+ince a load of %%G& N #epts the valve on its seat by providing initial compression of %' mm,
therefore the maimum load on the spring when the valve is open 3i.e., for maimum compression
of &' mm/,
%%G&
- &' &%5& N
%'

1%1
-e #now that -ahl,s stress factor,
&. 1 ?.51' & ' 1 ?.51'
E 1.%1
&. & . & ' & '

+ +

-e also #now that the maimum shear stress 3/,
2 2 2
B-.. B &%5& ' >2>B?
'?? E 1.%1
d d d



d
2
7 >2 >B? 8 '?? 7 1&'.5 or d 7 12.?5 mm
From table we shall ta#e a standard wire of si"e +-F >8? having diameter 3d/ 7 12.> mm.
2. Mean coil 5ia#ete"
Iet ; 7 6ean coil diameter
-e #now that the spring inde,
. 7 ;8d or ; 7 ..d 7 ' 12.> 7 5%.' mm
3. N'#3e" o acti6e t'"ns
Iet n 7 Number of active turns.
-e #now that he maimum compression of the spring 3/
% %
%
B-... n B &%5& ' n
&' &.%n
F.d B? 1? 12.>



n 7 &' 8 &.% 7 1?.' say 11
Ta#ing the ends of the coil as s:uared and ground, the total number of turns,
n, 7 n@2 7 11 @ 2 7 1%
Note8 The valve of n may also be calculated by using
%
1
1
%
%
B-.. .n
F.d
B %%G& ' n
%' %.%&n
B? 1? 12.>




n 7 %'8%.%& 7 1?.' say 11
*. Pitc% o t%e coil
-e #now that free length of the spring,
1%2
I
F
7 n,.d@
ma
@ ?.1'
ma
7 1% 12.> @&' @?.1' &'
7 215.B' mm
$itch of the coil 7
Free length 215.B'
1B.1mm
nO 1 1% 1


UNIT ) II
DESIGN O& CE7INDER? PISTON AND CONNECTING ROD
PART ) A
1. Deine Inte"nal co#3'stion :IC; en!ines.
*s the name implies, the internal combustion engines 3briefly written as ).. engines/ are
those engines in which the combustion of fuel ta#es place inside the engine cylinder.
2. Disc'ss a3o't +et"ol en!ines.
)n petrol engines 3also called spar# ignition engines or +.). engines/, the correct proportion
of air and petrol is mied in the carburetor and fed to engine cylinder where it is ignited by means
of a spar# produced at the spar# plug.
3. Disc'ss a3o't Diesel en!ines.
)n diesel engines 3also called compression ignition engines or ..). engines/, only air is
supplied to the engine cylinder during suction stro#e and it is compressed to a very high pressure,
thereby raising its temperature from 5??. to 1???.. The desired :uantity of fuel3diesel/ is now
in(ected into the engine cylinder in the form of a very fine spray and gets ignited when comes in
contact with the hot air.
*. Disc'ss a3o't o+e"ation c,cle o IC En!ines.
The operating cycle of an )... engine may be completed either by the two stro#es or four
stro#es of the piston. Thus, an engine which re:uires two stro#es of the piston or one complete
revolution of the cran#shaft to complete cycle, is #nown as two stro#e engine. *n engine which
re:uires four stro#es of the piston or two complete revolutions of the cran#shaft to complete the
cycle, is #nown as four stro#e engine.
5. Mention t%e a++lication o 2)st"o9e an5 *)st"o9e 5iesel en!ine an5 +et"ol en!ine.
The two stro#e petrol engines are generally employed in very light vehicles such as
scooters, motor cycles and three wheelers. The two stro#e diesel engines are generally employed
in marine propulsion.
The four stro#e petrol engines are generally employed in light vehicles such as cars, (eeps
and also in aeroplanes. The four stro#e diesel engines are generally employed in heavy duty
vehicle such as buses, truc#s, tractors, diesel locomotives and in earth moving machinery.
1%%
-. Mention +"inci+le +a"ts o I.C. En!ine.
1. .ylinder and cylinder liner,
2. $iston, piston rings and piston pin and gudgeon pin.
%. .onnecting rod with small and big end bearing,
&. .ran#, cran#shaft and cran# pin, and
'. 2alve gear mechanism.
.. Deine Piston.
The piston is a disc which reciprocates with a cylinder. )t is either moved by the fluid or it
moves the fluid which enters the cylinder. The main function of the piston of an internal
combustion engine is to receive the impulse from the epanding gas and to transmit the energy to
the cran#shaft through the connecting rod. The piston must also disperse a large amount of heat
from the combustion chamber to the cylinder walls.
/. $%at is T"'n9 +iston(
The pistons of internal combustion engines are usually of trun# type as shown in figure
such pistons are open at one end and consists of the following parts!
1. Head or crown. The piston head or crown may be flat, conve or concave depending upon
the design of combustion chamber. )t withstands the pressure of gas in the cylinder.
2. Piston rings. The piston rings are used to seal the cylinder in order to prevent lea#age of
the gas past the piston.
%. Skirt. The s#irt acts as a bearing for the side thrust of the connecting rod on the walls of
cylinder.
&. Piston pin. )t is also called gudgeon pin or wrist pin. )t is used to connect the piston to the
connecting rod.
0. Mention t%e 'nction o +iston "in!s.
These impart radial pressure to maintain the seal between the piston and the cylinder bore.
*lso they serve to transfer heat from the piston head to cylinder walls.
11. $%, Ri3s a"e nee5e5 in +iston(
Four to si ribs are provided in the piston to ma#e it rigid and to prevent distortion due to
gas load and connecting rod thrust. 1ib thic#ness,
t
2
7
1
1 1
to t
% 2
_

,
11. $%at is +iston s9i"t(
$iston barrel below the rings section is #nown as Xs#irtU. The s#irt ta#es up the side thrust
of the connecting rod. The length of the piston s#irt should be such that the side thrust pressure
should not eceed ?.21 to ?.2B N8mm
2
for low speed engines and should not be more than ?.&G
N8mm
2
for high speed engines.
1%&
+ide thrust 7 .oefficient of friction between liner and s#irt Fas force 7 F
( )
2
ma
;
1 ?.?% to ?.1 p
&
_


,
p
s
7 +ide thrust pressure 7 183I
s
;/
-here I
s
7 Iength of s#irt
12. $"ite t%e o"#'la to in5 len!t% o +iston.
I
p
7 I
s
@ length of ring section @ top land
Empirically, I
p
7; to 1.' ;.
13. Mention #ate"ials o" G'5!eon +in :o"; +iston +in.
Mate"ials8 .ase hardened alloy steel containing nic#el, chromium, molybdenum or
vanadium with an ultimate strength of >?? to G?? N8mm
2
.
1*. 2"ie +iston clea"ance.
The clearance between piston and liner is re:uired to ta#e case of thermal epansion and
distortion under load. Ecessive clearance will lead to X$iston +lapU. )nade:uate clearance will
lead to piston sei"ure. $iston clearances vary from ?.?%>' mm to ?.1B>' mm, depending on the
engine design and piston diameter. +maller clearances can be used if pistons are cooled
3oil8water cooling/.
15. $%at a"e t%e c"ite"ia o" selection o #ate"ial o" connectin! "o5(
.onnecting rod material should have good fatigue and shoc# resistance. Iight duty
applications 9 *luminum alloy
<eavy duty applications 9 *lloy steels of molybdenum, chromium and nic#el, <igh speed
engines 9 *luminum alloy 3low inertia forces/.
1-. $%at a"e t%e ail'"e #o5es o c"an9 s%at(
Mo5e o &ail'"e .ran#shaft is sub(ected to repeated bending and torsion. Failrue is due to
fatigue.
Fatigue crac#s develop at the (oints of web and cran#pin, and web and cran#shaft because
of stress concentration.
1.. $%at a"e t%e #ate"ials 'se5 o" connectin! "o5(
The material mostly used for connecting rods varies from mild carbon steels 3having ?.%' to
?.&' percent carbon/ to alloy steels 3chrome-nic#el or chrome-molybdenum steels/. The carbon
steel having ?.%' percent carbon has an ultimate tensile strength of about 5'? 6$a when properly
1%'
heat treated and a carbon steel with ?.&' percent carbon has a ultimate tensile strength of >'?
6$a. These steels are used for connecting rods of industrial engines. The alloy steels have an
ultimate tensile strength of about 1?'? 6$a and are used for connecting rods of aeroengines and
automobile engines.
1/. Mention 5ie"ent +a"ts o connectin! "o5.
1. 0ig end
2. +mall end
%. .ap
10. $"ite 6a"io's &o"ces actin! on connectin! "o5.
The various forces acting on the connecting rod are as follows!
1. Force on the piston due to gas pressure and inertia of the reciprocating parts,
2. Force due to inertia of the connecting rod or inertia bending forces,
%. Force due to friction of the piston rings and of the piston, and
&. Force due to friction of the piston pin bearing and the cran#pin bearing.
21. $%at is #eant 3, +"i#a", 3alancin!(
Primary balance is the balance achieved by compensating for the eccentricities of the
masses in the rotating system, including the connecting rods. $rimary balance is controlled by
adding or removing mass to or from the cran#shaft, typically at each end, at the re:uired radius
and angle, which varies both due to design and manufacturing tolerances. )n theory any
conventional engine design can be balanced perfectly for primary balance.
21. $%at is #eant 3, Secon5a", 3alancin!(
)t was states earlier that the secondary acceleration force is defined as
2
cos2
+econdary force 7 mr
n


)ts fre:uency is twice that of the primary force and the magnitude 18n times the magnitude of the
primary force.
The epression can also be written as
2
cos2
mr32 /
&n


Now, consider the cran#s of an engine 3fig/ one actual one and the other imaginary, with the
following specifications.
1%5
Act'al I#a!ina",
*ngular velocity 2
Iength of cran# r r
&n
6ass at the cran# pin m m
22. $"ite t%e i#+o"tance o 3alancin!.
)f the moving part of a machine are not balanced completely then the inertia forces are set
up which may cause ecessive noise, vibration, wear and tear of the system. +o balancing of
machine is necessary.
23. $%at a"e t%e si!niicance o i"in! o"5e"(
Firing order applies to multi cylinder engine. Firing order refers to the se:uence in which
the charge in the various cylinders of multi cylinder engine is burnt.
To reduce vibration and ma#es engine to run smoothly. -e have to choose correct firing
order.
2*. $"ite s%o"t notes 3alancin! o Inline En!ine.
1. The algebraic sum of the primary and secondary forces must be "ero, and
2. The algebraic sum of the couples due to primary and secondary forces must be "ero.
25. $"ite s%o"t notes 3alancin! o Ra5ial En!ine.
)n radial engines the connecting rods are connected to a common cran# and hence the
plane of rotation of the various cran#s is same, therefore there are no unbalanced primary or
secondary couples. <ence radial engines are preferred.
1%>
PART ) 2
1. Desc"i3e c,lin5e" an5 c,lin5e" 7inea".
The function of a cylinder is to retain the wor#ing fluid and to guide the piston. The
cylinders are usually made of cast iron or cast steel. +ince the cylinder has to withstand high
temperature due to the combustion of fuel, therefore, some arrangement must be provided to cool
the cylinder. The single cylinder engines 3such as scooters and motorcycles/ are generally air
cooled. They are provided with fins around the cylinder. The multi-cylinder engines 3such as of
cars/ are provided with water (ac#ets around the cylinders to cool it. )n smaller engines, the
cylinder, water (ac#et and the frame are made as one piece, but for all the larger engines, these
parts are manufactured separately. The cylinders are provided with cylinder liners so that in case
of wear, they can be easily replaced. The cylinder liners are of the following two types!
&i!8 D", an5 =et line".
* cylinder liner which does not have any direct contact with the engine cooling water, is
#nown as dry liner, as shown in figure 3a/. * cylinder liner which have its outer surface in direct
contact with the engine cooling water, is #nown as wet liner, as shown in figure 3b/.
The cylinder liners are made from good :uality close grained cast iron 3i.e., pearlitic cast
iron/, nic#el cast iron, nic#el chromium cast iron. )n some cases, nic#el chromium cast steel with
molybdenum may be used. The inner surface of the liner should be properly heat-treated in order
to obtain a hard surface to reduce wear.
2. Desc"i3e t%e Desi!n +"oce5'"e o a c,lin5e".
)n designing a cylinder for an )... engine, it is re:uired to determine the following values!
1.Thickness of cylinder wall. The cylinder wall is sub(ected to gas pressure and the piston side
thrust. The gas pressure produces the following two types of stresses!
1%B
3a/ Iongitudinal stress, and 3b/ .ircumferential stress.
+ince these two stresses act at right angles to each other, therefore, the net stress in each
direction is reduced.
The piston side thrust tends to bend the cylinder wall, but the stress in the wall due to side
thrust is very small and hence it may be neglected.
Iet ;
o
7 Kutside diameter of the cylinder in mm
; 7 )nside diameter of the cylinder in mm,
7 6aimum pressure inside the engine cylinder in N8mm
2
t 7Thic#ness of the cylinder wall in mm, and
18m 7 $iston,s ratio. )t is usually ta#en as ?.2'.
The apparent longitudinal stress is given by
( )
( )
2
2
l 2
2
2
2
o
o
;
Force ; .
&
*rea
; ;
; ;
&

]
and the apparent circumferential stress is given by
c
Force ; l ;
*r ea 2t l 2t

J.3where l is the length of the cylinder and area is the pro(ected area/
c
l
l
c
Net longitudinal stress 7
m
and net circumferential stress 7
m

The thic#ness of a cylinder wall 3t/ is usually obtained by using a thin cylindrical formula i.e.
c
;
t .
2

where 7 6aimum pressure inside the cylinder in N8mm

2
; 7 )nside diameter of the cylinder or cylinder bore in mm.

c
7 permissible circumferential or hoop stress for the cylinder material in 6$a
or N8mm
2
. )t value may be ta#en from %' 6$a to 1?? 6$a depending upon
the si"e and material of the cylinder.
.7 *llowance for reboring.
The allowance for reboring 3./ depending upon the cylinder bore 3;/ for ).. engines is
1%G
given in the following table!
Ta3le. Allo=ance o" "e3o"in! o" I.C. en!ine c,lin5e"s.
;3mm/ >' 1?? 1'? 2?? 2'? %?? %'? &?? &'? '??
.3mm 1.' 2.& &.? 5.% B.? G.' 11.? 12.' 12.' 12.'
The thic#ness of the cylinder wall usually varies from &.'mm to 2' mm or more depending
upon the si"e of the cylinder. The thic#ness of the cylinder wall 3t/ may also be obtained from the
following empirical relation. i.e.,
T7 ?.?&' ;@1.5 mm
The other empirical relations are as follows!
Thic#ness of dry liner
7 ?.?% ; to ?.?%' ;
Thic#ness of the water (ac#et wall
7 ?.?%2 ; @1.5 mm or t8% for bigger cylinders and %t8& for smaller cylinders
-ater space between the outer cylinder wall and inner (ac#et wall
7 1? mm for a >' mm cylinder to >' mm for a >'? mm cylinder or ?.?B ; @5.' mm
2. Bore and length of the cylinder. The bore 3i.e., inner diameter/ and length of the cylinder may be
determined as discussed below!
let p
m
7 )ndicated mean effective pressure in N8mm
2
; 7 .ylinder bore in mm,
* 7 .ross-sectional area of the cylinder in mm
2
7 ;
2
8&
l 7 Iength of stro#e in metres,
N 7 +peed of the engine in r.p.m., and
n 7 Number of wor#ing stro#es per min
7 N, for two stro#e engine
7 N82, for four stro#e engine.
-e #now that the power produced inside the engine cylinder, i.e., indicated power,
m
l * n
).$ watts
5?

From this epression, the bore 3;/ and length of stro#e 3l/ is determined. The length of
stro#e is generally ta#en as 1.2' ; to 2;.
+ince there is a clearance on both sides of the cylinder, therefore length of the cylinder is
ta#en as 1' percent greater than the length of stro#e. )n other words,
Iength of the cylinder, I 7 1.1' Iength of stro#e 7 1.1' l
1&?
Notes8 :a; )f the power developed at the cran#shaft, i.e., bra#e power 30,$/ and the mechanical
efficiency 3
m
/ of the engine is #nown, then
).$ 7
m
0.$

3b/ The maimum gas pressure 3p/ may be ta#en as G to 1? times the mean effective pressure
3
m
/.
%. Cylinder flange and studs. The cylinders are cast integral with the upper half of the cran#case or
they are attached to the cran#case by means of a flange with studs or bolts and nuts. The cylinder
flange is integral with the cylinder and should be made thic#er than the cylinder wall. The flange
thic#ness should be ta#en as 1.2 t to 1.& t, where t is the thic#ness of cylinder wall.
The diameter of the studs or bolts may be obtained by e:uating the gas load due to the
maimum pressure in the cylinder to the resisting force offered by all the studs or bolts.
( )
2
2
s c t
; . n d
& &


-here ;7 cylinder bore in mm,
7 6aimum pressure in N8mm
2
n
s
7 Number of studs. )t may be ta#en as ?.?1 ;@& to ?.?2; @&
d
c
7 .ore or minor diameter, i.e. diameter at the root of the thread in mm,

t
7 *llowable tensile stress for the material of studs or bolts in 6$a or N8mm
2
.
)t maybe ta#en as %' to >? 6$a.
The nominal or ma(or diameter of the stud or bolt 3d/ usually lies between ?.>' t
f
to t
f
, where
t
f
is the thic#ness of flange. )n no case, a stud or bolt less than 15 mm diameter should be used.
The distance of the flange from the centre of the hole for the stud or bolt should not be less
than d@5 mm and not more than 1.' d, where d is the nominal diameter of the stud or bolt.
)n order to ma#e to a lea# proof (oint, the pitch of the studs or bolts should lie between
1G d to 2B.' d, where is in mm.
&. Cylinder head. 4sually, a separate cylinder head or cover is provided with most of the
engines, )t is usually, made of bo type section of considerable depth to accommodate ports for air
and gas passages, inlet valve, ehaust valve and spar# plug 3in case of petrol engines/ or
atomi"er at the centre of the cover 3in case of diesel engines/.
The cylinder head may be approimately ta#en as a flat circular plat whose thic#ness 3t
h
/
may be determined from the following relation.
1&1
h
c
..
t ;

-here ;7 .ylinder bore in mm

7 6aimum pressure inside the cylinder the N8mm
2

c
7 *llowable circumferential stress in 6$a or N8mm
2
. )t may be ta#en as
%? to '? 6$a, and
.7 .onstant whose value is ta#en as ?.1.
The studs or bolts are screwed tightly along with a metal gas#et or asbestos pac#ing to
provide a lea# proof (oint between the cylinder and cylinder head. The tightness of the (oint also
depends upon the pitch of the bolts or studs, which should lie between 1G d to 2B.' d . The
pitch circle diameter 3;
p
/ is usually ta#en as ;@%d. The studs or bolts are designed in the same
way as discussed above.
3. A o'" st"o9e 5iesel en!ine %as t%e ollo=in! s+eciications8
2"a9e +o=e" F 5 9$J S+ee5 F 1211 ".+.#.J In5icate5 #ean eecti6e +"ess'"e F 1.35
N>##
2
#ec%anical eicienc, F/1M.
Dete"#ine8 1. 3o"e an5 len!t% o t%e c,lin5e"J 2. t%ic9ness o t%e c,lin5e" %ea58 an5 3. siBe
o st'5s o" t%e c,lin5e" %ea5.
Sol'tion. Fiven! 0.$. 7 ' #- 7 '??? -H N7 12?? r.p.m. or n7 N82 7 5???H
m
7 ?.%' N8mm
2
,
m
7
B?N 7 ?.B
1. 0ore and length of cylinder
Iet ;7 0ore of the cylinder in mm,
*7 .ross-sectional area of the cylinder 7
2 2
; mm
&

l7 length of the stro#e in m.

71.' ; mm 7 1.' ;81??? m J3*ssume/
-e #now that the indicated power,
).$70.$.8
m
7 '??? 8?.B 752'? -
-e also #now that the indicated power 3).$./,
2
m
-% %
% % %
.l.*.n ?.%' 1.'; ; 5??
52'?
5? 5? 1??? &
7 &.12 1? ; ....3 For four stro#e engine, n 7 N82/
; 52'?8 &.12 1? 1'1> 1? or ; 7 11' mm. 3*ns/

and l 7 1.'; 7 1.' 11' 71>2.' mm
1&2
Ta#ing a clearance on both sides of the cylinder e:ual to 1'N of the stro#e, therefore
length of the cylinder,
I7 1.1' l7 1.1' 1>2.' 7 1GB say 2?? mm 3*ns/.
2. Thic#ness of the cylinder head
+ince the maimum pressure 3p/ in the engine cylinder is ta#en as G to 1? times the mean
effective pressure 3p
m
/, therefore let us ta#e
$ 7G p
m
7 G ?.%' 7 %.1' N8mm
2
-e #now that thic#ness of the cylinder head,
h
t
..p ?.1 %.1'
t ; 11' G.G5 say 1? mm *ns.
&2

J3Ta#ing .7 ?.1 and

t
7 &2 6$a 7 &2 N8mm
2
/
%. +i"e of studs for the cylinder head
Iet d 7 Nominal diameter of the stud in mm,
d
c
7 .ore diameter of the stud in mm. )t is usually ta#en as ?.B& d.
7 Tensile stress for the material of the stud which is usually nic#el steel.
N
s
7 Number of studs.
-e #now that the force acting on the cylinder head 3or on the studs/
( )
2
2
; p 11' %.1' %2 >?2 N ...3i/
& &


The number of studs 3n
s
/ are usually ta#en between ?.?1; @ & 3i.e., ?.?1 11'@ & 7 '.1'/ and
?.?2; @& 3i.e. ?.?2 11' @ & 7 5.%/. Iet us ta#e n
s
75.
-e #now that resisting force offered by all the studs.
( ) ( )
2 2
2
s c t
2
t
n d 5 ?.B& d 5' 215 d N ...3ii/
& &
...3Ta#ing 5' 6$a75' N8mm /



From e:uations 3i/ and 3ii/,
2
d %2 >?28215 71'1 or d712.% say 1& mm
The pitch circle diameter of the studs 3;
p
/ is ta#en ;@%d.
;
p
7 11' @ % 1&71'> mm
-e #now that pitch of the studs
1&%
p
s
;
1'>
B2.2 mm
n 5

-e #now that for a lea#-proof (oint, the pitch of the studs should lie between 1G d to 2B.'
d , where d is the nominal diameter of the stud.
6inimum pitch of the studs
71G d 7 1G
1&
7 >1.1 mm
and maimum pitch of the studs
72B.' d 7 2B.'
1&
7 1?5.5 mm
+ince the pitch of the studs obtained above 3i.e B2.2 mm/ lies within >1.1 mm and 1?5.5
mm, therefore, si"e of the stud 3d/ calculated above is satisfactory.
d7 1& mm.
*. $"ite Desi!n consi5e"ations o" a +iston.
)n designing a piston for )... engines, the following points should be ta#en into
consideration!
1. )t should have enormous strength to withstand the high gas pressure and inertia forces.
2. )t should have minimum mass to minimi"e the inertia forces.
%. )t should form an effective gas and oil sealing of the cylinder.
&. )t should provide sufficient bearing area to prevent undue wear.
'. )t should disperse the heat of combustion :uic#ly, to the cylinder walls.
5. )t should have high speed reciprocation without noise.
>. )t should be of sufficient rigid construction to withstand thermal and mechanical distortion.
B. )t should have sufficient support for the piston pin.
5. $"ite s%o"t notes on Mate"ial o" Pistons.
The most commonly used materials for pistons of )... engines are cast iron, cast
aluminium, forget aluminium, cast steel and forged steel. The cast iron pistons are used for
moderately rated engines with piston speeds below 5 m8s and aluminium alloy pistons are used for
highly rated engines running at higher piston speeds. )t may be noted that
1. +ince the Xthe coefficient of thermal epansion for aluminium is ?.2& 1?
-5
m8. for cast
iron it is ?.1 1?
-5
m8.U coefficient of thermal epansion of aluminium is about 2.' times that of
cast iron, therefore, a greater clearance must be provided between the piston and the cylinder wall
3than with cast iron pistons/ in order to prevent sei"ing of the piston when engine runs
continuously under heavy loads. 0ut if ecessive clearance is allowed, then the piston will
develop piston slap, while it is cold and this tendency increases with wear. The less clearance
1&&
between the piston and the cylinder wall will lead to sei"ing of piston.
2. +ince the aluminium alloys used for pistons have high. The heat conductivity for
aluminium is 1>&.>' -8m8. and for cast iron it is &5.5 -8m8.. heat conductivity 3nearly four
times that of cast iron/, therefore, these pistons ensure high rate of heat transfer and thus #eeps
down the maimum temperature difference between the centre and edges of the piston head or
crown.
Notes8 3a/ For a cast iron piston, the temperature at the centre of the piston head 3T
c
/ is about
&2'. to &'?. under full load conditions and the temperature at the edges of he piston head 3T
E
/
is about 2??. to 22'..
3b/ For aluminium alloy pistons, T
.
is about 25?. to 2G?. and T
E
is about 1B'. to 21'..
%. +ince the aluminium alloys are about three times lighter than cast iron, therefore, its mechanical
strength is good at low temperatures, but they lose their strength 3about '?N/ at temperatures
above about %2'.. +ometimes, the pistons of aluminium alloys are coated with aluminium oide
by an electrical method.
-. Desi!n +"oce5'"e o +iston lea5.
Piston 4ea58
The thic#ness of the piston head or crown is calculated from strength and heat dissipation
considerations.
The head is assumed to be a flat plat of uniform thic#ness fied at the edges and sub(ected
to a uniformly distributed gas load. For strength,
[ ]
2
ma
1
t
%p ;
t ...31/
15

-here
T
1
7 thic#ness of the piston head, mm
p
ma
7 gas pressure, N8mm
2
; 7 diameter of the piston8 cylinder bore, mm
L
t
M 7 permissible tensile stress of the piston material
7 %' to &? N 8mm
2
for ..)
7 5?-1?? N8mm
2
for steel
7 '?-G? n8mm
2
for aluminium alloy
For heat dissipation,
t
1
7
( )
c c
<
12.'5# T T
where,
1&'
3in metres/
< 7 heat flowing through the head
.7 constant 3usually ?.?'/. )t is the portion of the heat supplied to the engine which is
absorbed by the piston.
-7 mass of the fuel used, #g per #- per second
<.2 7 higher calorific value of the fuel, #V8#g

7 && 1?
%
#V8#g for diesel fuel
0$ 7 bra#e power of the engine per cylinder, #-
m
*In
,#-
5? 1???

p
m
7 bra#e mean effective pressure, N8mm
2
* 7 piston area, mm
2
I 7 stro#e , mm
N 7 number of wor#ing stro#es per minute
E 7 heat conductivity factor, -8 metre8.

7 &5.5 for ..)

71>' for aluminium alloys
7 '1 for steel
T
c
7 temperature at the centre of the piston head, .
T
e
7 temperature at the edge of the piston head, .
T
c
-T
e
7 22?. for ..)
7 >'. for aluminium
Note 8 )f < is given in #-8m
2
then # should be given in -8 3m
2
.m../, Thic#ness of the head
calculated form heat transfer consideration will be greater than that calculated from strength
consideration. )f the position is to be cooled by circulating oil or water, the smaller thic#ness can
be adopted.
1&5
&i!8
.. $"ite s%o"t notes on +iston "in!s an5 its 5esi!n calc'lation.
Piston Rin!s
These impart radial pressure to maintain the seal between the piston and the cylinder bore.
*lso they serve to transfer heat from the piston head to cylinder walls
1ings inserted at the top are compression rings 3% or & for automobile and aircraft engines
and ' to > for stationary compression ignition engines/.
1ings inserted at the bottom are oil scraper rings and they scrap the oil from the liner to
minimi"e the flow of oil into the combustion chamber 31 t% % may be used/. )n the oil rings, the
bottom edge is stepped or the top edge is beveled or slots are cut in the middle of the ring all
around the periphery. )n the piston, lower edge of the groove is beveled or stepped and small
holes are drilled to drain the oil to inside of the piston, figure.
1&>
&i!'"e8 T,+es o Piston Rin!s an5 G"oo6es
The diameter of the ring is slightly larger than the cylinder bore. * part of the ring is cut off
3figure/ and inserted into the cylinder bore. * pressure is eerted on the liner due to the difference
in the diameters.
&i!'"e8
The clearance between the ends should be sufficient so that even at the highest
temperature, they will not touch due to thermal epansion.
$iston rings are made of alloy cast iron because, it possess wear resistance and retains
spring characteristics even at high temperatures.
Desi!n Calc'lations o" Piston Rin!s
1adial thic#ness of the ring,
1&B
[ ]
w
r
t
% p
b ;

where .
p
w
7 wall pressure, N8mm
2
7 ?.?2&' to ?.?&2 N8mm
2
3desirable/
L
t
M 7 permissible stress in bending, N8mm
2
7B& to 112 N8mm
2
for ..)
*ial thic#ness of the ring 7h7 3?.> to 1/ b
r
( )
;
h empirical relation
1?i

where i 7 no. of rings

T%inne" "in!s %a6e t%e ollo=in! a56anta!es
a/ less wear of the lands b/ better sealing action
c/ reduced friction at high speeds d/ less piston length occupied by rings.
The first ring groove is machined at a distance e:ual to t
1
to 1.2 t
1
from top. The lands
between the rings h.
.7 the gap between the free ends of the ring 7 3%.' to &/ b
r
The gap between the ends when the rings in the cylinder 7 3?.??2 to ?.??&/ ;.
/. 4o= ,o' 5esi!n +iston +in(
G'5!eon +in o" Piston +in
Mate"ials8 .ase hardened allot steel containing nic#el, chromium, molybdenum or
vanadium with an ultimate strength of >?? to G?? N8mm
2
.
The piston pin should be designed for the maimum gas force. 0earing pressure is the
design criterion.
l d Lp
b
M Force on the piston 7 F
l 7 length of the piston pin in the connecting rod small end bearing
d 7 diameter of the pin
l8d 7 1.' to 2 3usually/
Lp8dM 7 permissible bearing pressure 7 1' to %? N 8mm
2
The piston pin is chec#ed in bending, ta#ing bending movement, 6 7 F;8B.

b
7 bending stress induced in the pin
1&G

%
F;
%2
B
d

L
b
M 7 permissible bending stress
7 B& N8mm
2
for case hardened steel
7 1&? N8mm
2
for heat treated alloy steel.
The pin is placed at a distance about
s
I
2
from the opened end.
0. Desi!n a cast i"on +iston o" a sin!le actin! o'" st"o9e en!ine o" t%e ollo=in!
s+eciications. C,lin5e" 3o"e F 121 ##? st"o9e F 1*1 ##? #aCi#'# !as +"ess'"e F -
N>##
3
? 3"a9e #ean eecti6e +"ess'"e F 1.. N >##
2
? 'el cons'#+tion F 1.23 9!>9$>%"
s+ee5 F 2*11 "+#.
Piston 4ea5
Thic#ness is found on the basis of strength.
[ ]
[ ]
2
2 ma
1 ma
t
2
2
t
%p ;
t p 5 N8mm 3gas presure/
15
% 5 12?
7 &?N8 mm for ..)
15 &?
7 2?.12 2?.' mm ;712? mm

2. Thic#ness on the basis of %eat 5issi+ation

( )
1
c e
<
t in metres
12.'5# T T

< 7 heat flowing through head

7 . w <.2 0$ in #-
.7 constant 7 ?.?'
-7 mass of fuel used, #g8#-8s

?.2%
#g8 #-8 s
%5??

<.2 7&& 1?
%
#V8#g for diesel fuel
1'?
( )
m
mean effective pressure I * n
0ra#e power , 0$7
5? 1???

2
12? 2&??
?.> 1&?
& 2
I 7 stro#e
5? 1???
722.15> #- 7 1&? mm
*7 piston area, mm2
n

7 n no. of wor#ing stro#es 8min.

pm 7 m.e.pr. in N8mm2

%
c e
%
1
?.2%
< ?.?' && 1? 22.15> %.115#-
%5??
# heat conductivity factor 7 &5.5 -8m8 .
T T 22? . for c.)
%.115 1?
t ?.?2&2 m 2&.' mm
12.'5 &5.5 22?

-e adopt t
1
7 2&.' mm
3. Ri3 Thic#ness t
2
7
1
1
t
2
7
1
2&.' 12.2' mm
2

*. Piston Rin!s Three compression rings and two oil rings are assumed.
1adial thic#ness of the ring b
r
7 ;
[ ]
w
t
%p

( )
[ ]
2
r w
2
t
% ?.?&
b 12? $ ?.?&N8 mm assumed
1??
7&.1'5 mm &.' mm 1??N8 mm 3assumed/

Thic#ness of the ring, h7 3?.> to 1/ b
r
7?.B &.' %.5 mm
-idth of top land 7 t
1
2' mm
-idth of other ring lands 7 % mm , i.e., less than h.
1adial depth of piston ring groove
0
1
7 b
r
@ ?.& mm 7 &.G mm
1'1
5. Piston 2a""el
6aimum thic#ness of the barrel
t
%
7 &.' @ ?.?% ; @ b
1
7 &.' @ ?.?% 12? @ &.G 7 1% mm
Thic#ness of the barrel at the open end of the piston
t
&
7 3?.2' to ?.%'/ t
%
7 ?.% 1%7%.G mm & mm
-. 7en!t% o Piston S9i"t
Lp
s
M 7 +ide thrust pressure 3permissible/
183I
s
;/, I
s
7 s#irt length
17 +ide thrust 7 F 7 ?.1
2
ma
;
p 7?.1
&
3assumed/

7?.1
2
12?
5 5>B5 N
&

Engine is of high speed type. Ta#e Lp
s
M 7 ?.& N8mm
2
&i!8
1'2
s
s
5>B5
?.& ,I 1&1.& 1&1.'mm
I 12?

.. 7en!t% o Piston
I
p
7I
s
@ length of ring section @ top land 3' rings @ & lands/
7 1&1.' @ 3' %.5 @ & %/ @ 2' 7 1G5.' mm
/. G'5!eon +in> Piston +in> $"ist +in
l d p
b
7 Fas force
l8d 7 1.' to 2 Ta#e l8d 71.'
Lp
b
M 7 %? N8mm
2
3assumed/
2
2
12?
1.' d %? 5
&
d %B.B &? mm
l 1.' &?75? mm

0. The dimensioned drawing of the piston designed is shown in figure.
11. Desi!n a cast i"on +iston o" a sin!le actin! o'" st"o9e en!ine "o t%e ollo=in! 5ata8
C,lin5e" 3o"e F 111 ##J st"o9e F125 ## J #aCi#'# !as +"ess'"e F 5 N>##
2
J in5icate5
#ean eecti6e +"ess'"e F 1..5 N>##
2
J Mec%anical eicienc, F/1MJ 'el cons'#+tion F
1.15 9! +e" 3"a9e +o=e" +e" %o'"J 4i!%e" calo"iic 6al'e o 'el F *2 11
3
9N>9!J S+ee5 F
2111 ".+.#
An, ot%e" 5ata "eA'i"e5 o" t%e 5esi!n #a, 3e ass'#e5.
Sol'tion. Fiven! ; 7 1?? mmH I7 12' mm 7 ?.12' mH p7' N8mm
2
H p
m
7 ?.>' N8mm
2
H
m
7 B?N 7
?.BH m 7 ?.1' #g 80$8h 7 &1.> 1?
-5
#g 80$8sH <.2 7 &2 1?
%
#V8#gH N7 2??? r.p.m.
The dimensions for various components of the piston are determined as follows!
1. $iston head or crown
The thic#ness of the piston head or crown is determined on the basis of strength as well as
on the basis of heat dissipation and the larger of the two values is adopted.
-e #now that the thic#ness of piston head on the basis of strength,
1'%
( )
2
2
<
t
2
t
% ' 1??
%p.;
t 1'.> say 15 mm
15 15 %B
.....3Ta#ing for cast iron 7%B 6$a 7%B N8mm /

INTERNA7 COM2USTION ENGINE PARTS
+ince the engine is a four stro#e engine, therefore, the number of wor#ing stro#es per minute,
N7 N82 7 2???82 71???
and cross-sectional area of the cylinder,
( )
2
2
2
1??
;
* >B'' mm
& &

-e #now that indicated power,
m
p .I.*.n ?.>' ?.12' >B'' 1???
)$ 12 2>? -
5? 5?


712.2> #-
0ra#e power, 0$ 7 )$
m
7 12.2> ?.B 7 G.B #- J.3
m
0$8 )$ Q
/
-e #now that the heat flowing through the piston head,
< 7 . <.2 m 0$
7 ?.?' &2 1?
%
&1.> 1?
-5
G.B 7 ?.B5 #- 7 B5? -
J3Ta#ing .7?.?'/
Thic#ness of the piston head on the basis of heat dissipation,
<
. E
. E
< B5?
t ?.??5> m 7 5.> mm
12.'5 #3T T / 12.'5 &5.5 22?
....3 for cast iron, #7 &5.5 -8m8 ., and T T 22? ./


Q
Ta#ing the larger of the two values, we shall adopt
t
<
7 15 mm *ns
+ince the ratio of I8; is 1.2', therefore a cup in the top of the piston head with a radius
e:ual to ?.> ; 3i.e., >? mm/ is provided.
2. Ra5ial "i3s
1'&
The radial ribs may be four in number. The thic#ness of the ribs varies from t
<
8% to t
<
82.
Thic#ness of the ribs, t
1
7 158% to 1582 7 '.%% to B mm
Iet us adopt t
1
7 >mm *ns.
3. Piston "in!s
Iet us assume that there are total four rings 3i.e., n
r
7&/ out of which three are compression
rings and one is an oil ring.
-e #now that the radial thic#ness of the piston rings,
w
1
t
2
w t
%p % ?.?%'
t ; 1?? %.&mm
G?
....3Ta#ing p ?.?%' N8mm ,and G? 6$a/

and aial thic#ness of the piston rings,
2 1 1
t ?.>t to t ?.> %.& to %.& mm 7 2.%B to %.& mm
Iet us adopt t
2
7 % mm
-e also #now that the minimum aial thic#ness of the piston ring,
2
r
; 1??
t 2.'mm
1?n 1? &

Thus the aial thic#ness of the piston ring as already calculated 3i.e., t
2
7% mm/ is satisfactory.
Ans.
The distance from the top of the piston to the first ring groove, i.e., the width of the top land,
b
1
7t
<
to 1.2 t
<
715 to 1.2 15 mm 7 15 to 1G.2 mm
and width of other rings lands,
b
2
7 ?.>' t
2
to t
2
7?.>' % to % mm 7 2.2' to % mm
Iet us adopt b
1
7 1B mm H and b
2
7 2.' mm *ns.
-e #now that the gap between the free ends of the ring,
F
1
7 %.' t
1
& t
1
7 %.' %.& to & %.& mm 7 11.G to 1%.5 mm
and the gap when the ring is in the cylinder,
F
2
7 ?.??2 ; to ?.??& ; 7 ?.??2 1?? to ?.??& 1?? mm
1''
7 ?.2 to ?.& mm
Iet us adopt F
1
7 12.B mmH and F
2
7 ?.% m *ns.
*. Piston 3a""el
+ince the radial depth of the piston ring grooves 3b/ is about ?.& mm more than the radial
thic#ness of the piston rings 3t
1
/, therefore,
07 t
1
@ ?.& 7 %.& @?.& 7%.B mm
-e #now that the maimum thic#ness of barrel,
t
%
7 ?.?% ;@ b @ &.' mm 7 ?.?% 1??@%.B @&.' 7 11.% mm
and piston wall thic#ness towards the open end,
t
&
7 ?.2' t
%
to ?.%' t
%
7 ?.2' 11.% to ?.%' 11.%
7 2.B to %.G mm
Iet us adopt t
&
7 %.& mm
5. Piston s9i"t
Iet l 7 length of the s#irt in mm.
-e #now that the maimum side thrust on the cylinder due to gas pressure 3p/,
( )
2
2
1??
;
1 p ?.1 ' %G2B N
& &
...3Ta#ing 7?.1/

-e also #now that the side thrust due to bearing pressure on the piston barrel 3p
b
/,
17p
b
; l 7 ?.&' 1?? l 7 &' l N
J3Ta#ing p
b
7?.&' N8mm
2
/
From above, we find that
&' l 7 %G2B or l 7 %G2B8&' 7 B>.% say G? mm *ns.
Total length of the piston,
I7 Iength of the s#irt @ Iength of the ring section @ Top land
7 l @ 3&t
2
@%b
2
/ @b
1
7 G?@ 3& % @ % %/ @1B 7 12G say 1%? mm *ns.
1'5
-. Piston +in
Iet d
o
7 Kutside diameter of the pin in mm,
l
1
7 length of pin in the bush of the small end of the connecting rod in mm, and
$
b1
7 0earing pressure at the small end of the connecting rod bushing in N8mm
2
.
)ts value for bron"e bushing is ta#en as 2' N8mm
2
.
-e #now that load on the pin due to bearing pressure
7 0earing pressure 0earing area 7 p
b1
d
o
l
1
7 2' d
o
?.&' 1?? 7 112' d
?
N J3Ta#ing l
1
7 ?.&' ;/
-e also #now that maimum load on the piston due to gas pressure or maimum gas load
( )
2
2
1??
;
p ' %G 2>' N
& &

From above, we find that
112' d
o
7 %G2>' or d
?
%G2>' 8112' 7 %&.G say %' mm *ns.
The inside diameter of the pin 3d
i
/ is usually ta#en as ?.5 d
o
.
d
1
7 ?.5 %' 7 21 mm *ns.
Iet the piston pin be made of heat treated alloy steel for which the bending stress 3
b
/ may be
ta#en as 1&? 6$a. Now let us chec# the induced bending stress in the pin.
-e #now that maimum bending moment at the centre of the pin
%
$.; %G 2>' 1??
6 &G1 1? N.mm
B B

-e also #now that maimum bending moment 36/
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
& & & &
o i %
b b b
o
d d %' 21
&G1 1? %55&
%2 d %2 %'
1 1


1 1
1 1
] ]

b
7 &G1 1?
%
8%55&7 1%& N8mm
2
or 6$a
+ince the induced bending stress in the pin is less than the permissible value of 1&? 6$a
3i.e., 1&? N8mm
2
/, therefore, the dimensions for the pin is calculated above Gi.e., d
?
7 %' mm and d
i
7 21 mm/ are satisfactory.
1'>

11. $"ite Desi!n +"oce5'"e o" connectin! "o5.
DESIGN PROCEDURE &OR CONNECTING ROD.
1. Mate"ial selection o" connectin! "o5 i it is not !i6en. Ta9e #ate"ial "o# PSG Desi!n
Data .
pg. no. 1.1% L$referably! %' mn 2 mo 2BM
For 0olt ! $g no. 1.1%
KNote 5o=n
'
8 Tensile st"en!t%;

,
8 Eiel5 st"en!t%L
2. Force on connecting rod due to gas pressure
2
F
F d $
&

L;;0 $g.no. >.122M

%. ;etermination of web Thic#ness t
I
5? 12? use 1an#ineOs or VohnsonOs Formula
#
< <
Vohnson,s Formula
2
y y
a o
2
F I
1
a n & E #
1

1

1
1

]
1
]
I
K
7 I LEnds are assumed to be hingedM
2 2

# #
2
&

2 2
%

) section a711t
&1G
) t
12
# %.1Bt
&1G
D t
%?

;;0 $g. no. >.122

&. $ermissible 0ending +tress
1'B
[ ]
y
b
n

'. 0ending stress due to inertia force.
2 2
bma

al r
G %g D


;;;. $g. no. >.122
[ ]
ma b
<
then design is satisfactory, or choose some other material.
;esign of 0earings
0ig end
1
1
I
1.2' to 1.'
;

$
;
, bearing pressure '?-1?' #g8cm
2
Ta#e ma pb value.
Force on the connecting rod 7 I; Lp
b
M
F
F
7 I, ;, L$
b
M,
+mall end
[ ]
2
2
2
2
F 2 2
2
I
1.'to 2
;
$b 1? to 1'? #g8cm
F I ; $b

;esign of 0olts
Forces on bolts 7 )nertia Force of reciprocating parts
)nertia Force is
ma when 7 ?
2
i
1 r
F r cos cos2
g I
1
+
1
]
;;0 $g. no. >.122
1'G
2
1 r
r 1 ?
g I
1
+
1
]
No of bolts will be given or *ssume n 7 2
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
2
c
&
t
bolt
2 d bolt 7 Force on bolts
&
n

Find d
c
Normal diameter 7
dc
?.B&
+elect 0olt si"e 0ased on nominal dia.
Thic#ness of big end cap
The cap is treated as simply supported and udc load then
ma 0.6 7
i
-lb
- F
5

l
b
7 d
1
@ 2.
1
@ d @ .
2
.
1
9 -all thic#ness of 0earing
Thic#ness of shell @ Thic#ness of 0earing 6etal
.
1
7 ?.& cylinder bore @1
.
2
7 .learance 7 1.' mm
[ ]
[ ]
b
b
6 D
6
D


Ta#e L
b
M 7 11 #g8mm
2
7 11?N8mm
2
2
1
b.t
D b 7 width of the cap
5
7 Iength of bearing
7 I

15?
12. A connectin! "o5 is to 3e 5esi!ne5 o" a %i!% s+ee5 I.C. en!ine. T%e 5ata a6aila3le a"e8
Dia#ete" o +iston 01 ##? #ass o "eci+"ocatin! +a"ts F 1.5 9!? len!t% o connectin! "o5?
cent"e to cent"e F 351 ##? st"o9e F 1*1 ##? RPM F 2211? :$%en 5e6elo+in! 55 9$?
+ossi3le o6e" s+ee5 F 3111 "+#? co#+"ession "atio -./81 a++"oCi#atel,.;? +"o3a3le
#aCi#'# eC+losion +"ess'"e :ass'#e5 s%o"tl, ate" 5ea5 cent"e sa, 3
o
; F 3 N>##
2
.
D"a= a 'll, 5i#ensione5 5"a=in! o t%e connectin! "o5 s%o=in! t%e +"o6ision o"
l'3"ication.
Note8 Co#+"ession "atio can 3e 'se5 in 5ete"#inin! t%e in5icate5 #ean eecti6e
+"ess'"e? . to / ti#es o =%ic% can 3e ta9en as #aCi#'# eC+losion +"ess'"e. Since t%e
#aCi#'# eC+losion +"ess'"e is eC+licitl, !i6en in t%e +"o3le#? t%e ino"#ation on
co#+"ession "atio is s'+e"l'o's.
1. Mate"ial selection
.onnecting rod! %' 6n 2 6o
2
u
2B, B??N8 mm

2
y
'&? N8 mm from ;ata boo#
0olts! &? Ni 2 .r 1 6o ( )
2
y
2B, 5?? N8mm ;ata 0oo#
2. &o"ce on Connectin! Ro5
2
2
a ma
2
ma
G? %
F ; p 1G,?B' N
& &
; 7 G?mm
p %N8 mm

3. I Section is assumed 3Fig/. *ll the dimensions are epressed in terms of web thic#ness, t.
2 & 2 2

%

&1G
a 11t ) t E %.1Bt
12
&1G
6osulus of section, D t
%?

*. &acto", o saet, n 7 ' 3assumed/

5. Dete"#ination o =e3 t%ic9ness? t For
I
5? 12?,
#
< < we should use Vohnson,s or
1an#ine,s formula. <ere, Vohnson,s formula is used.
151
( )
2
y y
a o
2
o
' 2
2 2 2

F I
1
a n & E #
I I ends are assumed to be hinged
E72.1 1? N8mm
# # %.1Bt
I %'?mmm
1

_
1

,
1
]

( )
2
2 2 ' 2
'&? %'?
1G,?B' '&?
1
11t ' & 2.1 1? %.1Bt
1

1

1
]
2 2
15.?5 2.'?G
1
t t
t &.%mm 'mm
1

1
]

Note8 +ection obtained is for the mid-section of the connecting rod. -idth is #ept constant and
depth varies from 1.1 to 1.2 times the mid-section value at cran# end to ?.B to ?.G times at piston
end.
-. Pe"#issi3le 3en5in! st"ess
[ ]
y 2
b
'&?
1?B N8mm
n '

.. 2en5in! st"ess 5'e to ine"tia o"ces
7 >.B 1?
-'
N8mm
%
3assumed/
2 2
bma

al r
G % gD


2 2 2
a 11 t 11 ' 2>'mm
' 2 2
>.B 1? 2>' %'? %1&.1' >?
G % GB1? 1>&'.B%

&1G
D t
%?

152
[ ]
2
2
b
5B N8mm
1?B N8mm
+tatisfactory.

<
% %
ma
&1G
' 1>&'.B%mm
%?
1&?
r sto#e8 2 >?mm
2
l %'?mm
2 N 2 %???
5? 5?
%1&.1' rad8 s

/. Desi!n o 3ea"in!s
2i! en5
1
1
I
1.2'
;

$ermissible bearing pressure [ ]
2 2
b
$ 1?'#g8 cm 1?.'N8 mm
Fas force 3.onnecting rod thrust/ 7 I
1
;
1
L$
b
M
1G, ?B' 7 1.2' ;
2
1?.'
F
F
; 7 &? mm, I 7 1.2' &? 7 '? mm
S#all en5
[ ]
[ ]
2
2
2 2
b
b
2
I
1.'
;
$ 1'?#g8 cm 1'N8 mm
Fas force 7 I; $
1G,?B' 1.' ; 1'
; %2mm, I 7 1.' %2 7 &B mm

0. Desi!n o 3olts
Force on bolts 7 )nertia force of reciprocating parts
( )
2
p 2
-
r 1.' %1&.1' ?.?>
g
1?,%52 N

*ssuming number of bolts to be 2, we can calculated the core diameter.

15%
[ ]
[ ]
2
c t
bolt
ybolt 2
t
bolt
2
c
c
2 d 1?,%52
&
5??
12? N8mm
n '
2 d 12? 1?,%52
&
d >.&1mm
>.&1
Nominal diameter7 B.B%mm
?.B&
-e adopt 61? bolts.

11. Dete"#ination o Ca+ t%ic9ness.

6aimum bending moment
b
-l
5

-here, - 7 maimum inertia force 7 1?, %52 N

l
b
7 distance between bolt centre 3obtained approimately/
l
b
7 cran# pin diameter @ 2 wall thic#ness of the bearing
3' mm 9 assumed/ @ 2 bolt diameter @ clearance for bolt heads
31? mm 9 assumed/
7 &? @ 32 A '/ @ 32 A 1?/ @ 1?
7 B? mm
ma
1?,%52 B?
06 1%B,15? Nmm
5


-idth of cap b 7 length of cran# pin 9 2 flange thic#ness of bush
7 '? 9 2 ' 7 &? mm
6odulus of section
2 2 2
c c c
1 &?
D bt t 5.5>t
5 5

0ending stress in cap 7
2
c
06 1%B,15?
D 5.5>t

[ ]
2
b 2
c
c
1%B,15?
1?BN8 mm
5.5>t
t 1%.B' mm 1'mm.


15&
Figure!
Fiven data
;ia of piston ! G? mm
6ass ! 1.' #g
.entre to centre 7 %'? mm
I 7 1&? mm
N 7 22??
$ 7 %N8mm
2
Sol'tion8
1. Mate"ial selection
Connectin! "o5 ! %' 6n 2 6o 2B.

u
7 B?? N8mm
2
y 7 '&?N8mm
2
;;0 $g.No! 1.1%
Force on connecting rod due to gas pressure
2
FF d $
&

;;0 $g. No. >.122

G? % 1G,?B'N.
&

n 7 ' Factor of safety
15'
;etermination of web Thic#ness
*ssume ) section.
2
y y
a
2
' 2
2 2

2 2

&
o
2
F Io
1
a n & E #
E 2.1 1? N8mm
# #
# %.1Bt
&1G
) t I7%'?mm7I
12
a 11t
1

1

1
1

]
1
]

2
2 2
1G?B' '&? '&? %'?
1
11t ' & 2.1 1?' %.1Bt
t &.%mm 'mm
1

1

]

Pe"#issi3le 2en5in! st"ess
[ ]
y 2
b
'&?
1?B N8mm
n '

2en5in! st"ess 5'e to ine"tia
2 2
bma

ral r
a %g"

$g.no. >.122
( )
% %

' %
&1G
A ' 1>&'.B% mm
%?
stro#e 1&?
r >.B 1? N8mm assumed .r >?mm
2 2

a 7 11 t
2
7 11 '
2
7 2>' mm
2

2 Nma
5?

' 2 2
>.B 1? 2>' %'? %1&.1' >? 2 %???
%1&.1' rod
5?
G % GB1? 1>&'.B%

155
7 5BN8mm
2
[ ]
2
b
1?BN8 mm <
;esign is satisfactory.
Desi!n o 2ea"in!s
2i! en5
[ ]
[ ]
1
1
2 2
b
F 1 1 b
I
1.2'
;
$ 1?'#g8 cm 1?.'N8 mm
F I ; $

1G, ?B' 7 1.2' ;

1
;
1
1?.'
2
1
1
1
1G,?B'
; 1&'&.?G
1.2' 1?.'
; %B.1%mm &?mm
I 1.2' &? '?mm

;
S#all en5
[ ]
2
2
2 2
b
F 2 2 2
2
2
2
2
I
1.'
;
$ 1'?#g8 cm 1'N8 mm
F I ; ; 1'
1G.?B'
; B&B.2
1.' 1'
; 2G.12mm
I &%.5mm

Desi!n o 2olts
Force on bolt 7 inertia force
2
i
1 r
F r cos cos2 ?
g I
1
+
1
]
$g.no. >.122
15>
[ ]
2
2
1 r
Fi r 1
g I
?.?>
1.' %1&.1' ?.?> 1
.%'
1?%52.& 1 2
12,&%&.BN
1
+
1
]
1
+
1
]

number of 0olt 7 2
[ ]
2
c t
bolt
2
c
y 2
t
2
c c
Force on bolt 7 2 d
&
2 d 12?
&
5??
12?N8 mm
n '
d 5'.G d B.12mm

Nominal dia 7
c
d B.115
?.B& ?.B&

7 G.5 mm
-e adopt 6)K 0olts.
Thic#ness of End cap.
( )
b
b 1 1 2
-l
0.6
5
- Fi
l d 2. d .
&? 2 ?.?& G? 1 G.5 1.'
5?.%mm

+ + +
+ + + +

b
-l 12.&%& 5?.%
6
5 5
12&,G51Nmm

0ut
[ ]
b
6 D
15B
2
b
2
1
2
2
11?N8 mm
bt
D b7I '?mm
5
'? t
12&,G51 11?
5
12&,G51 5
t 1%5.%2mm
11? '?
t 11.5mm.

13. T%e connectin! "o5 o a slo= s+ee5 Diesel en!ine is 3 # lon!. Dete"#ine t%e s'ita3le
5i#ensions o" a ci"c'la" section o a "o5. T%e 3o"e an5 st"o9e o t%e c,lin5e" a"e 011 ##
an5 1211 ## "es+ecti6el,. T%e #aCi#'# co#3'stion +"ess'"e is *./ N>##
2
. Dete"#ine
also t%e =%i++in! st"esses i t%e en!ine "'ns at 151 "+#. Ass'#e s'ita3le #ate"ial o" t%e
"o5. KMU Oct<0/L
1. Mate"ial 'se58 C*1?
,
F 331 N>##
2
:"o# Data 3oo9;
2.
2
y y
a o
2
F I
1
a n & E #
1

_

1

,
1
]
( )
( )
o
2
a
5
2
I I %???mm
# d8 &for circular section
n7' assumed
F G?? 8 & &.B
%.?' 1? N
a d 8 &

2
5
2 2 '
5
2 2
%.?' 1? %%? %%? %???
1
d 8 & ' & 2.1 1? d8 &
%.BB 1? '>%1.G
55 1
d d
d 2'&mm
1
_

1


,
1
]
1

1
]

3. $%i++in! st"ess :3en5in! st"ess 5'e to ine"tial o"ce;

15G
2 2

' 2 2
5
2
al r
G %.gD
>.B 1? %??? 1'.> 5??
G % GB1? 1.51 1?
21.&N8 mm

( )
' 2
2 2
& 2
%

% 5 %
>.B 1? N8 mm assumed
a d 8 & 2'& 8 &
'.? 1? mm
1'? 2 8 5? 1'.> rad8sec
r 7stro#e 82 712??8275?? mm
D d %2 for a circular section
7 2'& 8 %2 1.51 1? mm .

1>?
UNIT III
DESIGN O& CRAN@S4A&T
PART A
1. $%at is t%e t,+e c"an9 s%at(
1. Kver hung cran# shaft
2. .entre cran# shaft
%. +plit up cran# shaft
2. $%at a"e t%e 5esi!n "eA'i"e#ents o c"an9 s%at(
1. The cran#shaft must be designed or chec#ed for atleast two cran# positions. Firstly, when
the cran#shaft is sub(ected to maimum bending moment and secondary when the
cran#shaft is sub(ected to maimum twisting moment or tor:ue.
2. The additional moment due to weight of flywheel, belt tension and other forces must be
considered.
%. )t is assumed that the effect of bending moment does not eceed two bearing which a force
is considered.
3. $%at a"e acto"s to 3e consi5e" =%ile selectin! #ate"ial o" c"an9 s%at(
The cran#shafts are sub(ected to shoc# and fatigue loads. Thus the material of the
cran#shaft should be tough and fatigue resistant. The cran#shafts are generally made of carbon
steel, special steel or special or special cast iron.
)n industrial engines, the cran#shafts are commonly made from carbon steel such as &? .
B, '' . B and 5? . &. )n transport engines, manganese steel such as 2? 6n 2,2> 6n and %> 6n 2
are generally used for the ma#ing of cran#shaft. )n aero engines, nicel chromium steel such as %'
Ni 1 .r 5? and &? Ni 2 .r 1 6o 2B are etensively used for the cran#shaft.
The cran#shafts are made by drop forging or casting process but the former method is
more common. The surface of the cran#pin is hardened by case carburi"ing, nitriding or induction
hardening.
1>1
PART 2
1. $"ite Desi!n +"oce5'"e o" cent"e c"an9s%at =%en t%e c"an9 is at 5ea5 cent"e.
1. -hen the cran# is at dead centre. *t this position of the cran#, the maimum gas pressure
on the piston will transmit maimum force on the cran#pin in the plane of the cran# causing
only bending of the shaft. The cran#pin as well as ends of the cran#shaft will be only
sub(ected to bending moment. Thus, when cran# is at the dead, centre, the bending
moment on the shaft is maimum and the twisting moment is "ero.
&i!'"e8 Cent"e c"an9s%at at 5ea5 cent"e.
.onsider a single throw three bearing cran#shaft as shown in Fig.
Iet ; 7 $iston diameter or cylinder bore in mm,
p 7 6aimum intensity of pressure on the piston in N8mm
2
,
- 7 -eight of the flywheel acting downwards in N, and
T
1
is the belt tension in the tight side andT
2
is the belt tension in the slac# side.
T
1
@ T
2
7 1esultant belt tension or pull acting hori"ontally in N.
The thrust in the connecting rod will be e:ual to the gas load on the piston 3F
p
/. -e #now
that gas load on the piston,
1>2
2
$
F ; p
&

;ue to this piston gas load 3F
$
/ acting hori"ontally, there will be two hori"ontal reactions <
1
and <
2
at bearings 1 and 2 respectively, such that
p 1
$ 2
1 2
F b
F b
< H and <
b b

;ue to the weight of the flywheel 3-/ acting downwards, there will be two vertical reactions
2
2
and 2
%
at bearings 2 and % respectively, such that
1 2
2 %
- c - c
2 H and 2
c c


Now due to the resultant belt tension 3T
1
@T
2
/, acting hori"ontally, there will be two hori"ontal
reactions <
2
, and <
%
, at bearings 2 and % respectively, such that
( ) ( )
1 2 1 1 2 2 O O
2 %
T T c T T c
< H and <
c c
+ +

The resultant force at bearing 2 is given by
( ) ( )
2
2
O
2 2 2 2
1 < < 2 + +
and the resultant force at bearing % is given by
( ) ( )
2 2
% % %
1 < 2 +
Now the various parts of the centre cran#shaft are designed for bending only, as discussed below!
3a/ ;esign of cran#pin!
Iet d
c
7 ;iameter of the cran#pin in mm,
l
c
7 Iength of the cran#pin in mm, and

b
7 *llowable bending stress for the cran#pin in N8mm
2
.
-e #now that bending moment at the centre of the cran#pin,
. 1 2
6 < .b
-e also #now that
1>%
( )
%
. c b
6 d
%2

From e:uation 3i/ and 3ii/, diameter of the cran#pin is determined. The length of the
cran#pin is given by
$
.
c b
F
l
d .p

where p
b
7 $ermissible bearing pressure in N8mm
2
.
3b/ ;esign of left hand cran# web.
The cran# web is designed for eccentric loading. There will be two stresses acting on the
cran# web, one is direct compressive stress and the other is bending stress due to piston gas load
3F
$
/.
The thic#ness 3t/ of the cran# web is given empirically as
t 7 ?.& d
s
to ?.5 d
s
7 ?.22; to ?.%2;
7 ?.5' d
c
@ 5.%' mm
where d
s
7 +haft diameter in mm,
; 7 0ore diameter in mm, and
d
c
7 .ran#pin diameter in mm.
The width of cran# web 3w/ is ta#en as
w 7 1.12' d
c
@ 12.> mm
-e #now that maimum bending moment on the cran# web,
c
1 2
l t
6 < b
2 2
_


,
and section modulus,
2
1
D w.t
5

0ending +tress,
c
1 2
b 2
l t
5< b
6 2 2
D w.t
_


,

and direct compressive stress on the cran# web,
1>&
1
c
<
w.t

Total stress on the cran# web
7 0ending stress @ ;irect stress 7
b
@
c
c
1 2
1
2
l t
5< b
< 2 2
w.t w.t
_


,
+
This total stress should be less than the permissible bending stress.
3c/ ;esign of right hand cran# web
The dimensions of the right hand cran# web 3i.e., thic#ness and width/ are made e:ual to
left hand cran# web from the balancing point of view.
3d/ ;esign of shaft under the flywheel
Iet d
s
7 ;iameter of shaft in mm.
-e #now that bending moment due to the weight of flywheel,
- % 1
6 2 .c
and bending moment due to belt tension,
O
T % 1
6 < .c
These two bending moments act at right angles to each other. Therefore, resultant bending
moment at the flywheel location,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
+ - T % 1 % 1
6 6 6 2 .c < .c + +
-e also #now that the bending moment at the shaft,
( )
%
+ s b
6 d
%2

where
b
7 *llowable bending stress in N8mm
2
.
From e:uation 3i/ and 3ii/, we may determine the shaft diameter 3d
s
/.
1>'
2. Desi!n a +lain ca"3on steel cent"e c"an9s%at o" a sin!le actin! o'" st"o9e sin!le
c,lin5e" en!ine o" t%e ollo=in! 5ata8
0ore 7 &?? mmH +tro#e 7 5?? mmH Engine speed 7 2?? r.p.m.H 6ean effective pressure 7
?.' N8mm
2
H 6aimum combustion pressure 7 2.' N8mm
2
H -eight of flywheel used as a pulley 7 '?
#NH Total belt pull 7 5.' #N.
-hen the cran# has turned through %'
o
from the top dead centre, the pressure on the
piston is 1N8mm
2
and the tor:ue on the cran# is maimum. The ratio of the connecting rod length
to the cran# radius is '. *ssume any other data re:uired for the design.
Sol'tion. Fiven ! ; 7 &?? mmH I 7 5?? mm or r 7 %?? mmH p
m
7 ?.' N8mm
2
H p 7 2.' N8mm
2
H - 7
'? #NH T
1
@ T
2
7 5.' #NH 7 %'
o
H p, 7 1 N8mm
2
H l 8 r 7 '
-e shall design the cran#shaft for the two positions of the cran#, i.e., firstly when the cran#
is the dead centreH and secondly when the cran# is at an angle of maimum twisting moment.
1. ;esign of the cran#shaft when the cran# is at the dead centre
-e #now that the piston gas load,
( )
2
2
$
F ; p &?? 2.' %1& 2?? N7%1&.2#N
& &


*ssume that the distance 3b/ between the bearings 1 and 2 is e:ual to twice the piston
diameter 3;/.
b 7 2; 7 2 &??7 B?? mm
and
1 2
b B??
b b &?? mm
2 2

-e #now that due to the piston gas load, there will be two hori"ontal reactions <
1
and <
2
at
bearings 1 and 2 respectively, such that
$ 1
1
F b %1&.2 &??
< 1'>.1#N
b B??


and
$ 2
2
F b %1&.2 &??
< 1'>.1 #N
b B??


*ssume that the length of the main bearings to be e:ual, i.e., c
1
7 c82. -e #now that due to
the weight of the flywheel acting downwards, there will be two vertical reactions 2
2
and 2
%
at
bearings 2 and % respectively, such that
1>5
1
2
- c - c 8 2 - '?
2 2'#N
c c 2 2


and
2
%
- c - c 8 2 - '?
2 2'#N
c c 2 2


;ue to the resultant belt tension 3T
1
@T
2
/ acting hori"ontally, there will be two hori"ontal
reactions
O O
2 %
< and < respectively, such that
( ) ( )
1 2 1 1 2 O 1 2
2
T T c T T c 8 2
T T 5.'
< %.2' #N
c c 2 2
+ +
+

and
( ) ( )
1 2 2 1 2 O 1 2
%
T T c T T c 8 2
T T 5.'
< %.2' #N.
c c 2 2
+ +
+

Now the various parts of the cran#shaft are designed as discussed below!-
3a/ ;esign of cran#pin
Iet d
c
7 ;iameter of the cran#pin in mm H
l
c
7 Iength of the cran#pin in mmH and

b
7 *llowable bending stress for the cran#pin. )t may be assumed as >' 6$a or
N8mm
2
.
-e #now that the bending moment at the centre of the cran#pin,
. 1 2
6 < .b 1'>.1 &?? 52 B&? #N-mm
-e also #now that
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
% % %
. c b c c
%
%
c
6 d d >' >.%5& d N mm
%2 %2
>.%5& 1? d #N mm

E:uating e:uations 3i/ and 3ii/, we have
( )
%
-% 5
c
d 52 B&?8>.%5& 1? B.'% 1?
or d
c
7 2?&.%' say 2?' mm
-e #now that length of the cran#pin,
1>>
( )
%
2 $
c
c b
F %1&.2 1?
l 1'%.% say 1'' mm ... Ta#ing pb71? N8mm
d .p 2?' 1?

3b/ ;esign of left hand cran# web

-e #now that thic#ness of the cran# web,
T 7 ?.5' d
c
@ 5.%' mm
7 ?.5' 2?' @ 5.%' 7 1%G.5 say 1&? mm
and width of the cran# web,
w 7 1.12' d
c
@ 12.> mm
7 1.12' 2?' @ 12.> 7 2&%.% say 2&' mm
-e #now that maimum bending moment on the cran# web,
c
1 2
l t
6 < b
2 2
1'' 1&?
1'>.1 &?? %G 55B #N-mm
2 2
_


,
_


,
+ection modulus, ( )
2
2 % %
1 1
D w.t 2&' 1&? B?? 1? mm
5 5

0ending stress,
% 2 2
b %
6 %G 55B
&G.5 1? #N8 mm &G.5N8 mm .
D B?? 1?

-e #now that direct compressive stress on the cran# web,

% 2 2 1
c
< 1'>.1
&.'B 1? #N8 mm &.'B N8mm
w.t 2&' 1&?

Total stress on the cran# web

2
b c
&G.5 &.'B '&.1BN8 mm or 6$a + +
+ince the total stress on the cran# is less than the allowable bending stress of >' 6$a,
therefore, the design of the left hand cran# web is safe.
3c/ ;esign of right hand cran# web
1>B
From the balancing point of view, the dimensions of the right hand cran# web 3i.e.,
thic#ness and width/ are made e:ual to the dimensions to the left hand cran# web.
3d/ ;esign of shaft under the flywheel
Iet d
s
7 ;iameter of the shaft in mm.
+ince the lengths of the main bearings are e:ual, therefore
c
1 2 %
l b 1''
l l l 2 t 2 &?? 1&? %5' mm
2 2 2
_ _


, ,
*ssuming width of the flywheel as %?? mm, we have
c 7 %5' @ %?? 7 55' mm
*llowing space for gearing and clearance, let us ta#e c 7 B?? mm.

1 2
c B??
c c &?? mm
2 2

-e #now that bending moment due to the weight of flywheel,
5
w % 1
6 2 .c 2' &?? 1? ??? #N-mm 7 1? 1? N mm
and bending moment due to the belt pull,
O 5
T % 1
6 < .c %.2' &?? 1%??#N mm 1.% 1? N mm
1esultant bending moment on the shaft,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2 2
5 5
+ - T
5
6 6 6 1? 1? 1.% 1?
1?.?B 1? N mm
+ +

-e also #now that bending moment on the shaft 36
+
/,
( ) ( ) ( )
% % %
5
s b s s
1?.?B 1? d d &2 &.12 d
%2 %2


( )
%
5 5
s s
d 1?.?B 1? 8 &.12 2.&' 1? or d 1%&.> say 1%' mm
2. ;esign of the cran#shaft when the cran# is at an angle of maimum twisting moment
-e #now that piston gas load,
1>G
( )
2
2
$
F ; pO &?? 1 12' 5B? N712'.5B #N
& &


)n order to find the thrust in the connecting rod 3F
Q
/, we should first find out the angle of
inclination of the connecting rod with the line of stro#e 3i.e., angle /. -e #now that
( )
o
1 o
sin sin%'
sin ?.11&>
l 8 r '
sin ?.11&> 5.'B

-e #now that in the connecting rod,
$
Q o
F 12'.5B 12'.5B
F 125.'#N
cos cos5.'B ?.GG%&

Tangential force acting on the cran#shaft,

( ) ( )
o o
T Q
F F sin 125.' sin %' 5.'B B& #N + +
and radial force, F
1
7 F
Q
cos 3 @ / 7 125.' cos 3%'
o
@ 5.'B
o
/ 7 G&.5 #N
;ue to the tangential force 3F
T
/, there will be two reactions at bearings 1 and 2, such that
T 1
T1
F b B& &??
< &2#N
b B??


and
T 2
T2
F b B& &??
< &2 #N
b B??


;ue to the radial force 3F
1
/, there will be two reactions at the bearings 1 and 2, such that
1 1
11
1 2
12
F b G&.5 &??
< &>.% #N
b B??
F b G&.5 &??
< &>.% #N
b B??




Now the various parts of the cran#shaft are designed as discussed below!
3a/ ;esign of cran#pin
Iet d
c
7 ;iameter of cran#pin in mm.
1B?
-e #now that the bending moment at the centre of the cran#pin,
. 11 2
6 < b &>.% &?? 1B G2? #N-mm
and twisting moment on the cran#pin,
. T1
T < r &2 %?? 12 5?? #N-mm
E:uivalent twisting moment on the cran#pin,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
e . .
5
T 6 T 1BG2? 125??
22 >&? #N-mm722.>& 1? N mm
+ +

-e #now that e:uivalent twisting moment 3T
e
/,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
% % %
5 2
c c c
22.>& 1? d d %' 5.B>% d .... Ta#ing 7%' 6$a or N8mm
15 15


( )
%
5 5
c c
d 22.>& 1? 8 5.B>% %.% 1? or d 1&Gmm
+ince this value of cran#pin diameter 3i.e., d
c
7 1&G mm/ is less than the already calculated
value of d
c
7 2?' mm, therefore, we shall ta#e d
c
7 2?' mm.
3b/ ;esign of shaft under the flywheel
Iet d
s
7 ;iameter of the shaft in mm.
The resultant bending moment on the shaft will be same as calculated earlier, i.e.,
5
+
6 1?.?B 1? N mm
and twisting moment on the shaft,
5
s T
T F r B& %?? 2' 2?? #N-mm 7 2'.2 1? N mm
E:uivalent twisting moment on the shaft,
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2
e + +
2 2
5 5 5
T 6 T
1?.?B 1? 2'.2 1? 2>.1& 1? N mm
+
+
-e #now that e:uivalent twisting moment 3T
e
/,
1B1
( ) ( )
% %
5
s
2>.1& 1? d 1%' &B% 1'5
15 15



5 2
2>.1& 1? 8 &B% 1'57'5.1> N8mmm .
From above, we see that by ta#ing the already calculated value of d
s
7 1%' mm, the
induced shear stress is more than the allowable shear stress of %1 to &2 6$a. <ence, the value
of d
s
is calculated by ta#ing 7 %' 6$a or N8mm
2
in the above e:uation, i.e.,
( ) ( )
% %
5
s s
2>.1& 1? d %' 5.B>% d
15

( )
%
5 5
s s
d 2>.1& 1? 8 5.B>% %.G' 1? or d 1'Bsay 15? mm.
3c/ ;esign of shaft at the (uncture of right hand cran# arm
Iet d
s1
7 ;iameter of the shaft at the (uncture of the right hand cran# arm.
-e #now that the resultant force at the bearing 1,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
1 T1 11
1 < < &2 &>.% 5%.%#N + +
0ending moment at the (uncture of the right hand cran# arm,
c c
+1 1 2 Q
l l t t
6 1 b F
2 2 2 2
_ _
+ + +

, ,
% % % 5
1'' 1&? 1'' 1&?
5%.% &?? 125.'
2 2 2 2
%&.> 1? 1B.> 1? 15 1? #N mm 15 1? N mm
_ _
+ + +

, ,

and twisting moment at the (uncture of the right hand cran# arm,
5
+1 T
T F r B& %?? 2' 2?? #N-mm 7 2'.2 1? N mm
E:uivalent twisting moment at the (uncture of the right hand cran# arm,
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2
e +1 +1
2 2
5 5 5
T 6 T
15 1? 2'.2 1? 2G.B' 1? N mm

+
+
-e #now that e:uivalent twisting moment 3T
e
/,
1B2
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
% % %
5
s1 s1 s1
2
2G.B' 1? d d &2 B.2' d
15 15
.... Ta#ing 7&2 6$a or N8mm

( )
%
5 5
s1 s1
d 2G.B' 1? 8 B.2' %.52 1? or d 1'%.' say 1'' mm
3d/ ;esign of right hand cran# web
Iet
b1
7 0ending stress in the radial direction H and

bT
7 0ending stress in the tangential direction
-e #now that bending moment due to the radial component of F
Q
,
c
1 12 1
% 5
l t 1'' 1&?
6 < &>.% &?? #N mm
2 2 2 2
11.G& 1? #N-mm711.G& 1? N mm
_ _


, ,

3
-e also #now that bending moment,
( )
2 2
1 b1 b1
2
5 %
b1 b1
1 1
6 D w.t ... D7 w.t
5 5
1
11.G& 1? 2&' 1&? B?? 1?
5
_


,

Q

5 % 2
b1
11.G& 1? 8 B?? 1? 1&.G N8mm or 6$a
-e #now that bending moment due to the tangential component of F
Q
,
s1
T T
5
d 1''
6 F r B& %?? 1B 5G? #N-mm
2 2
71B.5G 1? N mm
_ _


, ,

-e also #now that bending moment,
2 2
T bT bT
1 1
6 D t.w .... D7 t.w
5 5
_


,
Q
( )
2
5 5
bT bT
1
1B.5G 1? 1&? 2&' 1.& 1?
5

5 5 2
bT
1B.5G 1? 81.& 1? 1%.%' N8mm or 6$a
1B%
;irect compressive stress,
% 2 1
d
2
F G&.5
1.%B 1? #N8 mm
2w.t 2 2&' 1&?
1.%B N8mm

and total compressive stress,

c b1 bT d
2
1&.G 1%.%' 1.%B 2G.5% N8mm or 6$a
+ +
+ +
-e #now that twisting moment on the arm,
c
T2 1
5
l 1''
T < b &2 &?? 1% '&' #N-mm
2 2
71%.'&' 1? N mm
_ _


, ,

and shear stress on the arm,
( )
5
2
2 2
$
T &.'T &.' 1%.'&' 1?
12.>N8 mm or 6$a
D w.t
2&' 1&?


-e #now that total or maimum combined stress,
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
2 c
. c
ma
2 2
1
&
2 2
2G.5% 1
2G.5% & 12.> 1&.B1' 1G.' %&.%1' 6$a
2 2

+ +
+ + +
+ince the maimum combined stress is within the safe limits, therefore, the dimension w 7
2&' mm is accepted.
3e/ ;esign of left hand cran# web
The dimensions for the left hand cran# web may be made same as for right hand cran# web.
3f/ ;esign of cran#shaft bearings
+ince the bearing 2 is the most heavily loaded, therefore, only this bearing should be
chec#ed for bearing pressure.
-e #now that the total reaction at bearing 2,
1B&
$ 1 2
2
F T T -
1
2 2 2
%1&.2 '? 5.'
1B'.%'#N 1B' %'? N
2 2 2
+
+ +
+ +
Total bearing pressure
2 2
2 s1
1 1B' %'?
%.2>5 N8mm
l .d %5' 1''

+ince this bearing pressure is less than the safe limit of ' to B N8mm
2
, therefore, the design
is safe.
3. $"ite Desi!n +"oce5'"e o" cent"e c"an9s%at =%en t%e c"an9 is at an an!le o #aC
t=istin! #o#ent.
$%en t%e c"an9 is at an an!le o #aCi#'# t=istin! #o#ent
The twisting moment on the cran#shaft will be maimum when the tangential force on the
cran# 3F
T
/ twisting moment on the cran#shaft will be maimum value of tangential force lies when
the cran# is at angle of 2'
o
to %?
o
from the dead centre for a constant volume combustion engines
3i.e., petrol engines/ and %?
o
to &?
o
for constant pressure combustion engines 3i.e., diesel
engines/.
Figure! 3a/ .ran# at an angle of maimum twisting moment. 3b/ Forces acting on the cran#.
1B'
.onsider a position of the cran# at angle of maimum twisting moment as shown in Fig. 3a/.
)f p, is the intensity of pressure on the piston at this, instant, then the piston gas load at this
position of cran#,
2
$
F ; pO
&

and thrust on the connecting rod,
$
Q
F
F
cos

where 7 *ngle of inclination of the connecting rod with the line of stro#e $K.
The XFor further details, see *uthors, popular boo# on XTheory of 6achinesU thrust in the
connecting rod 3F
Q
/ may be divided into two components, one perpendicular to the cran# and the
other along the cran#. The component of F
Q
perpendicular to the cran# is the tangential force 3F
T
/
and the component of F
Q
along the cran# is the radial force 3F
1
/ which produces thrust on the
cran#shaft bearing. From Fig,3b/, we find that
( )
T Q
F F sin +
and ( )
1 Q
F F cos +
)t may be noted that the tangential force will cause twisting of the cran#pin and shaft while
the radial force will cause bending of the shaft.
;ue to the tangential force 3F
T
/, there will be two reactions at bearings 1 and 2, such that
T 1 T 2
T1 T2
F b F b
< H and <
b b


;ue to the radial force 3F
1
/, there will be two reactions at the bearings 1 and 2, such that
1 1 1 2
11 12
F b F b
< H and <
b b


The reactions at the bearings 2 and %, due to the flywheel weight 3-/ and resultant belt pull
3T
1
@T
2
/ will be same as discussed earlier.
Now the various parts of the cran#shaft are designed as discussed below!
3a/ ;esign of cran#pin
Iet d
c
7 ;iameter of the cran#pin in mm.
1B5
-e #now that bending moment at the centre of the cran#pin,
. 11 2
6 < b
and twisting moment on the cran#pin,
. T1
T < r
E:uivalent twisting moment on the cran#pin,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
e . . 11 2 T1
T 6 T < b < r + +
-e also #now that twisting moment on the cran#pin,
( )
%
e c
T d
15

where 7 *llowable shear stress in the cran#pin.
From e:uations 3i/ and 3ii/, the diameter of the cran#pin is determined,
3b/ ;esign of shaft under the flywheel
Iet d
s
7 ;iameter of the shaft in mm.
-e #now that bending moment on the shaft,
6
+
7 1
%
c
1
and twisting moment on the shaft,
+ T
T F r
E:uivalent twisting moment on the shaft,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
e + + % 1 T
T 6 T 1 c F r + +
-e also #now that e:uivalent twisting moment on the shaft,
( )
%
e s
T d
15

where 7 *llowable shear stress in the shaft.
From e:uations 3i/ and 3ii/, the diameter of the shaft is determined.
1B>
3c/ ;esign of shaft at the (uncture of right hand cran# arm
Iet d
s1
7 ;iameter of the shaft at the (uncture of right hand cran# arm.
-e #now that bending moment at the (uncture of the right hand cran# arm,
c c
+1 1 2 Q
l l t t
6 1 b F
2 2 2 2
_ _
+ + +

, ,
and the twisting moment at the (uncture of the right hand cran# arm,
T
+1
7 F
T
r
E:uivalent twisting moment at the (uncture of the right hand cran# arm,
( ) ( )
2 2
e +1 +1
T 6 6 T +
-e also #now that e:uivalent twisting moment,
( )
%
e s1
T d
15

where 7 *llowable shear stress in the shaft.
From e:uations 3i/ and 3ii/, the diameter of the shaft at the (uncture of the right hand cran#
arm is determined.
3d/ ;esign of right hand cran# web
The right hand cran# web is sub(ected to the following stresses!
3i/ 0ending stresses in two planes normal to each other, due to the radial and tangential
components of F
Q
,
3ii/ ;irect compressive stress due to F
1
, and
3iii/ Torsional stress.
The bending moment due to the radial component of F
Q
is given by,
c
1 12 1
l t
6 < b
2 2
_


,
-e also #now that
2
1 b1 b1
1
6 D w.t
5

-here
b1

7 0ending stress in the radial direction, and

1BB
D 7 +ection modulus
2
1
w.t
5

From e:uations 3i/ and 3ii/, the value of bending stress
b1
is determined.
The bending moment due to the tangential component of F
Q
is maimum at the (uncture of
cran# and shaft. )t is given by
s1
T T
d
6 F r
2
_


,
where d
s1
7 +haft diameter at (uncture of right hand cran# arm, i.e., at bearing 2.
-e also #now that
2
T bT bT
1
6 D w.t
5

where
bT

7 0ending stress in tangential direction.

From e:uations 3iii/ and 3iv/, the value of bending stress
bT
is determined.
The direct compressive stress is given by,
1
d
F
2w.t

The maimum compressive stress 3
c
/ will occur at the upper left corner of the cross-
section of the cran#.

c b1 bT d
+ +
Now, the twisting moment on the arm,
c c c
T1 2 T T2 1
l l l
T < b F < b
2 2 2
_ _
+

, ,
-e #now that shear stress on the arm,
2
$
T &.'T
D w.t

where D
$
7 $olar section modulus 7
2
w.t
&.'
6aimum or total combined stress,
1BG
( ) ( )
2
2 c
c c
ma
1
&
2 2

+ +
The value of ( )
c
ma

should be within safe limits. )f it eceeds the safe value, then the
dimension w may be increased because it does not affect other dimensions.
3e/ ;esign of left hand cran# web
+ince the let hand cran# web is not stressed to the etent as the right hand cran# web,
therefore, the dimensions for the left hand cran# web may be made same as for right hand cran#
web.
3f/ ;esign of cran#shaft bearings
The bearing 2 is the most heavily loaded and should be chec#ed for the safe bearing
pressure.
-e #now that the total reaction at the bearing 2,
$ 1 2
2
F T T -
1
2 2 2
+
+ +
Total bearing pressure 7
2
2 s1
1
l .d
where
2
l Iength of bearing 2.
1G?
UNIT IV
DESIGN O& &7E$4EE7S
PART A
1. $%at is coeicient o l'ct'ation o s+ee5(
The difference between the maimum and minimum speeds during a cycle is called the
maimum fluctuation of speed. The ratio of the maimum fluctuation of speed to the mean speed
is called coefficient of fluctuation of speed.
2. Deine coeicient o l'ct'ation o ene"!,.
)t is defined as the ratio of the maimum fluctuation of energy to the wor# done per cycle. )t
is usually denoted by .
E
. 6athematically, coefficient of fluctuation of energy.
E
6aimum fluctuation of energy
.
-or# done per cycle

3. State ene"!, sto"e5 in &l,=%eel.

2
s
2
E ) .
2 N
5?
) m#

*. $"ite t%e st"esses in5'ce5 in l,=%eel Ri#.

1. Tensile stress due to centrifugal force,
2. Tensile bending stress caused by the restraint of the arms, and
%. The shrin#age stresses due to une:ual rate of cooling of casting. These stresses may be
very high but there is no easy method of determining. This stress is ta#en care of by a
factor of safety.
5. Mate"ials 'se5 o" &l, =%ee.
.ast iron S .ast steel
-. $%at is t%e 'nction o l, =%eel(

Flywheel absorbs energy when the cran#shaft tor:ue is greater than the resisting tor:ue
and will restore energy when the cran#shaft tor:ue is less than the resisting tor:ue. *bsorption of
energy increases the speed and restoration of energy decreases the speed.
1G1
PART 2
1. A sin!le c,lin5e" 5o'3le actin! stea# en!ine 5e6elo+s 151 9$ at a #ean s+ee5 o /1
".+.#. T%e coeicient o l'ct'ation o ene"!, is 1.1 an5 t%e l'ct'ation o s+ee5 is t 2M o
#ean s+ee5. I t%e #ean 5ia#ete" o t%e l,=%eel "i# is 2 #et"es an5 t%e %'3 an5 s+o9es
+"o6i5e 5 +e"cent o t%e "otational ine"tia o t%e =%eel? in5 t%e #ass o t%e l,=%eel an5
c"oss sectional a"ea o t%e "i#. Ass'#e t%e 5ensit, o t%e l,=%eel #ate"ial :=%ic% is
cast i"on; as .211 9!>#
3
.
Sol'tion8
Fiven! $ 7 1'?#- 7 1'? 1?
%
-
N 7 B? r.p.m
.
E
7 ?.1

1
-
2
7 t 2N
; 7 2 m or 1 7 1m
7 >2?? #g 8 m
%
6ass of the flywheel rim
Iet m 7 6ass of the flywheel rim in #g.
-e #now that the mean angular speed,
2 N 2 B?
B.&rad8 s
5? 5?

+ince the fluctuation of speed is t 2N of mean speed 3/, therefore total fluctuation of speed,

1
-
2
7 &N 7 ?.?&
and coefficient of fluctuation of speed,
1 2
+
. ?.?&

-e #now that the wor# done by the flywheel per cycle
%
$ 5? 1'? 1? 5?
112'??N m
N B?


-e also #now that coefficient of fluctuation of energy.
E
6aimum fluctuation of energy
.
wor#done 8 cycle

6aimum fluctuation of energy,

1G2
E
E . -or#done8 cycle
7 ?.1 112 '?? 7 11 2'? N-m

+ince 'N of the rotational inertia is provided by hub and spo#es, therefore the maimum
fluctuation of energy of the flywheel rim will be G'N of the flywheel.
6aimum fluctuation of energy of the rim,
3E/
rim
7 ?.G' 11 2'? 7 1? 5B>.' N 9m
-e #now that maimum fluctuation of energy of the rim 3E/
rim,
1? 5B>.' 7 m.1
2
.
2
..
s
7 m 1
2
3B.&/
2
?.?& 7 2.B2 m
m 7 1? 5B>.' 8 2.B2 7 %>G? #g
.ross 9 sectional area of the rim
Iet * 7 .ross 9 sectional area of the rim.
-e #nown that the mass of the flywheel rim 3m/,
%>G? 7 * 21 7 * 2 1 >2?? 7 &' 2&' *
* 7 %>G? 8 &' 2&' 7 ?.?B& m
2

2. Sin!le c,lin5e"? sin!le actin!? o'" st"o9e oil en!ine 5e6elo+s 21 9$ at 311 ".+.#. T%e
=o"9 5one 3, t%e !ases 5'"in! t%e eC+ansion st"o9e is 2.3 ti#es t%e =o"9 5one on t%e
!ases 5'"in! t%e co#+"ession an5 t%e =o"9 5one 5'"in! t%e s'ction an5 eC%a'st st"o9es
is ne!li!i3le. T%e s+ee5 is to 3e #aintaine5 =it%in t 1M. Dete"#ine t%e #ass #o#ent o
ine"tia o t%e l,=%eel.
Sol'tion8
Fiven! $ 7 2?#- 7 2? 1?
%
-
N 7 %?? r.p.m or 7 2 %??85?7%1.&2 rad8s

1
-
2
7 t 1N
First of all, let use find the maimum fluctuation of energy 3E/. The turning moment
diagram for a four stro#e engine is shown in figure. )t is assumed to be triangular during
compression and epansion stro#es, neglecting the suction and ehaust stro#es.
1G%
&i!'"e8
-e #nown that mean tor:ue transmitted by the engine,
%
mean
$ 5? 2? 1? 5?
T 5%5.'N m
2 N 2 %??

are
XThe wor# done per cycle may also be calculated as follows!-
-e #now that for a four stro#e engine, number of wor#ing stro#es per cycle
n 7 N82 7 %?? 8 2 7 1'?
-or# done per cycle 7 $ 5? 8 n 7 2? 1?
%
5? 8 1'? 7 B??? N 9mU
wor# done per cycle 7 T
mean
7 5%5.' & 7 B??? N 9 m
Iet -
.
7 -or# done during compression stro#e, and
-
E
7 -or# done during epansion stro#e.
+ince the wor# done during suction and ehaust stro#es is negligible, therefore not wor#
done per cycle.
7 -
E
9 -
.
7 -
E
9 -
E
8 2.% 7 ?.'5' -
E
From e:uation 1 and 2 we have
-
E
7 B??? 8 ?.'5' 7 1& 15? N-m
The wor# done during the epansion stro#e is shown by triangle *0. in figure in which
base *. 7 radians and height 0F 7 T
ma
-or# done during epansion stro#e 3-
E
/,
1G&
ma ma
1
1& 15? 7 T 1.'>1 T
2

or
ma
T 1& 15? 8 1.'>17G?1%N-m
-e #nown that height above the mean tor:ue line,
ma mean
0F 0F FF T T
7 G?1% - 5%5.' 7 B%>5.' N-m

+ince the are 0;E shown shaded in figure above the mean tor:ue line represent the
maimum fluctuation of energy 3 E/, therefore from geometrical relation.
( )
( )
2
2
0F
*rea of 0;E
, we have
*rea of *0.
0F

6aimum fluctuation of energy 3i.e. area of 0;E/,

2 2
E
2
0F 0F
W E *rea of *0. -
0F 0F
B%>5.'
7 1& 15? 12 2%? N - m
G?1%
_ _


, ,
_

,
+ince the speed is to the maintained within t 1N of the mean speed, therefore total
fluctuation of speed.

1
-
2
7 2 N 7 ?.?2
and coefficient of fluctuation of speedH
1 2
+
. ?.?2

Iet ) 7 6ass moment of inertia of the flywheel in #g 9 m
2

-e #nown that maimum fluctuation of energy 3 E/,
12 2%? 7 ).
2
..
s
7 ) 3%1.&2/
2
?.?2 7 1G.>& )
) 7 12 2%? 8 1G.>&7 51G.' #g9m
2
.
1G'
3. A +'nc%in! #ac%ine #a9es 25 =o"9in! st"o9es +e" #in'te an5 is ca+a3le o +'nc%in!
25 ## 5ia#ete" %oles in 1/ ## t%ic9 steel +lates %a6in! an 'lti#ate s%ea" st"en!t% o 311
MPa.
T%e +'nc%in! o+e"ation ta9es +lace 5'"in! 1>11 t% o a "e6ol'tion o t%e c"an9 s%at.
Esti#ate t%e +o=e" nee5e5 o" t%e 5"i6in! #oto"? ass'#in! a #ec%anical eicienc,
o 05 +e" cent. Dete"#ine s'ita3le 5i#ensions o" t%e "i# c"oss section o t%e l,=%eel?
=%ic% is to "e6ol6e at 0 ti#es t%e s+ee5 o t%e c"an9 s%at. T%e +e"#issi3le coeicient o
l'ct'ation o s+ee5 is 1.1.
T%e l,=%eel is to 3e #a5e o cast i"on %a6in! a =o"9in! st"ess :tensile; o - MPa an5
5ensit, o .251 9!>#
3
. T%e 5ia#ete" o t%e l,=%eel #'st not eCcee5 1.* # o=in! o s+ace
"est"ictions. T%e %'3 an5 t%e s+o9es #a, 3e ass'#e5 to +"o6i5e 5M o t%e "otational
ine"tia o t%e =%eel.
C%ec9 o" t%e cent"i'!al st"ess in5'ce5 in t%e "i#.
Sol'tion8
Fiven!
n 7 2'H d
1
7 2' mmH
t
1
7 1B mmH
u
7 %?? 6$a 7 %?? N8mm
2
H

m
7 G'N 7 ?.G'H .
s
7 ?.1H

t
7 5 6$a 75 N 8 mm
2
H 7 >2'? #g8m
%
H
; 7 1.& m or 1 7 ?.> m
$ower needed for the driving motor
-e #now that the area of plate sheared,
*
+
7 d
1
t
1
7 2' 1B 7 1&1& mm
2
6aimum shearing force re:uired for punching,
F
+
7 *
+

u
7 1&1& %?? 7 &2& 2?? N
*nd energy re:uired per stro#e
7 X*s the hole is punched, it is assumed that the shearing force decreases
uniformly from maimum value to "eroU
*verage shear force Thic#ness of plate
7
1
2
F
+
t
1
7
1
2
&2& 2?? 1B 7 %B1>.B 1?
%
N 9 mm
1G5
Energy re:uired per min
7 Energy 8 stro#e No. of wor#ing stro#es 8 min
7 %B1>.B 1?
%
2' 7 G'.&' 1?
5
N 9 mm 7 G' &'? N 9 m
we #now that the power needed for the driving motor
m
Energy re:uired per min G' &'?
15>'-
5? 5? ?.G'


7 1.5>' #-
;imensions for the rim cross 9 section
.onsidering the cross 9 section of the rim as rectangular and assuming the width of rim
e:ual to twice the thic#ness of rim.
Iet t 7 Thic#ness of rim in metres, and
0 7 -idth of rim in metres 7 2 t.
.ross 9 sectional area of rim,
* 7 b t 7 2 t t 7 2 t
2
+ince the punching operation ta#es place 3i.e., energy is consumed/ during 181? th of a
revolution of the cran# shaft, therefore during G81? th of the revolution of a cran# shaft, the energy
is stored in the flywheel.
6aimum fluctuation of energy,
%
%
G G
E Energy 8 stro#e %B1>.B 1?
1? 1?
7 %&%5 1? N mm
7%&%5 N-m


Iet m 7 6ass of the flywheel
+ince the hub and the spo#es provide 'N of the rotational inertia of the wheel, therefore the
maimum fluctuation of energy provided by the flywheel rim will be G'N.
6aimum fluctuation of energy provided by the rim,
3E/
rim
7 ?.G' E 7 ?.G' %&%5 7 %25& N 9 m
+ince the flywheel is to revolve at G times the speed of the cran#shaft and there are 2'
wor#ing stro#es per minute, therefore mean speed of the flywheel,
1G>
N 7 G 2' 7 22' r.p.m.
and mean angular speed, 7 2 22' 8 5? 7 2%.'5 rad 8 s
-e #now that maimum fluctuation of energy 3 E/
%25& 7 m.1
2
.
2
. .
+
7 m 3?.>/
2
32%.'5/
2
?.1 7 2>.2 m
m 7 %25& 8 2>.2 7 12? #g
-e also #nown that mass of the flywheel 3m/,
12? 7 * ; 7 2 t
2
1.& >2'? 7 5% >B2 t
2
t
2
7 12? 8 5% >B2 7 ?.??1 BB or t 7 ?.?&& m 7 && mm
and b 7 2 t 7 2 && 7 BB mm
.hec# for centrifugal stress
-e #now that peripheral velocity of the rim,
;.N 1.& 22'
15.' m8s
5? 5?

.entrifugal stress induced in the rim.
( )
2
2 5 2
t
.v >2'? 15.' 1.G> 1? N8 m 1.G> 6$a
*. Desi!n an5 5"a= a cast i"on l,=%eel 'se5 o" a o'" st"o9e 1. C en!ine 5e6elo+in! 1/ 9$
at 2*1 ".+.#. T%e %oo+ o" cent"i'!al st"ess 5e6elo+e5 in t%e l,=%eel is 5.2 MPa? t%e total
l'ct'ation o s+ee5 is to 3e li#ite5 to 3M o t%e #ean s+ee5. T%e =o"9 5one 5'"in! t%e
+o=e" st"o9e is 1>3 #o"e t%an t%e a6e"a!e =o"9 5one 5'"in! t%e =%ole c,cle. T%e
#aCi#'# to"A'e on t%e s%at is t=ice t%e #ean to"A'e. T%e 5ensit, o cast i"on is .221
9!>#
3
.
Sol'tion8
Fiven!
$ 7 1B? #- 7 1B? 1?
%
-H N 7 2&? r.p.m

t
7 '.2 6$a 7 '.2 1?
5
N8m
2
H N
1
9 N
2
7 %N N
7 >22? #g8m
%
First of all, let us find the maimum fluctuation of energy 3E/. The turning moment
diagram of a four stro#e engine is shown in figure.
-e #now that mean tor:ue transmitted by the flywheel.
1GB
%
mean
$ 5? 1B? 1? 5?
T >151N m
2 N 2 2&?

and XThe wor#done per cycle may also be obtained as discussed below!
-or# done per cycle 7
$ 5?
n

, where n 7 Number of wor#ing stro#es per minute

For a four stro#e engine, n 7 N82 7 2&? 8 2 7 12?
-or# done per cycle 7
%
1B? 1? 5?
G? ??? N-m
12?

U
wor# done per cycle 7 T
mean
7 >151 & 7G? ??? N 9 m
+ince the wor# done during the power stro#e is 18% more than the average wor# done
during the whole cycle, therefore,
-or# done during the power 3or wor#ing/ stro#e
7 G? ??? @
1
%
G? ??? 7 12? ??? N9m
The wor#done during the power stro#e is shown by a triangle *0. in figure in which the
base *. 7 radians and height 0F 7 T
ma
.
&i!'"e8
-or# done during power stro#e
ma
1
T
2

From e:uations 3i/ and 3ii/ we have
ma
1
T 12? ???
2

1GG

ma
12? ??? 2
T >5 %B& N-m

<eight above the mean tor:ue line,
0F 7 0F 9 FF 7 T
ma
9 T
mean
7 >5 %B& 9 >151 7 5G 22% N 9 m
+ince the area 0;E shown shaded in figure above the mean tor:ue line represents the
maimum fluctuation of energy 3E/, therefore from geometrical relation,
( )
( )
2
2
0F
*rea of 0;E
, we have
*rea of *0.
0F

XThe approimate value of maimum fluctuation of energy may be obtained as discussed below!
-or# done per cycle 7 G? ??? N 9 m J3as calculated above/
-or# done per stro#e 7 G? ??? 8 & 7 22 '?? N 9 m J. 3
Q
of four stro#e engine/
*nd wor# done during power stro#e 7 12? ??? N 9 m
6aimum fluctuation of energy,
E 7 12? ??? 9 22 '?? 7 G> '?? N9mU
6aimum fluctuation of energy 3i.e. are of 0;E/,
2 2
0F 5G22%
E *rea of *0. 12? ??? GB '''N-m
0F >5%B&
_ _


, ,
1. ;iameter of the flywheel rim

Iet ; 7 ;iameter of the flywheel rim in metres, and
v 7 $eripheral velocity of the flywheel rim in m8s.
-e #now that the hoop stress developed in the flywheel rim 3
t
/,
'.2 1?
5
7 .v
2
7 >22? v
2
v
2
7 '.2 1?
5
8 >22? 7 >2? or v 7 25.B m8s
-e also #now that peripheral velocity 3v/,
;.N ; 2'?
25.B 1%.1 ;
5? 5?


; 7 25.B 8 1%.1 7 2.?& m
2. 6ass of the flywheel rim
Iet m 7 6ass of the flywheel rim in #g.
2??
-e #nown that angular speed of the flywheel rim,
2 N 2 2'?
2'.1& rad8s
5? 5?

and coefficient of fluctuation of speed,
1 2
+
N N
. ?.?%
N

-e #now that maimum fluctuation of energy 3 E/,
( )
2
2
2 2
+
2.?&
GB '''7m.1 . .. m 2'.1& ?.?% 1G.>%m
2

_


,
m 7 GB ''' 8 1G.>% 7 &GG' #g
%. .ross 9 sectional dimensions of the rim
Iet t 7 ;epth or thic#ness of the rim in metres, and
b 7 -idth of the rim in metres 7 2 t
.ross 9 sectional area of the rim,
* 7 b.t. 7 2t t 7 2 t
2
-e #now that mass of the flywheel rim 3m/,
2 2
2
&GG'7* ; 72t 2.?& >22? G2 ''5t
t 7&GG'8G2 ''5 7 ?.?'& or t 7 ?.2%2 say ?.2%' m
7 2%' mm

and b 7 2 t 7 2 2%' 7 &>? mm

&. ;iameter and length of hub
Iet d 7 ;iameter of the hub,
d
1
7 ;iameter of the shaft, and
l 7 Iength of the hub.
+ince the maimum tor:ue on the shaft is twice the mean tor:ue, therefore maimum
tor:ue active on the shaft,
%
ma mean
T 2 T 2 >151 1& %22 N-m71& %22 1? N mm
-e #now that the maimum tor:ue acting on the shaft 3T
ma
/,
2?1
( ) ( ) ( )
% % %
%
1 1 1
1& %22 1? d &? d >.B'' d
15 15


JJ 3Ta#ing 7 &? 6$a 7 &? N8mm
2
/
3d
1
/
%
7 1& %22 1?
%
8 >.B'' 7 1B2% 1?
%
or d
1
7 122 say 12' mm
The diameter of the hub is made e:ual to twice the diameter of shaft and length of hub is
e:ual to width of the rim.
d 7 2 d
1
7 2 12' 7 2'? mm 7 ?.2' m
and l 7 b 7 &>? mm 7 ?.&> mm
'. .ross 9 sectional dimensions of the elliptical arms
Iet a
1
7 6a(or ais
b
1
7 6inor ais 7 ?.' a
1
J.3*ssume/
n 7 Number of arms 7 5 J. 3*ssume/

b
7 0ending stress for the material of arms 7 1' 6$a 7 1' N8mm
2
J3*ssume/
-e #now that the maimum bending moment in the arm at the hub end, which is assumed as
cantilever is given by
( ) ( ) ( )
%
T T 1& %22
6 1 r ; d 2.?& ?.2' N m
1.n ;.n 2.?& 5
72?G&.' N-m72?G&.' 1? N-mm

and section modulus for the cross 9 section of the arm,

( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 %
1 1 1 1 1
D b a ?.'a a ?.?' a
%2 %2


-e #nown that the bending stress 3
b
/,
( ) ( )
% %
% %
1 1
6 2?G&.' 1? &1BG? 1?
1'
D
?.?' a a


3a
1
/
%
7 &1 BG? 1?
%
8 1' 7 2>G% 1?
%
or a
1
7 1&? mm
and b
1
7 ?.' a
1
7 ?.' 1&? 7 >? mm
5. ;imensions of #ey
The standard dimensions of rectangular sun# #ey for a shaft of diameter 12' mm are as
2?2
follows!
-idth of #ey, w 7 %5 mm
*nd thic#ness of #ey 7 2? mm
The length of #ey 3I/ is obtained by considering the failure of #ey is shearing.
-e #now that the maimum tor:ue transmitted by the shaft 3T
ma
/,
% % 1
d 12'
1& %22 1? I w I %5 &? G? 1? I
2 2

I 7 1& %22 1?
%
8 G? 1?
%
7 1'G say 15? mm
Iet us now chec# the total stress in the rim which should not be greater than 1' 6$a. -e
#now that total stress in the rim.
( )
( )
( )
2
2
2
2
2
5 5 2
&.G%'1
.v ?.>'
n .t
&.G%' 2.?&8 2
7 >22? 25.B ?.>' N8 m
5 ?.2%'
7 '.1B 1? ?.>' ?.'G' 5.G> 1? N8 m 5.G>6$a

_
+

,
1
+
1

]
+
5. A +'nc%in! +"ess +ie"ces 35 %oles +e" #in'te in a +late 'sin! 11 9N # o ene"!, +e"
%ole 5'"in! eac% "e6ol'tion. Eac% +ie"cin! ta9es *1 +e" cent o t%e ti#e nee5e5 to #a9e
one "e6ol'tion. T%e +'nc% "ecei6es +o=e" t%"o'!% a !ea" "e5'ction 'nit =%ic% in t'"n is
e5 3, a #oto" 5"i6en 3elt +'lle, /11 ## 5ia#ete" an5 t'"nin! at 211 ".+.#. &in5 t%e +o=e"
o t%e elect"ic #oto" i o6e"all eicienc, o t%e t"ans#ission 'nit is /1 +e" cent. 5esi!n a
cast i"on l,=%eel to 3e 'se5 =it% t%e +'nc%in! #ac%ine o" a coeicient o stea5iness o 5?
i t%e s+ace consi5e"ations li#it t%e #aCi#'# 5ia#ete" to 1.3 #.
Allo=a3le s%ea" st"ess in t%e s%at #ate"ial F 51 MPa
Allo=a3le tensile st"ess o" cast i"on F * MPa
Densit, o cast i"on F .211 9! > #
3
Sol'tion8
Fiven!
No. of holes 7 %' per min Energy per hole 7 1? #N-m 7 1? ??? N-m
d 7 B?? mm 7 ?.B m N 7 21? r.p.m
7 B?N 7 ?.B 18.
+
7 ' or .
+
7 18' 7 ?.2
;
ma
7 1.% m 7 '? 6$a 7 '? N8 mm
2

t
7 & 6$a 7 &N8mm
2
7 >2?? #g8m
%
2?%
$ower of the electric motor
-e #now that energy used for piercing holes per minute
7 No. of holes pierced Energy used per hole
7 %' 1? ??? 7 %'? ??? N 9 m 8 min
$ower needed for the electric motor,

Energy used per minute %'????
$ >2G2- >.2G2#-
5? 5? ?.B


;esign of cast iron flywheel
First of all, let us find the maimum fluctuation of energy.
+ince the overall efficiency of the transmission unit is B?N, therefore total energy to be supplied
during each revolution,
T
1????
E 12'??N m
?.B

-e #now that velocity of the belt,
v d.N ?.B 21? '2Bm8 min
Net tension or pull acting on the belt
$ 5? >2G2 5?
B2B.5N
v '2B


+ince each piercing ta#es &? per cent of the time needed to ma#e one revolution, therefore
time re:uired to punch a hole,
7 ?.& 8 %' 7 ?.?11& min
and the distance moved by the belt during punching a hole
7 2elocity of the belt Time re:uired to punch a hole
7 '2B ?.?11& 7 5.?% m
Energy supplied by the belt during punching a hole,
E
0
7 Net tension ;istance traveled by belt
7 B2B.5 5.?% 7 &GG5 N-m
Thus energy to be supplied by the flywheel for punching during each revolution or
maimum fluctuation of energy,
2?&
E7E
T
9 E
0
7 12 '?? 9 &GG5 7 >'?& N 9 m
1. 6ass of the flywheel
Iet m 7 6ass of the flywheel rim
+ince space considerations limit the maimum diameter f the flywheel as 1.% mH therefore
let us ta#e the mean diameter of the flywheel,
; 7 1.2 m or 1 7 ?.5 m
-e #now that angular velocity
2 N 2 21?
22rad8 s
5? 5?

-e also #now that the maimum fluctuation of energy 3E/,
>'?& 7 m.1
2

2
..
+
7 m 3?.5/
2
322/
2
?.2 7 %&.B' m
m 7 >'?& 8 %&.B' 7 21'.% #g
2. .ross 9 sectional dimensions of the flywheel rim
Iet t 7 Thic#ness of the flywheel rim in metres, and
b 7 -idth of the flywheel rim in meters 7 2t J.3*ssume/
.ross 9 sectional area of the rim,
* 7 b t 7 2 t t 7 2 t
2
-e #now that mass of the flywheel rim 3m/,
2 % 2
21'.% * ; 2t 1.2 >2?? '&.% 1? t
t
2
7 21'.% 8 '&.% 1?
%
7 ?.??% G5
or t 7 ?.?5% say ?.?5' m 7 5' mm
and b 7 2 t 7 2 5' 7 1%? mm
%. ;iameter and length of hub
let d 7 ;iameter of the hub,
d
1
7 ;iameter of the shaft, and
l 7 Iength of the hub.
First of all, let us find the diameter of the shaft 3d
1
/. -e #now that the mean tor:ue
transmitted by the shaft,
2?'
ma
$ 5? >2G2 5?
T %%1.'N m
2 N 2 21?

*ssuming that the maimum tor:ue transmitted by the shaft is twice the mean tor:ue, therefore
maimum tor:ue transmitted by the shaft,
%
ma mean
T 2 T 2 %%1.' 55%N m 55% 1? N mm
we #now that maimum tor:ue transmitted by the shaft 3T
ma
/,
( ) ( ) ( )
% % %
%
1 1 1
55% 1? d '? d G.B2 d
15 15


3d
1
/
%
7 55% 1?
%
8 G.B2 7 5>.' 1?
%
or d
1
7 &?.> say &' mm
The diameter of the hub 3d/ is made e:ual to twice the diameter of the shaft 3d
1
/ and length
of hub 3l/ is e:ual to the width of the rim 3b/.
d 7 2 d
1
7 2 &' 7 G? mm 7 ?.?G m and l 7 b 7 1%? mm
&. .ross 9 sectional dimensions of the elliptical cast iron arms
Iet a
1
7 6a(or ais,
b
1
7 6inor ais 7 ?.' a
1
J.3*ssume/
n 7 Number of arms 7 5 J. 3*ssume/
-e #now that the maimum bending moment in the arm at the hub end, which is assumed
as cantilever is given by
( ) ( ) ( )
T T 55%
6 1 r ; d 1.2 ?.?G N m
1.n ;.n 1.2 5

7 1?2.2 N-m7 1?2 2?? N-mm

and section modulus for the cross 9 section of the arms,
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 %
1 1 1 1 1
D b a ?.'a a ?.?' a
%2 %2


-e #now that bending stress 3
t
/,
( ) ( )
%
% %
1 1
6 1?22?? 2?&& 1?
&
D
?.?' a a

3a
1
/
%
7 2?&& 1?
%
8 & 7 '11 1?
%
or a
1
7 B? mm
and b
1
7 ?.' a
1
7 ?.' B? 7 &? mm
2?5
'. ;imensions of #ey
The standard dimensions of rectangular sun# #ey for a shaft of diameter &' mm are as
follows
-idth of #ey, w 7 15 mm
*nd thic#ness of #ey 7 1? mm
The length of #ey 3I/ is obtained by considering the failure of #ey in shearing. -e #now
that maimum tor:ue transmitted by the shaft 3T
ma
/,
% % 1
d &'
55% 1? I w I 15 '? 1B 1? I
2 2

I 7 55% 1?
%
8 1B 1?
%
7 %5.B say %B mm
Iet us now chec# the total stress in the rim which should not be greater than & 6$a. -e
#now that the velocity of the rim,
; N 1.2 21?
v 1%.2m8 s
5? 5?


Total stress in the rim,
( )
( )
2
2
2
2
5 5 2
&.G%'1
.v ?.>'
n .t
&.G%' ?.5
7>2?? 1%.2 ?.>'
5 ?.?5'
7 1.2' 1? ?.>' 1.25 2.' 1? N8 m 2.'6$a

_
+

,
1
+
1

]
+
+ince it is less than & 6$a, therefore the design in safe.

2?>
UNIT V
DESIGN O& VA7VES AND VA7VE TRAIN
PART A
1. $"ite s%o"t notes o 2'c9in! o co#+"ession s+"in!.
0uc#ling of compression helical springs ta#es place usually when free length of spring is
more than four times the pitch diameter. )n such case the buc#ling load is calculated as follows
$
.
7 + I
1
E
where $
c
7 .ritical 3buc#ling/ load
+ 7 +pring scale 3#g 8 cm/
I
1
7 Free length of spring 3cm/
E 7 0uc#ling factor. )t depends on the ratio of I
1
8;
where ; 7 $itch diameter
2. Disc'ss 6i3"ations o s'"!in! o 4elical s+"in!.
-hen a compressive load is applied suddenly to a helical spring, the coil at the contact end
gets deflected and sends a compression wave that travels along the spring up to the supported
end where it gets reflected and travels bac# to the deflected end. This wave travel along the
spring in definitely. The material is sub(ected to higher stresses which may cause early fatigue
failure.
The natural fre:uency 3f/ of vibrations of the spring is given by the formula
2
1
d 5F.g
f
2 ; n

where ; 7 6ean diameter of coil

d 7 ;iameter of spring wire
n
1
7 Number of active coils
F 7 6odulus of rigidity &i!'"e
7 ;ensity of spring material
g 7 *cceleration due to gravity

2?B
3. Mention t%e o"ces actin! on l,=%eel.
1. .entrifugal stresses.
2. +tresses due to change of speed and load.
%. +hrin#age, stresses caused by the une:ual cooling rates of the metal in the hub, arms and
rim.
*. Na#e t%e t,+es o l, =%eel.
1. Friction absorption type fly wheel
2. +ingle mass flywheel
%. ;ual mass flywheel
&. +po#ed mass flywheel
5. $%at is #ean 3, s+"in! s'"!in!(
)f a compression spring is held at one end and the other end is deflected by a suddenly
applied load, the coils of the spring will not instantaneously have the same deflection. End coil in
contact with the load deflects first and transmits a large part of its deflections to the net coil. Thus
the deflection wave travels from one end to the other where it gets reflected and travels bac#.
This traveling bac# and forth of the deflection wave, i.e., vibration with natural fre:uency dies out
because of damping. )f the fre:uency of the applied force e:uals the natural fre:uency of the
spring, resonance #nown as spring surge occurs with large deflections of the coils and the spring
may fail due to high stresses.
-. Mention t%e co#+onents o 6al6e t"ain.
1. .am shaft
2. Tappet
%. $ush rod
&. 1oc#er arm
'. 2alves
5. 2alve surge springs
PART)2
1. Desi!n as+ects o inlet an5 eC%a'st 6al'es.
Val6es8
The valves used in internal combustion engines are of the following three types!
2?G
1. $oppet or mushroom valve
2. +leeve valve
%. 1otary valve
Kut of these three valves, poppet valve, as shown in figure is very fre:uently used. )t
consists of head, face and stem. The head and face of the value is separated by a small margin,
to avoid sharp edge of the valve and also to provide provision for the regrinding of the face. The
face angle generally varies from %?
?
to &'
?
. The lower part of the stem is provided with a groove in
which spring retainer loc# is installed.
+ince both the inlet and ehaust valves are sub(ected to high temperatures of 1G%?
?
. to
22??
?
. during the power stro#e, therefore, it is necessary that the material of the valves should
withstand these temperatures. Thus the material of the valves must have good heat conduction,
heat resistance, corrosion resistance, wear resistance and shoc# resistance. )t may be noted that
the temperature at the inlet valve is less as compared to ehaust valve. Thus, the inlet valve is
generally made of nic#el chromium alloy steel and the ehaust valve 3which is sub(ected to very
high temperature of ehaust gas/ is made from silchrome steel which is a special alloy of silicon
and chromium.
&i!8 Po++et o" #'s%"oo# 6al6e Conical +o++et 6al6e in t%e +o"t.
)n designing a valve, it is re:uired to determine the following dimensions!
3a/ +i"e of the valve port
Iet a
p
7 *rea of the port,
v
p
7 6ean velocity of gas flowing through the port
a 7 *rea of the piston, and
v 7 6ean velocity of the piston.
-e #now that a
p
. v
p
7 a.v
21?
p
p
a.v
a
v

The mean velocity of the gas 3v

p
/ may be ta#en from the following table.
Ta3le8 Mean 6elocit, o t%e !as :6
+
;
T,+e o en!ine
Mean 6elocit, o t%e !as :6
+
; #>s
Inlet 6al6e EC%a'st 6al6e
Iow speed
<igh speed
%% 9 &?
B? 9 G?
&? 9 '?
G? - 1??
+ometimes, inlet port is made 2? to &? percent larger than ehaust port for better cylinder
charging.
3b/ Thic#ness of the valve disc
The thic#ness of the valve disc 3t/, as shown in figure may be determined empirically from
the following relation, i.e.,
p
b
p
t #.d

where, # 7 .onstant 7 ?.&2 for steel and ?.'& for cast iron,
d
p
7 ;iameter of the port in mm,
p 7 6aimum gas pressure in N8mm
2
, and

b
7 $ermissible bending stress in 6$a or N8mm
2
7 '? to 5? 6$a for carbon steel and 1?? to 12? 6$a for alloy steel.
3c/ 6aimum lift of the valve
Iet h 7 Iift of the valve.
The lift of the valve may be obtained by e:uating the area across the valve seat to the area
of the port. For a conical valve, as shown in figure, we have
( )
2
p
p p
d
d .h cos 7 d or h 7
& &cos

where 7 *ngle at which the valve seat is tapered 7 %?

?
to &'
?
.
)n case of flat headed valve, the lift of valve is given by
p
d
h
&
J3)n this case, 7 ?
?
/
211
The valve seats usually have the same angle as the valve seating surface. 0ut it is
preferable to ma#e the angle of valve seat 1 8 2
?
to 1
?
larger than the valve angle as shown in
figure. This results in more effective seat.
&i!'"e8 Val6e inte"e"ence an!le.
3d/ 2alve stem diameter
The valve steam diameter 3d
s
/ is given by
p p
s
d d
d 5.%'mm to 11mm
B B
+ +
Note8 the valve is sub(ected to spring force which is ta#en as concentrated load at the centre.
;ue to this spring force 3F
s
/ the stress in the valve 3
t
/ is given by
s s
t 2
p
1.&F 2d
1
t %d

_



,
2. A close5 coil %elical s+"in! is s'3Decte5 to a loa5 o 35 9!. T%e s+"in! stiness is 2.5
9! > c# an5 s+"in! in5eC is .. I t%e #aCi#'# s%ea" st"ess in t%e s+"in! is 5511 9! > c#
5ete"#ine t%e ollo=in!8
:a; Dia#ete" o =i"e
:3; Mean 5ia#ete" o coil
:c; N'#3e" o acti6e coils
:5; Soli5 len!t% o t%e s+"in!.
Ta9e G F 1./* 11
-
9! > c#
2
Sol'tion8
:a; To calc'late =i"e 5ia#ete"
$ 7 Ioad 7 %' #g.
; 7 6ean diameter of coil
6ean radius,
;
1
2

212
d 7 -ire diameter
f
s
7 *llowable stress in spring material
7 ''?? #g 8 cm
2
n 7 Number of active coils
F 7 6odulus of rigidity
7 ?.B& 1?
5
#g 8 cm
2
.
T 7 Twisting moment
7 $ 1
7
;
$
2

7
;
%'
2

7 1>.' ;

%
s
%
s
2
s
f d
15
1>.'; f d
5
;
1>.' f . d
d 15

. 7 +pring inde

;
>
d

2
s
2
1>.'.. f . d
15
1>.' > ''?? d
15
d7?.%%5 cm.

:ii; To calc'late t%e coil 5ia#ete"
;
>
d
; > ?.%%5 2.%'2cm
;
1 1adius 1.1>5cm.
2

:c; Calc'late n'#3e" o coils
+ 7 +pring stiffness 7 2.' #g 8 cm
21%
( )
%
&
%
&
5
$ %'
1&cm
+ 2.'
5&$1 n
Fd
5& %' 1.1>5 n
1&
?.B& 1? ?.%%5
n &2.

:5; To calc'late soli5 len!t%. *ssuming s:uared and ground ends.

+olid length 7 3n@2/ d 7 3&2@2/ ?.%%5 7 1&.>B cm
3. A close5 coil %elical s+"in! is "eA'i"e5 o" a saet, 6al6e o . c# 5ia#ete" =%ic% is to
3elo= o at a +"ess'"e o 11 9!>c#
2
. T%e #ean 5ia#ete" o coil is 15 c# an5 #aCi#'# lit
o 6al6e is 1.2 c#. T%e initial co#+"ession o t%e s+"in! is 2.5 c#. i t%e allo=a3le s%ea"
st"ess in t%e s+"in! #ate"ial is *311 9! > c#
2
an5 #o5'l's o "i!i5it, is 1./* 11
3
9! > c#
2
?
5ete"#ine t%e ollo=in!8
:a; Stiness o s+"in!
:3; Dia#ete" o =i"e
:c; N'#3e" o acti6e coils
:5; Soli5 len!t%.
Sol'tion8
:a; To in5 stiness o s+"in!
d
1
7 2alve diameter
$ 7 Ioad on valve
p 7 +team pressure
2 2
$ d1 p > 11 &2%#g.
& &


)nitial compression 7 2.' cm
+ 7 +tiffness of spring 7
$
2.'

&2%
15G.2#g8 cm
2.'

:3; To in5 =i"e 5ia#ete"
6aimum compression of spring
7 )nitial compression @ 6aimum life of valve.
21&
6aimum compression 3/
7 2.' @1.2 7 %.> cm
6aimum load 3F/ on the spring 7 +
7 + %.> 7 15G.2 %.> 7 525 #g
Iet d 7 -ire diameter
. 7 +pring inde 7 > 7
;
d
# 7 -ahl concentration factor
&. 1 ?.51' & > 1 ?.51'
1.21%
&. & . & > & >

+ +

;7 6ean coil diameter 7 > d
f
s
7 *llowable shear stress
T 7 Twisting moment
%
s
%
s
1
T . f .d
# 15
1
$ 1 . f .d
# 15

( )
%
1
525 %.'d &%?? d
1.21% 15
d 7 1.>> cm.

:c; To calc'late acti6e n'#3e" o t'"ns
n 7 Number of active turns in the spring
; 7 > d 7 > 1.>> 7 12.%G cm.

&
%
; 12.%G
1 5.1G'cm
2 2
Fd
+
5&1 n

( )
( )
( )
&
5
%
&
5
?.B& 1? 1.>>
15G.2
5& 5.1G' n
?.B& 1? 1.>>
n7
5& 2%>.>' 15G.2
7 %.2

21'
*ssuming s:uared and ground ends
n
1
7 *ctual member of turns
7 %.2 @ 2 9 '.2
:5; To calc'late "ee len!t%
I
1
7 Free length
7 I
2
@
2
@ .
1
I
2
7 +olid length
7 n
1
. d 7 '.2 1.>>7 G.2 cm
7 6aimum compression 7 %.> cm
*ssuming a clearance of 1 mm between ad(acent coils
.
1
7 .learance between ad(acent coils
7 & ?.1 7 ?.& cm
I
1
7 G.2 @ %.> @ ?.& 7 1%.% cm.
*. Desi!n a close5 coil %elical co#+"ession s+"in! o" a se"6ice loa5 "an!in! "o# 225 9!
to 22. 9!. T%e aCial 5election o t%e s+"in! o" t%e loa5 is - ##. Ass'#e a s+"in! in5eC o
-? +e"#issi3le s%ea" intensit, o *211 9!>c #
2
an5 G F 1./* 11
-
9!>c#
2
. Ne!lect t%e eect
o st"ess concent"ation.
Sol'tion8
:a; To calc'late =i"e 5ia#ete"
; 7 6ean diameter of coil
$ 7 6aimum load 7 2>' #g
d 7 -ire diameter
. 7 +pring inde

;
5
d

f
s
7 $ermissible shear stress
7 &2?? #g 8 cm
2
T 7 Twisting moment 7
;
$
2

%
s
2
2
;
$ f d
2 15
2>' ;
&2?? d
2 d 15
2>'
5 &2?? d
2 15

_


,

d 7 1 cm
215
0ecause
; 7 5 d 7 5 cm
Kutside diameter of spring 7 ; @ d
)nside diameter of spring 7 ; 9 d
:3; To calc'late n'#3e" o t'"ns
F 7 Ioading producing deflection
7 2>.' 9 22' 7 '? #g
1 7 % cm
%
&
5&$1 n
;eflection
F.d


( )
( )
%
5
5& '? % n
?.5
?.B& 1?
n7'.B75 say

:c; To calc'late #aCi#'# 5election

m
7 6aimum deflection

2>'
?.5 %.%cm
2>' 22'

:5; To calc'late "ee len!t%

*ssuming s:uare and ground ends
n
17
*ctual number of turns 7 n @ 2 7 B
*ssume a clearance between ad(acent coils
7 ?.1 mm
I
1
7 Free length
7 +olid length @ 6aimum compression @ .learance between ad(acent coils
7 n
1
d@
m
@ 3n
1
9 1/ ?.1 7 12 cm.
5. A close coile5 %elical s+"in! #a5e o 3 c# 5ia#ete" =i"e is to a3so"3 t%e ene"!, o a
t"'c9 =ei!%in! -111 9! #o6in! at 1#>sec. I t%e sae s%ea" st"ess in s+"in! #ate"ial is 3111
9! > c#
2
an5 G F 1./* 11
-
9! > c#
2
5ete"#ine t%e ollo=in!8
:a; Vol'#e o s+"in!.
:3; $ei!%t o s+"in! i 5ensit, o s+"in! #ate"ial is ..3 !# > c#
2
:c; N'#3e" o acti6e t'"ns i s+"in! in5eC is /.
Sol'tion8
21>
:a; To calc'late 6ol'#e o s+"in!
- 7 -eight of truc# 7 5??? #g
2 7 2elocity of truc# 7 1 m8sec
7 1?? cm 8 sec.
f
s
7 +afe shear stress 7 %??? #g 8 cm
2
2
1
7 2olume of spring
E 7 +train energy of spring

2
+ 1
f .2
&F

E
1
7 Einetic energy of moving truc#

2
1 -
. .2
2 g

E 7 E
1

( )
( )
2
2 s 1
2
2
1
5
%
1
f .2 1 -
2
&F 2 g
%??? 2
1 5???
1??
& ?.B& 1? 2 GB1
2 11&??cm

:3; To in5 =ei!%t o s+"in!

-
1
7 -eight of spring 7 2
1
density

>.%
11&?? B%.22#g
1???

:c; To calc'late n'#3e" o t'"ns
n 7 Number of active coils
;
. B
d

d 7 -ire diameter 7 % cm
( ) ( )
2
1
%
2 n. d ;
&
11&? n % B %
&
n 21.&.

21B
IUESTION 2AN@
PART A
1. -hat information do you obtain from +oderberg e:uationP
2. -hat is endurance limit of a materialP *nd also draw +-N curve for steels.
%. +tate the necessity of selective *ssembly.
&. -hat is the necessity of stepping of shaft 3different diameters along ais/P
'. -hy piston is circular in cross-sectionP
5. ;efine piston slap.
>. Enumerate the assumptions made in design of connecting rod.
B. +tate the material property re:uirement of cran#shaft.
G. -hy ehaust valve stem is larger than inlet valve stemP
1?. -hat do you mean valve floatP
11. -hat do you mean by spring surgingP
12. .alculate the radial thic#ness of piston ring for a piston of 1?? mm diameter. $ermissible wall
pressure is ?.?% N8m
%
and bending strength is G? N8m
2
.
1%. -hy piston pin is normally lapped or super finishedP
1&. -hat are the criteria for selection of material for connecting rodP
1'. -hat are the failure modes of cran# shaftP
15. -hat are the design criteria for the inlet and ehaust valveP
1>. -hat are the design re:uirements of inta#e manifoldsP
1B. .ompare the endurance limit for steel and aluminium.
1G. +tate the advantage of cad in auto part design.
2?. -hen do you select shrin# fitP
PART ) 2
21. 3a/ Eplain the stress-strain diagram for steel with necessary s#etches. ;iscuss the role
of Coung,s 6odulus, 0ul# 6odulus and +hear 6odulus in design of a component.
21G
Kr
3b/ Eplain the role of computer *ided of internal combustion Engine by ta#ing a case
study.
22. 3a/ Eplain the different types of tolerances and fits with eamples.
Kr
3b/ ;esign a helical spring for operating inlet valve. The maimum gas pressure acting
is '? 6$a. The stiffness re:uired for valve spring is 2? #g8 mm and the maimum
puter diameter permitted is %? mm. the length of the spring is to be limited to >' mm.
*ssumptions are allowed with proper (ustifications.
2%. 3a/ ;esign a cast iron piston assembly 3including piston ring and piston pin / for a
single acting four stro#e engine for the following specifications. .ylinder bore 7 12?
mm, stro#e 7 1&? mm, maimum gas pressure 7 5 N8mm
2
, bra#e mean effective
pressure 7 ?.> N8mm
2
fuel consumption 7 ?.2% #g8#w-hr, speed 7 2&?? rpm. )f
re:uired suitable assumptions may be made with proper (ustifications.
Kr
3b/ Eplain the engineering principles involved in design of cylinder bloc# highlighting
the cooling system re:uirements and materials reduction techni:ues.
2&. 3a/ ;esign a connecting rod for ). engine running at 1B?? rpm and developing a
maimum pressure of %.1' N8mm2. the diameter of the piston is 1?? mmH mass of the
reciprocating parts per cylinder 2.2' #gH length of connecting rod %B? mmH stro#e of
piston 1G? mm and compression ratio 5!1. Ta#e a factor of safety of 5 for the design.
*ll other values may be suitably assumed.
Kr
3b/ ;esign a cran# shaft for an ). engine for the following data. +tro#e 7 %??mm,
cylinder bore 7 2'? mm, length of the connecting rod7 five times the cran# radius,
maimum gas pressure 7 2 N8mm2, gas pressure when the tor:ue is maimum 7 1
N8mm2, cran# angle when the tor:ue is maimum 7 %'. )f re:uired suitable
assumptions with proper (ustifications may be made.
2'. 3a/ )n a valve train find the difference between the cam displacement 3input/ and valve
lift 3output/ when the valve train is modeled as single mass system mass system.
+tiffness of the system ! '? #g8mm
;amping coefficient ! ?.2&&
.am )nput ;isplacement ! 1? mm
*lso state the condition for valve float to occur.
Kr
22?
3b/ ;esign and draw a cast iron flywheel used for a four sto#e ). engine developing
1B? # - at 2&? rpm. The hoop or centrifugal stress developed in the flywheel is '.2
6$a, the total fluctuation of speed is to be limited to %N of the mean speed. The wor#
done during the whole cycle,. The maimum tor:ue on the shaft is twice the mean
tor:ue. The density of cast iron is >22? #g8m
%
.
25. 3a/ 3i/ ;iscuss the allowable strength and factor of safety.
3ii/ -hat are the advantages of composition in automotive applicationsP
3iii/ ;iscuss the types of composites and its properties highlighting fibre, its
si"e and orientation.
Kr
3b/ 3i/ -hat is the endurance limitP
3ii/ ;iscuss the +oderberg and Foodman e:uation applied to fatigue loading.
3iii/ ;iscuss on different characteristics 3li#e strength/ to be considered in
design.
2>. 3a/ 3i/ ;iscuss the types of fits and provide one eample in each.
3ii/ * helical spring of music wire carries a fluctuating load. +pring )nde7 ',
wire diameter 7 %mm, average load on spring 7 5?? N. find the permissible
value of maimum and minimum loads.
*ssume ultimate strength to be 1>?? N8m
2
Kr
3b/ * hollow shaft of 5?? mm outside diameter and &?? mm inside diameter is used
to drive propeller of a marine vessel. The shaft is supported on bearing 5m part
and transmits '???#w at 1'? rpm. 6aimum aial propeller thrust is '?? #N.
;etermine the maimum shear stress developed and angular twist between
bearings.
2B. 3a/ 3i/ ;iscuss the design parameter considered in designing cylinder for a two
wheeler petrol engine and four wheeler diesel engine highlighting weight
savingP
3ii/ .alculate the piston pin diameter for an engine with the cylinder bore of '?
mm and gas pressure of 5.2 N8m
2
. $ermissible bearing pressure is 2' N8m
2
.
Kr
3b/ 3i/ ;iscuss on piston failures. <ow are they minimi"edP
3ii/ ;esign a suitable piston head thic#ness for a piston of diameter 1?? mm
and stro#e 12? mm. maimum gas pressure is 5.1N8m2. bea# mean
effective pressure is ?.>' N8m
2
, fuel consumption is ?.22 #g8#w8hr, speed
2B?? rpm. +uitable assumptions may made with proper (ustifications.
221
2G. 3a/ 3i/ -hat are the design re:uirements of cran#shafts.
3ii/ ;esign a centre cran# shaft for ). engine for the following data. +tro#e
-2>' mm, .ylinder bore 9 22' mm, length of the connecting rod &.'times
cran# radius. 6aimum gas pressure 2.% N8mm
2
, gas pressure when the
tor:ue is maimum is 1.& N8mm
2
and cran# angle is %'. +uitable
assumptions may made with proper (ustifications.
Kr
3b/ 3i/ -hat materials are used for connecting rodsP
3ii/ ;esign a connecting rod for high speed ). engine. The diameter of the
piston is 1?? mm, mass of reciprocating parts 1.' #g, length of the connecting
rod centre to centre distance is %'' mm, stro#e 1&? mm, speed 22?? rpm,
6aimum eplosion pressure is %.1N8mm
2
, % after dead centre. +uitable
assumptions may be made with proper (ustifications.
%?. 3a/ 3i/ name the types of flywheel.
3ii/ ;esign a cast iron flywheel for a & stro#e engine developing 5? #- at
%2??rpm. The wor# done during power stro#e is 1.2 times the average wor#
done during full cycle. The mean diameter of the flywheel is ?.& m. The total
fluctuating speed is limited to 'N of the mean speed.
Kr
3b/ 3i/ ;iscuss on the design aspects of inlet and ehaust valves.
3ii/ ;esign a helical spring for an engine valve. Iength of spring when valve
open is 5?mm and when closed is B? mm. +pring load is &2?N when open and
its is %2? N when valve is closed. 6aimum internal diameter is 2B mm.
*llowable shear stress is &?? 6$a and modulus of rigidity is ?.B 1?
'
6$a.
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