NEW GENERATION AND HYBRID VEHILES UNIT-1 Electric and hy rid !ehicle"# $le%i le $&el !

ehicle" '((V)# S*lar +*,ered !ehicle# -a.netic trac/ !ehicle"# $&el cell" !ehicle0 ELE1TRI1 VEHI1ELS The first electric vehicles of the 1830s used non-rechargeable batteries. Half a century was to elapse before batteries had developed sufficiently to be used in commercial electric vehicles. By the end of the 1 th century! with mass production of rechargeable batteries! electric vehicles became fairly widely used. "rivate cars! though rare! were #uite li$ely to be electric! as were other vehicles such as ta%is. &n electric 'ew (or$ ta%i from about 1 01 is shown! with )ily )ang tree alongside! in *igure 1.1. +ndeed if performance was re#uired! the electric cars were preferred to their internal combustion or steam powered rivals. *igure 1., shows the first car to e%ceed the -mile a minute. speed /00mph1 when the Belgium racing diver 2amille 3enat4y! driving the electric vehicle $nown as -)a3amais 2ontente.!1 set a new land speed record of 100 $ph /05.6mph1. This also made it the first car to e%ceed 100 $ph. &t the start of the ,0th century electric vehicles must have loo$ed a strong contender for future road transport. 2amille 3enat4y.s -)a 3amais 2ontente.. This electric car held the world land speed record in 18 ! and was the first vehicle to e%ceed both 00mph and 100 $ph 7hereas internal combustion engine vehicles were at the time unreliable! smelly and 'eeded to be manually cran$ed to start. The other main contender! the steam engine 8ehicle! needed lighting and the thermal efficiency of the engines was relatively low. By the 1 ,0s several hundred thousand electric vehicles had been produced for use as 2ars! vans! ta%is! delivery vehicles and buses. However! despite the promise of the early *or e%ample! the ,.6 tonnes of lead acid batteries which give the same effective energy storage as 95 litres /10 :; gallons1 of petrol would cost around <8000 at today.s prices. The batteries also have a limited life! typically 5 years! which means that a further large investment is needed periodically to renew the batteries 7hen one ta$es these factors into consideration the reasons for the predominance of +2 engine vehicles for most of the ,0th 2entury become clear. =ince the 1 th century ways of overcoming the limited energy storage of batteries have Been used. The first is supplying the electrical energy via supply rails! the best e%ample Being the trolley bus. This has been widely used during the ,0th century and allows

#uiet non-polluting buses to be used in towns and cities. 7hen away from the electrical supply. U"e" $*r ,hich attery electric !ehicle" ha!e re-ained +*+&lar 2 >espite the above problems there have always been uses for electric vehicles since the early part of the ,0th century. They have certain advantages over combustion engines! mainly that they produce no e%haust emissions in their immediate environment! and secondly that they are inherently #uiet. This ma$es the electric vehicle ideal for as warehouses! inside buildings and on golf courses! where pollution and noise will not be tolerated. ?ne popular application of battery@electric drives is for mobility devices for the elderly and physically handicapped. +ndeed! in Aurope and the :nited =tates the type of vehicle shown in *igure 1.9 is one of the most common. +t can be driven on pavements! into shops! and in many buildings. 'ormally a range of 9 miles is #uite sufficient but longer ranges allow disabled people to drive along country lanes. &nother vehicle of this class is shown in *igure 11., of the final chapter. They also retain their efficiencies in start-stop driving! when an internal combustion engine becomes very inefficient and polluting. This ma$es electric vehicles attractive for use as delivery vehicles such as the famous British mil$ float. +n some countries this has been helped by the fact that leaving an unattended vehicle with the engine running! for e%ample when ta$ing something to the door of a house! is illegal. BATTERY ELE1TRI1 VEHI1LES THE 1ON1E3T O( THE BATTERY ELE1TRI1 VEHI1LE IS ESSENTIALLY SI43LE AND IS SHOWN IN (IGURE The vehicle consists of an electric battery for energy storage! an electric motor! and a controller. The battery is normally recharged from mains electricity via a plug and a battery charging unit that can either be carried onboard or fitted at the charging point. The controller will normally control the power supplied to the motor! and hence the vehicle speed! in forward and reverse. This is normally $nown as a , #uadrant controller! forwards and bac$wards. +t is usually desirable to use regenerative bra$ing both to recoup energy and as a convenient form of frictionless bra$ing. 7hen in addition the controller allows regenerative bra$ing in forward and reverse directions it is $nown as a 9 #uadrant controller.9 There is a range of electric vehicles of this type currently available on the mar$et. &t the simplest there are small electric bicycles and tricycles and small commuter vehicles. +n the leisure mar$et there are electric golf buggies. There is a range of full si4ed electric vehicles! which include electric cars! delivery truc$s and buses. &mong

the most important are also aids to mobility! as in *igure 1.9 and *igure 11., /in the final chapter1! and also delivery vehicles and electric bicycles. =ome e%amples of typical electrical vehicles using rechargeable batteries are shown in *igures 1.0 to 1. . &ll of these vehicles have a fairly THE I1 ENGINE5ELE1TRI1 HYBRID VEHI1LE 2 & hybrid vehicle has two or more power sources! and there are a large number of possible variations. The most common types of hybrid vehicle combine an internal combustion engine with a battery and an electric motor and generator. There are two basic arrangements for hybrid vehicles! the series hybrid and the parallel hybrid! which are illustrated in *igures 1. and 1.10 +n the series hybrid the vehicle is driven by one or more electric motors supplied either from the battery! or from the +2 engine driven generator unit! or from both. However! in either case the driving force comes entirely from the electric motor or motors. +n the parallel hybrid the vehicle can either be driven by the +2 engine wor$ing directly through a transmission system to the wheels! or by one or more electric motors! or by both the electric motor and the +2 engine at once. +n both series and parallel hybrids the battery can be recharged by the engine and generator while moving! and so the battery does not need to be anything li$e as large as in a pure battery vehicle. &lso! both types allow for regenerative bra$ing! for the drive motor to wor$ as a generator and simultaneously slow down the vehicle and charge the battery. The series hybrid tends to be used only in specialist applications. *or e%ample! the diesel powered railway engine is nearly always a series hybrid! as are some ships. =ome special all-terrain vehicles are series hybrid! with a separately controlled electric motor in each wheel. The main disadvantage of the series hybrid is that all the electrical energy must pass through both the generator and the motors. The adds considerably to the cost of such systems. The parallel hybrid! on the other hand! has scope for very wide application. The electric machines can be much smaller and cheaper! as they do not have to convert all the energy. There are various ways in which a parallel hybrid vehicle can be used. +n the simplest it can run on electricity from the batteries! for e%ample! in a city where e%haust emissions are undesirable! or it can be powered solely by the +2 engine! for e%ample! when traveling outside the city. &lternatively! and more usefully! a parallel hybrid vehicle can use the +2 engine and batteries in combination! continually optimi4ing the efficiency of the +2 Angine.

HA8s evolved out of two basic configurationsB series and parallel. & series hybrid is one in which only one energy converter can provide propulsion power. The heat engine or +2A acts as a prime mover in this configuration to drive an electric generator that delivers power to the battery or energy storage lin$ and the propulsion motor. The component arrangement of a series HA8 is shown in *igure 10.1. & parallel hybrid is one in which more than one energy source can provide propulsion power. The heat engine and the electric motor are configured in parallel! with a mechanical coupling that blends the tor#ue coming from the two sources. The component arrangements of a parallel hybrid are shown in *igure 10.,. =eries HA8 is the simpler type! where only the electric motor provides all the propulsion power. & downsi4ed heat engine on board drives a generator! which supplements the batteries and can charge them when they fall below a certain state of charge. The power re#uired to move the vehicle is provided solely by the electric motor. Beyond the heat engine and the generator! the propulsion system is the same as in an A8! ma$ing electric motor power re#uirements the same as for in the A8. +n parallel HA8! the heat engine and the electric motor are connected to the driveshaft through separate clutches. "ower re#uirements of the electric motor in the parallel hybrid are lower than that of an A8 or series hybrid! because the heat engine complements for the total power re#uirement of the vehicle. The propulsion power may be supplied by the heat engine! by the battery-motor set! or by the two systems in combination. =eries and parallel hybrids come in a variety of types. The mission of the vehicle and the optimum design for that mission dictate the choice. +f the HA8 is to be basically an A8 with an +2A-assist for achieving acceptable range! then the choice should be a series hybrid! with the +2A ensuring that the batteries remain charged all the time. ?n the other hand! if the HA8 is to be basically a vehicle with almost all the performance characteristics and comforts of an +2A8 but with lower emission and fuel usage standards! then the choice should be a parallel configuration. "arallel HA8s have been built with performance that is e#ual! in all aspects of normal operation! to that of a conventional car. However! some series HA8s have also been built that perform nearly as well as +2A8s. Advantages and Disadvantages The advantages and disadvantages of series and parallel hybrids are summari4ed in the following. 1. *le%ibility of location of engine-generator set ,. =implicity of drive train 3. =uitability for short trips The disadvantages of a series HA8 areB 1. +t needs three propulsion componentsB +2A! generator! and motor.

,. The motor must be designed for the ma%imum sustained power that the vehicle may re#uire! such as when climbing a high grade. However! the vehicle operates below the ma%imum power most of the time. 3. &ll three drive train components need to be si4ed for ma%imum power for longdistance! sustained! high-speed driving. This is re#uired! because the batteries will e%haust fairly #uic$ly! leaving +2A to supply all the power through the generator. The following are advantages of a parallel HA8B 1. +t needs only two propulsion componentsB +2A and motor@generator. +n parallel HA8! the motor can be used as the generator and vice versa. ,. & smaller engine and a smaller motor can be used to get the same performance! until batteries are depleted. *or short-trip missions! both can be rated at half the ma%imum power to provide the total power! assuming that the batteries are never depleted. *or long-distance trips! the engine may be rated for the ma%imum power! while the motor@generator may still be rated to half the ma%imum power or even smaller. The following are disadvantages of a parallel HA8B 1. The control comple%ity increases significantly! because power flow has to be regulated and blended from two parallel sources. ,. The power blending from the +2A and the motor necessitates a comple% mechanical device. SERIES-PARALLEL COMBINATION &lthough HA8s initially evolved as series or parallel! manufacturers later reali4ed the advantages of a combination of the series and parallel configurations for practical road vehicles. +n these combination hybrids! the heat engine is also used to charge the battery. The recently available Toyota "rius is an e%ample of such a hybrid! where a small series element is added to the primarily parallel HA8. The small series element ensures that the battery remains charged in prolonged wait periods! such as at traffic lights or in a traffic Cam. These combination hybrids can be categorically classified under parallel hybrids! because they retain the parallel structure of a component arrangement. +t is important to stress the fact that the detailed configuration of an HA8 depends on the application and the trade-off between cost and performance. The component arrangement of a series-parallel combination hybrid is shown in *igure 10.3. The schematic is based on the Toyota "rius hybrid design. & power split device allocates power from the +2A to the front wheels through the driveshaft and the electric generator! depending on the driving condition. The power through the generator is used to charge the batteries. The electric motor can also deliver power to the front wheels in

parallel to the +2A. The inverter is bidirectional and is used to charge the batteries from the generator or to condition the power for the electric motor. *or short burstsof speed! power is delivered to the driveshaft from the +2A and the electric motor. & central control unit regulates the power flow for the system using multiple feedbac$ signals from the various sensors. :se of the +2A to charge the batteries should be minimi4ed when ma%imi4ing efficiency. Anergy is always lost while charging and discharging the battery and during the power flow through the inverter. The vehicle should be operated off its engine or battery or both! until the battery is at a minimum acceptable state of charge! say ,0 to 90D. The battery should be charged from the power grid when convenient. A FLEXIBLE-FUEL VEHICLE (FFV OR DUAL-FUEL VEHICLE ! "#e$-"%e# ve&i'#e is an alternative fuel vehicle with an internal combustion engine designed to run on more than one fuel! usually gasoline blended with either ethanol or methanol fuel! and both fuels are stored in the same common tan$. *le%-fuel engines are capable of burning any proportion of the resulting blend in the combustion chamber as fuel inCection and spar$ timing are adCusted automatically according to the actual blend detected by electronic sensors. *le%-fuel vehicles are distinguished from bifuel vehicles! where two fuels are stored in separate tan$s and the engine runs on one fuel at a time! for e%ample! compressed natural gas /2'E1! li#uefied petroleum gas /)"E1! or hydrogen. The most common commercially available **8 in the world mar$et is the ethanol fle%ible-fuel vehicle! with ,,.0 million automobiles! motorcycles and light duty truc$s sold worldwide by ,010! and concentrated in four mar$ets! Bra4il /1,.5 million1! the :nited =tates / .3 million1! 2anada /more than 000!0001! and Aurope! led by =weden /,10! 651. The Bra4ilian fle% fuel fleet includes 515!6,0 fle%ible-fuel motorcycles sold since ,00 . +n addition to fle%-fuel vehicles running with ethanol! in Aurope and the :=! mainly in 2alifornia! there have been successful test programs with methanol fle%fuel vehicles! $nown as F85 fle%-fuel vehicles. There have been also successful tests using "-series fuels with A85 fle% fuel vehicles! but as of 3une ,008! this fuel is not yet available to the general public. These successful tests with "-series fuels were conducted on *ord Taurus and >odge 2aravan fle%ible-fuel vehicles. Though technology e%ists to allow ethanol **8s to run on any mi%ture of gasoline and

ethanol! from pure gasoline up to 100D ethanol /A1001! 'orth &merican and Auropean fle%-fuel vehicles are optimi4ed to run on a ma%imum blend of 15D gasoline with 85D anhydrous ethanol /called A85 fuel1. This limit in the ethanol content is set to reduce ethanol emissions at low temperatures and to avoid cold starting problems during cold weather! at temperatures lower than 11 G2 The alcohol content is reduced during the winter in regions where temperatures fall below 0 G2 to a winter blend of A60 in the :.=. or to A65 in =weden from 'ovember until Farch. Bra4ilian fle% fuel vehicles are optimi4ed to run on any mi% of A,0-A,5 gasoline and up to 100D hydrous ethanol fuel /A1001. The Bra4ilian fle% vehicles are built-in with a small gasoline reservoir for cold starting the engine when temperatures drop below 15 G2. &n improved fle% motor generation was launched in ,00 which eliminated the need for the secondary gas tan$. Te()in*#*g+ &s ethanol **8s became commercially available during the late 1 0s! the common use of the term Hfle%ible-fuel vehicleH became synonymous with ethanol **8s. +n the :nited =tates fle%-fuel vehicles are also $nown as HA85 vehiclesH. +n Bra4il! the **8s are popularly $nown as Htotal fle%H or simply Hfle%H cars. +n Aurope! **8s are also $nown as Hfle%ifuelH vehicles. &utoma$ers! particularly in Bra4il and the Auropean mar$et! use badging in their **8 models with the some variant of the word Hfle%H! such as 8olvo Flexifuel! or 8ol$swagen Total Flex! or 2hevrolet FlexPower or Ienault Hi-Flex! and *ord sells its *ocus model in Aurope as Flexifuel and as Flex in Bra4il. +n the :=! only since ,008 **8 models feature a yellow gas cap with the label HA85@EasolineH written on the top of the cap to differentiate A85s from gasoline only models. *le%ible-fuel vehicles /**8s1 are based on dual-fuel systems that supply both fuels into the combustion chamber at the same time in various calibrated proportions. The most common fuels used by **8s today are unleaded gasoline and ethanol fuel. Athanol **8s can run on pure gasoline! pure ethanol /A1001 or any combination of both. Fethanol has also been blended with gasoline in fle%-fuel vehicles $nown as F85 **8s! but their use has been limited mainly to demonstration proCects and small government fleets! particularly in 2alifornia. Bi-fuel vehicles. The term fle%ible-fuel vehicles is sometimes used to include other alternative fuel vehicles that can run with compressed natural gas /2'E1! li#uefied petroleum gas /)"EJ also $nown as autogas1! or hydrogen. However! all these vehicles actually are bi-fuel and not fle%ible-fuel vehicles! because they have engines that store the other fuel in a separate tan$! and the engine runs on one fuel at a time. Bi-fuel vehicles have the capability to switch bac$ and forth from gasoline to the other fuel! manually or automatically. The most common available fuel in the mar$et for bi-fuel cars is natural gas /2'E1! and by ,008

there were !0 million natural gas vehicles! led by "a$istan /,.0 million1! &rgentina /1.6 million1! and Bra4il /1.0 million1. 'atural gas vehicles are a popular choice as ta%icabs in the main cities of &rgentina and Bra4il. 'ormally! standard
AU2029- NEW GENERATION AND HYBRID VEHICL
ANIL BABU,S- D,A,E- B,E (AUTO - M,E (AUTO

gasoline vehicles are retrofitted in speciali4ed shops! which involve installing the gas cylinder in the trun$ and the 2'E inCection system and electronics. Fultifuel vehicles are capable of operating with more than two fuels. +n ,009 EF do Brasil introduced the 2hevrolet &stra ,.0 with a HFulti"owerH engine built on fle% fuel technology developed by Bosch of Bra4il! and capable of using 2'E! ethanol and gasoline /A,0-A,5 blend1 as fuel. This automobile was aimed at the ta%icab mar$et and the switch among fuels is done manually. +n ,000 *iat introduced the *iat =iena Tetra fuel! a four-fuel car developed under Fagneti Farelli of *iat Bra4il. This automobile can run as a fle%-fuel on 100D ethanol /A1001J or on A-,0 to A,5! Bra4ilKs normal ethanol gasoline blendJ on pure gasoline /though no longer available in Bra4il since 1 3! it is still used in neighboring countries1J or Cust on natural gas. The =iena Tetrafuel was engineered to switch from any gasoline-ethanol blend to 2'E automatically! depending on the power re#uired by road conditions. &nother e%isting option is to retrofit an ethanol fle%ible-fuel vehicle to add a natural gas tan$ and the corresponding inCection system. This option is popular among ta%icab owners in =Lo "aulo and Iio de 3aneiro! Bra4il! allowing users to choose among three fuels /A,5! A100 and 2'E1 according to current mar$et prices at the pump. 8ehicles with this adaptation are $nown in Bra4il as Htri-fuelH cars. *le%-fuel hybrid electric and fle%-fuel plug-in hybrid are two types of hybrid vehicles built with a combustion engine capable of running on gasoline! A-85! or A-100 to help drive the wheels in conCunction with the electric engine or to recharge the battery pac$ that powers the electric engine. +n ,006 *ord produced ,0 demonstration Ascape Hybrid A85s for real-world testing in fleets in the :.=. &lso as a demonstration proCect! *ord delivered in ,008 the first fle%ible-fuel plugin hybrid =:8 to the :.=. >epartment of Anergy />?A1! a *ord Ascape "lug-in Hybrid! which runs on gasoline or A85. EF announced that the 2hevrolet 8olt plug-in hybrid! launched in the :.=. in late ,010! would be the first commercially available fle%-fuel plug-in capable of adapting the propulsion to several world mar$ets such as the :.=.! Bra4il or =weden! as the combustion engine can be adapted to run on A85! A100 or diesel respectively. The 8olt is e%pected to be fle%-fuel-capable in ,013. )otus Angineering unveiled the )otus 2ity2ar at the ,010 "aris Fotor =how. The 2ity2ar is a plug-in hybrid concept car designed for fle%-fuel operation on ethanol! or methanol as well as regular gasoline. Hist*(+ The first commercial fle%ible fuel vehicle was the *ord Fodel T! produced from 1 08 through 1 ,6. +t was fitted with a carburetor with adCustable Cetting! allowing use of gasoline or ethanol! or a combination of both. ?ther car manufactures also provided engines for ethanol fuel use. Henry *ord continued to advocate for ethanol as fuel even during the prohibition. However! cheaper oil caused gasoline to prevail! until the 1 63 oil crisis resulted in gasoline shortages and awareness on the dangers of oil dependence. This crisis opened a new opportunity for ethanol and other alternative fuels! such as

methanol! gaseous fuels such as 2'E and )"E! and also hydrogen. M NM19N Athanol! methanol and natural gas 2'E were the three alternative fuels that received more attention for research and development! and government support. SOLAR PO.ERED VEHICLES & s*#a( ve&i'#e is an electric vehicle powered by solar panels on the vehicle. "hotovoltaic /"81 cells convert the sunKs energy directly into electric energy. =olar power may be used to provide all or part of a vehicleKs propulsion! or may be used to provide power for communcations! or controls! or other au%iliary functions. =olar vehicles are not sold as practical day-to-day transportation devices at present! but are primarily demonstration vehicles and engineering e%ercises! often sponsored by government agencies. However! indirectly solar-charged vehicles are widespread and solar boats are available commercially. Li)itati*ns There are limitations to using photovoltaic /"81 cells for vehiclesB "ower densityB Fa%imum power from a solar array is limited by the si4e of the vehicle and area that can be e%posed to sunlight. 7hile energy can be accumulated in batteries to lower pea$ demand on the array and provide operation in sunless conditions! the battery adds weight and cost to the vehicle. The power limit can be mitigated by use of conventional electric cars supplied by solar /or other1 power! recharging from the electrical grid. 2ostB 7hile sunlight is free! the creation of "8 cells to capture that sunlight is e%pensive. 2osts for solar panels are steadily declining /,,D cost reduction per doubling of production volume1. >esign considerationsB Aven though sunlight has no lifespan! "8 cells do. The lifetime of a solar module is appro%imately 30 years. =tandard photovoltaics often come with a warranty of 0 D /from nominal power1 after 10 years and 80 D after ,5 years. Fobile applications are unli$ely to re#uire lifetimes as long as building integrated "8 and solar par$s. 2urrent "8 panels are mostly designed for stationary installations. However! to be successful in mobile applications! "8 panels need to be designed to withstand vibrations. &lso! solar panels! especially those incorporating glass have significant weight. To be useful! the energy harvested by a panel must e%ceed the added fuel consumption caused by the added weight. =olar cars depend on "8 cells to convert sunlight into electricity to drive electric motors. :nli$e solar thermal energy which converts solar energy to heat! "8 cells directly convert sunlight into electricity. =olar cars combine technology typically used in the aerospace! bicycle! alternative energy and automotive industries. The design of a solar car is severely limited by the amount of energy input into the car. =olar cars are built for solar car races. Aven the best solar cells can only collect limited power and energy over the area of a carKs surface. This limits solar cars to a single seat! with no cargo capacity! and ultralight composite bodies to save weight. =olar cars lac$ the safety and convenience features of conventional vehicles. =olar cars are often fitted with gauges to warn the driver of possible problems. 2ars without gauges almost always feature wireless telemetry! which allows the driverKs team

to monitor the carKs energy consumption! solar energy capture and other parameters and free the driver to concentrate on driving. &s an alternative! a battery-powered electric vehicle may use a solar array to rechargeJ the array may be connected to the general electrical distribution grid. Sing#e-t(a'/ ve&i'#es & solar bicycle or tricycle has the advantage of very low weight and can use the riders foot power to supplement the power generated by the solar panel roof. +n this way! a comparatively simple and ine%pensive vehicle can be driven without the use of any fossil fuels. =olar photovoltaics helped power +ndiaKs first Ouadricycle developed since 1 0 in EuCarat stateKs =:I&T city. The first solar HcarsH were actually tricycles or #uadricycles built with bicycle technology. These were called solarmobiles at the first solar race! the Tour de =ol in =wit4erland in 1 85 with 6, participants! half using e%clusively solar power and half solarhumanpowered hybrids. & few true solar bicycles were built! either with a large solar roof! a small rear panel! or a trailer with a solar panel. )ater more practical solar bicycles were built with foldable panels to be set up only during par$ing. Aven later the panels were left at home! feeding into the electric mains! and the bicycles charged from the mains. Today highly developed electric bicycles are available and these use so little power that it costs little to buy the e#uivalent amount of solar electricity. The HsolarH has evolved from actual hardware to an indirect accounting system. The same system also wor$s for electric motorcycles! which were also first developed for the Tour de =ol. This is rapidly becoming an era of solar production. 7ith todayKs high performance solar cells! a front and rear "8 panel on this solar bi$e can give sufficient assistance! where the range is not limited by batteries. A00#i'ati*ns ?ne practical application for solar powered vehicles is possibly golf carts! some of which are used relatively little but spend most of their time par$ed in the sun. A%$i#ia(+ 0*1e( "hotovoltaic modules are used commercially as au%iliary power units on passenger cars in order to ventilate the car! reducing the temperature of the passenger compartment while it is par$ed in the sun. 8ehicles such as the ,010 "rius! &ptera ,! &udi &8! and Fa4da , have had solar sunroof options for ventilation purposes. The area of photovoltaic modules re#uired to power a car with conventional design is too large to be carried onboard. & prototype car and trailer has been built =olar Ta%i. &ccording to the website! it is capable of 100 $m@day using 0m , of standard crystalline

silicon cells. Alectricity is stored using a nic$el@salt battery. & stationary system such as a rooftop solar panel! however! can be used to charge conventional electric vehicles. +t is also possible to use solar panels to e%tend the range of a hybrid or electric car! as incorporated in the *is$er ;arma! available as an option on the 2hevy 8olt! on the hood and roof of H>estiny ,000H modifications of "ontiac *ieros! +taldesign Ouaranta! *ree >rive A8 =olar Bug! and numerous other electric vehicles! both concept and production. +n Fay ,006 a partnership of 2anadian companies led by Hymotion added "8 cells to a Toyota "rius to e%tend the range. =A8 claims ,0 miles per day from their combined ,157 module mounted on the car roof and an additional 3$7h battery. ?n 3une ,008! the Eerman and *rench "residents announced a plan to offer a cedit of 0-8g@$m of 2?, emissions for cars fitted with technologies Hnot yet ta$en into consideration during the standard measuring cycle of the emissions of a carH. This has given rise to speculation that photovoltaic panels might be widely adopted on autos in the near future. +t is also technically possible to use photovoltaic technology! /specifically thermophotovoltaic /T"81 technology1 to provide motive power for a car. *uel is used to heat an emitter. The infrared radiation generated is converted to electricity by a low band gap "8 cell /e.g. Ea=b1. & protoype T"8 hybrid car was even built. The H8i$ing , H was the 7orld.s first thermophotovoltaic /T"81 powered automobile! designed and built by the 8ehicle Iesearch +nstitute /8I+1 at 7estern 7ashington :niversity. Afficiency would need to be increased and cost decreased to ma$e T"8 competitive with fuel cells or internal combustion engines. 4AGNETI1 TRA16 VEHI1LES Mag#ev /derived from magnetic levitation1! is a system of transportation that suspends! guides and propels vehicles! predominantly trains! using magnetic levitation from a very large number of magnets for lift and propulsion. This method has the potential to be faster! #uieter and smoother than wheeled mass transit systems. The power needed for levitation is usually not a particularly large percentage of the overall consumptionJ most of the power used is needed to overcome air drag! as with any other high speed train. The highest recorded speed of a Faglev train is 581 $ilometres per hour! achieved in 3apan in ,003! 0 $ilometres per hour faster than the conventional TE8 wheel-rail speed record. The first commercial maglev people mover was simply called HF&E)A8H and officially

opened in 1 89 near Birmingham! Angland. +t operated on an elevated 000-metre section of monorail trac$ between Birmingham +nternational &irport and Birmingham +nternational railway station! running at speeds up to 9, $m@hJ the system was eventually closed in 1 5 due to reliability problems. "erhaps the most well $nown implementation of high-speed maglev technology currently operating commercially is the =hanghai Faglev Train! an +?= /initial operating segment1 demonstration line of the Eerman-built Transrapid train in =hanghai! 2hina that transports people 30 $m to the airport in Cust 6 minutes ,0 seconds! achieving a top speed of 931 $m@h! averaging ,50 $m@h. =everal favorable conditions e%isted when the lin$ was builtB The British Iail Iesearch vehicle was 3 tonnes and e%tension to the 8 tonne vehicle was easy. Alectrical power was easily available. The airport and rail buildings were suitable for terminal platforms. ?nly one crossing over a public road was re#uired and no steep gradients were involved. )and was owned by the railway or airport. )ocal industries and councils were supportive. =ome government finance was provided and because of sharing wor$! the cost per organi4ation was not high. Te'&n*#*g+ The term HmaglevH refers not only to the vehicles! but to the railway system as well! specifically designed for magnetic levitation and propulsion. &ll operational implementations of maglev technology have had minimal overlap with wheeled train technology and have not been compatible with conventional rail trac$s. Because they cannot share e%isting infrastructure! these maglev systems must be designed as complete transportation systems. The &pplied )evitation ="F Faglev system is interoperable with steel rail trac$s and would permit maglev vehicles and conventional trains to operate at the same time on the same right of way. F&' in Eermany also designed a maglev system that wor$ed with conventional rails! but it was never fully developed. There are two particularly notable types of maglev technologyB *or electromagnetic suspension /AF=1! electromagnets in the train attract it to a magnetically conductive /usually steel1 trac$. Alectrodynamic suspension /A>=1 uses electromagnets on both trac$ and train to push the train away from the rail. &nother e%perimental technology! which was designed! proven mathematically! peer reviewed! and patented! but is yet to be built! is the magnetodynamic suspension /F>=1! which uses the attractive magnetic force of a permanent magnet array near a steel trac$ to lift the train and hold it in place. ?ther technologies such as repulsive permanent magnets and superconducting magnets have seen some research. E#e't(*)agneti' s%s0ensi*n +n current electromagnetic suspension /AF=1 systems! the train levitates above a steel rail while electromagnets! attached to the train! are oriented toward the rail from below.

The system is typically arranged on a series of 2-shaped arms! with the upper portion of the arm attached to the vehicle! and the lower inside edge containing the magnets. The rail is situated between the upper and lower edges. Fagnetic attraction varies inversely with the cube of distance! so minor changes in distance between the magnets and the rail produce greatly varying forces. These changes in force are dynamically unstable - if there is a slight divergence from the optimum position! the tendency will be to e%acerbate this! and comple% systems of feedbac$ control are re#uired to maintain a train at a constant distance from the trac$! /appro%imately 15 millimeters1. The maCor advantage to suspended maglev systems is that they wor$ at all speeds! unli$e electro dynamic systems which only wor$ at a minimum speed of about 30 $m@h. This eliminates the need for a separate low-speed suspension system! and can simplify the trac$ layout as a result. ?n the downside! the dynamic instability of the system demands high tolerances of the trac$! which can offset! or eliminate this advantage. )aith waite! highly s$eptical of the concept! was concerned that in order to ma$e a trac$ with the re#uired tolerances! the gap between the magnets and rail would have to be increased to the point where the magnets would be unreasonably large. +n practice! this problem was addressed through increased performance of the feedbac$ systems! which allow the system to run with close tolerances. E#e't(* d+na)i' s%s0ensi*n 3I-Faglev A>= suspension is due to the magnetic fields induced either side of the vehicle by the passage of the vehicles superconducting magnets. A>= Faglev "ropulsion via propulsion coils +n electro dynamic suspension /A>=1! both the rail and the train e%ert a magnetic field! and the train is levitated by the repulsive force between these magnetic fields. The magnetic field in the train is produced by either superconducting magnets /as in 3IFaglev1 or by an array of permanent magnets /as in +nductrac$1. The repulsive force in the trac$ is created by an induced magnetic field in wires or other conducting strips in the trac$. & maCor advantage of the repulsive maglev systems is that they are naturally stablePminor narrowing in distance between the trac$ and the magnets creates strong forces to repel the magnets bac$ to their original position! while a slight increase in distance greatly reduces the force and again returns the vehicle to the right separation. 'o feedbac$ control is needed. Iepulsive systems have a maCor downside as well. &t slow speeds! the current induced

in these coils and the resultant magnetic flu% is not large enough to support the weight of the train. *or this reason the train must have wheels or some other form of landing gear to support the train until it reaches a speed that can sustain levitation. =ince a train may stop at any location! due to e#uipment problems for instance! the entire trac$ must be able to support both low-speed and high-speed operation. &nother downside is that the repulsive system naturally creates a field in the trac$ in front and to the rear of the lift magnets! which act against the magnets and create a form of drag. This is generally only a concern at low speeds! at higher speeds the effect does not have time to build to its full potential and other forms of drag dominate. The drag force can be used to the electrodynamic systemKs advantage! however! as it creates a varying force in the rails that can be used as a reactionary system to drive the train! without the need for a separate reaction plate! as in most linear motor systems. )aithwaite led development of such Htraverse-flu%H systems at his +mperial 2ollege laboratory. &lternatively! propulsion coils on the guideway are used to e%ert a force on the magnets in the train and ma$e the train move forward. The propulsion coils that e%ert a force on the train are effectively a linear motorB an alternating current flowing through the coils generates a continuously varying magnetic field that moves forward along the trac$. The fre#uency of the alternating current is synchroni4ed to match the speed of the train. The offset between the field e%erted by magnets on the train and the applied field creates a force moving the train forward. P(*s and '*ns *" di""e(ent te'&n*#*gies Aach implementation of the magnetic levitation principle for train-type travel involves advantages and disadvantages. Techn*l*.y 3r*" 1*n" EMS /Alectromagnetic suspension1 Fagnetic fields inside and outside the vehicle are less than A>=J proven! commercially available technology that can attain very high speeds /500 $m@h1J no wheels or secondary propulsion system needed. The separation between the vehicle and the guideway must be constantly monitored and

corrected by computer systems to avoid collision due to the unstable nature of electromagnetic attractionJ due to the systemKs inherent instability and the re#uired constant corrections by outside systems! vibration issues may occur. EDS /Alectrodynamic suspension1 ?nboard magnets and large margin between rail and train enable highest recorded train speeds /581 $m@h1 and heavy load capacityJ has demonstrated />ecember ,0051 successful operations using hightemperature superconductors in its onboard magnets! cooled with ine%pensive li#uid nitrogen. =trong magnetic fields onboard the train would ma$e the train inaccessible to passengers with pacema$ers or magnetic data storage media such as hard drives and credit cards! necessitating the use of magnetic shieldingJ limitations on guideway inductivity limit the ma%imum speed of the vehicleJ vehicle must be wheeled for travel at low speeds. Ind%'t(a'/ S+ste)/"ermanent Fagnet A>=1 *ailsafe =uspensionPno power re#uired to activate magnetsJ Fagnetic field is locali4ed below Ie#uires either wheels or trac$ segments that move for when the vehicle is stopped. 'ew the carJ can generate enough force at low speeds /around 5 $m@h1 to levitate maglev trainJ in case of power failure cars slow down on their own safelyJ

AU2029- NEW GENERATION AND HYBRID VEHICL

ANIL BABU,S- D,A,E- B,E (AUTO - M,E (AUTO

Halbach arrays of permanent magnets may prove more costeffective than electromagnets. technology that is still under development /as of ,0081 and as yet has no commercial version or full scale system prototype. 'either +nductrac$ nor the =uperconducting A>= are able to levitate vehicles at a standstill! although +nductrac$ provides levitation down to a much lower speedJ wheels are re#uired for these systems. AF= systems are wheel-less. The Eerman Transrapid! 3apanese H==T /)inimo1! and ;orean Iotem AF= maglevs levitate at a standstill! with electricity e%tracted from guideway using power rails for the latter two! and wirelessly for Transrapid. +f guideway power is lost on the move! the Transrapid is still able to generate levitation down to 10 $m@h speed! using the power from onboard batteries. This is not the case with the H==T and Iotem systems. P(*0%#si*n &n A>= system can provide both levitation and propulsion using an onboard linear motor. AF= systems can only levitate the train using the magnets onboard! not propel it forward. &s such! vehicles need some other technology for propulsion. & linear motor /propulsion coils1 mounted in the trac$ is one solution. ?ver long distances where the cost of propulsion coils could be prohibitive! a propeller or Cet engine could be used. Sta2i#it+ AarnshawKs theorem shows that any combination of static magnets cannot be in a stable e#uilibrium. However! the various levitation systems achieve stable levitation by violating the assumptions of AarnshawKs theorem. AarnshawKs theorem assumes that the magnets are static and unchanging in field strength and that the relative permeability is constant and greater than unity everywhere. AF= systems rely on active electronic stabili4ation. =uch systems constantly measure the bearing distance and adCust the electromagnet current accordingly. &ll A>= systems are moving systems /no A>= system can levitate the train unless it is in motion1. Because Faglev vehicles essentially fly! stabilisation of pitch! roll and yaw is re#uired by magnetic technology. +n addition to rotation! surge /forward and bac$ward motions1! sway /sideways motion1 or heave /up and down motions1 can be problematic with some technologies. +f superconducting magnets are used on a train above a trac$ made out of a permanent magnet! then the train would be loc$ed in to its lateral position on the trac$. +t can move

linearly along the trac$! but not off the trac$. This is due to the Feissner Affect. 3%idan'e =ome systems use 'ull 2urrent systems /also sometimes called 'ull *lu% systems1J these use a coil which is wound so that it enters two opposing! alternating fields! so that the average flu% in the loop is 4ero. 7hen the vehicle is in the straight ahead position! no current flows! but if it moves off-line this creates a changing flu% that generates a field that pushes it bac$ into line. However! some systems use coils that try to remain as much as possible in the null flu% point between repulsive magnets! as this reduces eddy current losses. Eva'%ated t%2es =ome systems /notably the swissmetro system1 propose the use of vactrainsP maglev train technology used in evacuated /airless1 tubes! which removes air drag. This has the potential to increase speed and efficiency greatly! as most of the energy for conventional Faglev trains is lost in air drag. ?ne potential ris$ for passengers of trains operating in evacuated tubes is that they could be e%posed to the ris$ of cabin depressuri4ation unless tunnel safety monitoring systems can repressuri4e the tube in the event of a train malfunction or accident. The Iand 2orporation has designed a vacuum tube train that could! in theory! cross the &tlantic or the :=& in ,0 minutes. P*1e( and ene(g+ %sage Anergy for maglev trains is used to accelerate the train! and may be regained when the train slows down /Hregenerative bra$ingH1. +t is also used to ma$e the train levitate and to stabilise the movement of the train. The main part of the energy is needed to force the train through the air /Hair dragH1. &lso some energy is used for air conditioning! heating! lighting and other miscellaneous systems.The maglev trains are powered on electromagnetism. &t very low speeds the percentage of power /energy per time1 used for levitation can be significant. &lso for very short distances the energy used for acceleration might be considerable. But the power used to overcome air drag increases with the cube of the velocity! and hence dominates at high speed /noteB the energy needed per mile increases by the s#uare of the velocity and the time decreases linearly.1. Advantages and disadvantages C*)0a(ed t* '*nventi*na# t(ains FaCor comparative differences e%ist between the two technologies. *irst of all! maglevs are not trains! they are non-contact electronic transport systems! not mechanical friction-reliant rail systems. Their differences lie in maintenance re#uirements and the

reliability of electronic versus mechanically based systems! all-weather operations! bac$ward-compatibility! rolling resistance! weight! noise! design constraints! and control systems. Maintenan'e Re4%i(e)ents O" E#e't(*ni' Ve(s%s Me'&ani'a# S+ste)s B Faglev trains currently in operation have demonstrated the need for nearly insignificant guideway maintenance. Their electronic vehicle maintenance is minimal and more closely aligned with aircraft maintenance schedules based on hours of operation! rather than on speed or distance traveled. Traditional rail is subCect to the wear and tear of miles of friction on mechanical systems and increases e%ponentially with speed! unli$e maglev systems. This basic difference is the huge cost difference between the two modes and also directly affects system reliability! availability and sustainability. A##-.eat&e( O0e(ati*nsB Faglev trains currently in operation are not stopped! slowed! or have their schedules affected by snow! ice! severe cold! rain or high winds. This cannot be said for traditional friction-based rail systems. &lso! maglev vehicles accelerate and decelerate faster than mechanical systems regardless of the slic$ness of the guideway or the slope of the grade because they are noncontact systems. Ba'/1a(ds C*)0ati2i#it+ B Faglev trains currently in operation are not compatible with conventional trac$! and therefore re#uire all new infrastructure for their entire route! but this is not a negative if high levels of reliability and low operational costs are the goal. By contrast conventional high speed trains such as the TE8 are able to run at reduced speeds on e%isting rail infrastructure! thus reducing e%penditure where new infrastructure would be particularly e%pensive /such as the final approaches to city terminals1! or on e%tensions where traffic does not Custify new infrastructure. However! this Hshared trac$ approachH ignores mechanical railKs high maintenance re#uirements! costs and disruptions to travel from periodic maintenance on these e%isting lines. The use of a completely separate maglev infrastructure more than pays for itself with dramatically higher levels of all-weather operational reliability and almost insignificant maintenance costs. =o! maglev advocates would argue against rail bac$ward compatibility and its concomitant high maintenance needs and costs. E""i'ien'+B >ue to the lac$ of physical contact between the trac$ and the vehicle! maglev trains e%perience no rolling resistance! leaving only air resistance and electromagnetic drag! potentially improving power efficiency. .eig&tB The weight of the electromagnets in many AF= and A>= designs seems li$e a maCor design issue to the uninitiated. & strong magnetic field is re#uired to levitate a maglev vehicle. *or the Transrapid! this is about 50 watts per ton. &nother path for levitation is the use of superconductor magnets to reduce the energy consumption of the electromagnets! and the cost of maintaining the field. However! a 50-ton Transrapid maglev vehicle can lift an additional ,0 tons! for a total of 60 tones! which surprisingly does not consume an e%orbitant amount of energy. Fost energy use for the TI+ is for propulsion and overcoming the friction of air resistance. &t speeds over 100 mph! which is the point of a high-speed maglev! maglevs use less energy than traditional fast trains. N*iseB Because the maCor source of noise of a maglev train comes from displaced air! maglev trains produce less noise than a conventional train at e#uivalent speeds. However! the psychoacoustic profile of the maglev may

reduce this benefitB a study concluded that maglev noise should be rated li$e road traffic while conventional trains have a 5-10 dB HbonusH as they are found less annoying at the same loudness level. Design C*)0a(is*nsB Bra$ing and overhead wire wear have caused problems for the *astech 300 railed =hin$ansen. Faglev would eliminate these issues. Fagnet reliability at higher temperatures is a countervailing comparative disadvantage /see suspension types1! but new alloys and manufacturing techni#ues have resulted in magnets that maintain their levitational force at higher temperatures. &s with many technologies! advances in linear motor design have addressed the limitations noted in early maglev systems. &s linear motors must fit within or straddle their trac$ over the full length of the train! trac$ design for some A>= and AF= maglev systems is challenging for anything other than point-to-point services. 2urves must be gentle! while switches are very long and need care to avoid brea$s in current. &n ="F maglev system! in which the vehicle is permanently levitated over the trac$s! can instantaneously switch trac$s using electronic controls! with no moving parts in the trac$. & prototype ="F maglev train has also navigated curves with radius e#ual to the length of the train itself! which indciates that a full-scale train should be able to navigate curves with the same or narrower radius as a conventional train. C*nt(*# S+ste)sB AF= Faglev needs very fast-responding control systems to maintain a stable height above the trac$J multiple redundancy is built into these systems in the event of component failure and the Transrapid system has still levitated and operated with fully 1@, of its magnet control systems shut down. ?ther maglev systems not using AF= active control are still in the e%perimental stage! e%cept for the 2entral 3apan IailwayKs F)Q-01 superconducting A>= repulsive maglev system that levitates 11 centimeters above its guideway. guinea pigs C*)0a(ed t* ai('(a"t *or many systems! it is possible to define a lift-to-drag ratio. *or maglev systems these ratios can e%ceed that of aircraft /for e%ample +nductrac$ can approach ,00B1 at high speed! far higher than any aircraft1. This can ma$e maglev more efficient per $ilometre. However! at high cruising speeds! aerodynamic drag is much larger than lift-induced drag. 3et transport aircraft ta$e advantage of low air density at high altitudes to significantly reduce drag during cruise! hence despite their lift-to-drag ratio disadvantage! they can travel more efficiently at high speeds than maglev trains that operate at sea level /this has been proposed to be fi%ed by the vactrain concept1. &ircraft are also more fle%ible and can service more destinations with provision of suitable airport facilities. :nli$e airplanes! maglev trains are powered by electricity and thus need not carry fuel. &ircraft fuel is a significant danger during ta$eoff and landing accidents. &lso! electric trains emit little direct carbon dio%ide emissions! especially when powered by nuclear or

renewable sources! but more than aircraft if powered by fossil fuels. . (UEL 1ELL VEHI1LES & F%e# 'e## ve&i'#e or F%e# Ce## E#e't(i' Ve&i'#e /*2A81 is a type of hydrogen vehicle which uses a fuel cell to produce electricity! powering its on-board electric motor. *uel cells in vehicles create electricity to power an electric motor using hydrogen and o%ygen from the air. E""i'ien'+ *uel cell efficiency is limited because Hthe energy re#uired to isolate hydrogen from natural compounds /water! natural gas! biomass1! pac$age the light gas by compression or li#uefaction! transfer the energy carrier to the user! plus the energy lost when it is converted to useful electricity with fuel cells! leaves around ,5D for practical use... *or comparison! the Kwell-to-wheelK efficiency is at least three times greater for electric cars than for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.H The efficiency of the vehicleKs engine does not ta$e into account the efficiency at which hydrogen is produced! stored! and transported today. *uel cell vehicles running on compressed hydrogen may have a power-plant-to-wheel efficiency of ,,D if the hydrogen is stored as high-pressure gas! and 16D if it is stored as li#uid hydrogen. +n addition to the production losses! some of the electricity used for hydrogen production! comes from thermal power! which only has an efficiency of 33D to 98D resulting in emission of carbon dio%ide. C*des and standa(ds Fuel cell vehicle is a classification in *2 Hydrogen codes and standards and fuel cell codes and standards other main standards are =tationary fuel cell applications and "ortable fuel cell applications. H+2(id "%e# '*)2%sti*n ve&i'#e To promote the demand side for hydrogen /to promote the creation of more hydrogen filling stations1! hybrid fuel combustion vehicles li$e the Fa4da IQ-8 Hydrogen IA on Hynor and the "remacy Hydrogen IA Hybrid running on hydrogen or another fuel have been introduced. Des'(i0ti*n and 0%(0*se *" "%e# 'e##s in ve&i'#es &ll fuel cells are made up of three partsB an electrolyte! an anode and a cathode. *uel cells function similarly to a conventional battery! but instead of recharging! they are refilled with hydrogen. >ifferent types of fuel cells include "olymer Alectrolyte Fembrane /"AF1 *uel 2ells! >irect Fethanol *uel 2ells! "hosphoric &cid *uel 2ells! Folten 2arbonate *uel 2ells! =olid ?%ide *uel 2ells! and Iegenerative *uel 2ells.

&s of ,00 ! motor vehicles used most of the petroleum used in the :.=. and produced over 00D of the carbon mono%ide emissions and about ,0D of greenhouse gas emissions in the :nited =tates. +n contrast! a vehicle fueled with pure hydrogen emits few pollutants! producing mainly water and heat! although the production of the hydrogen would create pollutants unless the hydrogen used in the fuel cell were produced using only renewable energy.