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Chimney
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikimedia Shop Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools Print/export Languages
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For other uses, see Chimney (disambiguation). "Smokestack" redirects here. For the 1963 avant-garde jazz album, see Smokestack (album). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2013) A chimney is a structure which provides ventilation for hot flue gases or smoke from a boiler, stove, furnace or fireplace to the outside atmosphere. Chimneys are typically vertical, or as near as possible to vertical, to ensure that the gases flow smoothly, drawing air into the combustion in what is known as the stack, or chimney, effect. The space inside a chimney is called a flue. Chimneys may be found in buildings, steam locomotives and ships. In the United States, the term smokestack (colloquially, stack) is also used when referring to locomotive chimneys or ship chimneys, and the term funnel can also be used.[1][2] The height of a chimney influences its ability to transfer flue gases to the external environment via stack effect. Additionally, the dispersion of pollutants at higher altitudes can reduce their impact on the immediate surroundings. In the case of chemically aggressive output, a sufficiently tall chimney can allow for partial or complete self-neutralization of airborne chemicals before they reach ground level. The dispersion of pollutants over a greater area can reduce their concentrations and facilitate compliance with regulatory limits.
Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Construction 3 Chimney pots, caps and tops 4 Chimney draught or draft 5 Maintenance and problems 6 Dual-use chimneys 6.1 Cooling tower used as an industrial chimney 7 See also 8 References 9 External links

The world's tallest chimney, of GRES-2 in Ekibastuz, Kazakhstan (419.7 metres).

History

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Hrvatski Ido Italiano

The invention of the chimney was an important development in removing smoke from dwellings and changed how houses were designed and used. Before chimneys were used a fire ring on the floor contained the fire and the smoke filled the building exiting through holes in or near the roof. Attempts to control the smoke led to use of a chimney bay, then a smoke hood, and then a chimney. Dwellings before the chimney had living space on the ground floor only, the upper area could be used to hang meat and provisions taking advantage of the preservative effects of the smoke. When the smoke was controlled, the upper area of a dwelling could be used for living

A chimney remaining after the destruction of a 19thcentury two-story house (Mount Solon, Virginia).

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Lietuvi Magyar Nederlands

space thus floors were built and eventually stairways were needed. Ceilings in the rooms could be lower which helped to keep the rooms warmer. Romans used tubes inside the walls to draw smoke out of bakeries but chimneys only appeared in large dwellings in northern Europe in the 12th century. The earliest extant example of an English chimney is at the keep of Conisbrough Castle in Yorkshire, which dates from 1185 AD.[3] They did not become common in houses until the 16th and 17th centuries.[4] Another step in the development of chimneys was the use of built in ovens which allowed the household to bake at home. Industrial chimneys became common in the late 18th century. Chimneys in ordinary dwellings were first built of wood and plaster or mud. Since then chimneys have traditionally been built of brick or stone, both in small and large buildings. Early chimneys were of a simple brick construction. Later chimneys were constructed by placing the bricks around tile liners. To control downdrafts, venting caps (often called chimney pots) with a variety of designs are sometimes placed on the top of chimneys. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the methods used to extract lead from its ore produced large amounts of toxic fumes. In the north of England, long near-horizontal chimneys were built, often more than 3 km (2 mi) long, which typically terminated in a short vertical chimney in a remote location where the fumes would cause less harm. Lead and silver deposits formed on the inside of these long chimneys, and periodically workers would be sent along the chimneys to scrape off these valuable deposits.[5]
Chimney stacks on a building in Newcastle upon Tyne, England

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Chimney pots in London, England, seen from the tower of Westminster Roman Catholic cathedral

Construction

[edit] As a result of the limited ability to handle transverse loads with brick, chimneys in houses were often built in a "stack", with a fireplace on each floor of the house sharing a single chimney, often with such a stack at the Seagull sits on top of a hot gas cooling chimney at The World of Glass St. Helens front and back of the house. Today's central heating UK. systems have made chimney placement less critical, and the use of non-structural gas vent pipe allows a flue gas conduit to be installed around obstructions and through walls. In fact, most modern high-efficiency heating appliances do not require a chimney. Such appliances are generally installed near an external wall, and a noncombustible wall thimble allows a vent pipe run directly through the external wall. On a pitched roof where a chimney penetrates a roof, flashing is used to seal the joints. The downslope piece is called an apron, the sides receive step flashing and a cricket is used to divert water around the upper side of the chimney underneath the flashing.[6]

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A section of a large late Georgian four storey house, showing the advantage of using a mechanical sweeper over climbing boys

Industrial chimneys are commonly referred to as flue gas stacks and are generally external structures, as opposed to those built into the wall of a building. They are generally located adjacent to a steam-generating boiler or industrial furnace and the gases are carried to them with ductwork. Today the use of reinforced concrete has almost entirely replaced brick as a structural component in the construction of industrial chimneys. Refractory bricks are often used as a lining, particularly if the type of fuel being burned generates flue gases containing acids. Modern industrial chimneys sometimes consist of a concrete windshield with a number of flues on the inside. The 300 metre chimney at Sasol Three consists of a 26 metre diameter windshield with four 4.6 metre diameter concrete flues which are lined with refractory bricks built on rings of corbels spaced at 10 metre intervals. The reinforced concrete can be cast by conventional formwork or sliding formwork. The height is to ensure the pollutants are dispersed over a wider area to meet legal or other safety requirements.

Chimney pots, caps and tops

Carved brick chimneys characteristic of late Gothic Tudor buildings, at Thornbury Castle, 1514

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A chimney pot is placed on top of the chimney to expand the length of the chimney inexpensively, and to improve the chimney's draft. A chimney with more than one pot on it indicates that there is more than one fireplace on different floors sharing the chimney. A chimney cowl is placed on top of the chimney to prevent birds and squirrels from nesting in the chimney. They often feature a rain guard to prevent rain or snow from going down the chimney. A metal wire mesh is often used as a spark arrestor to minimize burning debris from rising out of the chimney and making it onto the roof. Although the masonry inside the chimney can absorb a large amount of moisture which later evaporates, rainwater can collect at the base of the chimney. Sometimes weep holes are placed at the bottom of the chimney to drain out collected water.

Rows of chimney pots in an English town. Photo by George Garrigues, 1974.

A chimney cowl or wind directional cap is a helmet shaped chimney cap that rotates to align with the wind and prevent a backdraft of smoke and wind back down the chimney. An H-style cap (cowl) is a chimney top constructed from chimney pipes shaped like the letter H. It is an age old method to regulate draft in situations where prevailing winds or turbulences cause down draft and backpuffing. Although the H cap has a distinctive

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A chimney damper is a metal plate that can be positioned to close off the chimney when not in use and prevent outside air from entering the interior space, and can be opened to permit hot gases to exhaust when a fire is burning. A top damper or cap damper is a metal spring door placed at the top of the chimney with a long metal chain that allows one to open and close the damper from the fireplace. A throat damper is a metal plate at the base of the chimney, just above the firebox, that can be opened and closed by a lever, gear, or chain to seal off the fireplace from the chimney. The advantage of a top damper is the tight weather-proof seal that it provides when closed, which prevents cold outside air from flowing down the chimney and into the living space a feature that can rarely be matched by the metal-on-metal seal afforded by a throat damper. Additionally, because the throat damper is subjected to intense heat from the fire directly below, it is common for the metal to become warped over time, thus further degrading the ability of the throat damper to seal. However, the advantage of a throat damper is that it seals off the living space from the air mass in the chimney, which, especially for chimneys positioned on an outside of wall of the home, is generally very cold. It is possible in practice to use both a top damper and a throat damper to obtain the benefits of both. The two top damper designs currently on the market are the Lyemance (pivoting door) and the Lock Top (translating door). In the late Middle Ages in Western Europe the design of crow-stepped gables arose to allow maintenance access to the chimney top, especially for tall structures such as castles and great manor houses.

Spanish Conquistador style wind directional cowl found on many homes along the windy Oregon coast.

advantage over most other downdraft caps, it fell out of favor because of its bulky design. It is found mostly in marine use but has been gaining popularity again due to its energy saving functionality. The H-cap stabilizes the draft rather than increasing it. Other down draft caps are based on the Venturi effect, solving downdraft problems by increasing the up draft constantly resulting in much higher fuel consumption.

Chimney draught or draft

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(See the Flue gas stack article for more details) When coal, oil, natural gas, wood or any other fuel is combusted in a stove, oven, fireplace, hot water boiler or industrial furnace, the hot combustion product gases that are formed are called flue gases. Those gases are generally exhausted to the ambient outside air through chimneys or industrial flue gas stacks (sometimes referred to as smokestacks). The combustion flue gases inside the chimneys or stacks are much hotter than the ambient outside air and therefore less dense than the ambient air. That causes the bottom of the vertical column of hot flue gas to have a lower pressure than the pressure at the bottom of a corresponding column of outside air. That higher pressure outside the chimney is the driving force that moves the required combustion air into the combustion zone and also moves the flue gas up and out of the chimney. That movement or flow of combustion air and flue gas is called "natural draught/draft", "natural ventilation", "chimney effect", or "stack effect". The taller the stack, the more draught or draft is created. There can be cases of diminishing returns: if a stack is overly tall in relation to the heat being sent out of the stack, the flue gases may cool before reaching the top of the chimney. This condition can result in poor drafting, and in the case of wood burning appliances, the cooling of the gases before emission can cause creosote to condense near the top of the chimney. The creosote can restrict the exit of flue gases and may pose a fire hazard. Designing chimneys and stacks to provide the correct amount of natural draught or draft involves a number design factors, many of which require iterative trial-and-error methods. As a "first guess" approximation, the following equation can be used to estimate the natural draught/draft flow rate by assuming that the molecular mass (i.e., molecular weight) of the flue gas and the external air are equal and that the frictional pressure and heat losses are negligible:

The stack effect in chimneys: the gauges represent absolute air pressure and the airflow is indicated with light grey arrows. The gauge dials move clockwise with increasing pressure.

where: Q = chimney draught/draft flow rate, m/s A = cross-sectional area of chimney, m (assuming it has a constant cross-section) C = discharge coefficient (usually taken to be from 0.65 to 0.70) g = gravitational acceleration, 9.807 m/s H = height of chimney, m Ti = average temperature inside the chimney, K Te = external air temperature, K. Combining two flows into chimney: At+Af <A, where At=7.1 inch2 is the minimum required flow area from water heater tank and Af =19.6 inch2 is the minimum flow area from a furnace of a central heating system.

Maintenance and problems

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A characteristic problem of chimneys is they develop deposits of creosote on the walls of the structure when used with wood as a fuel. Deposits of this substance can interfere with the airflow and more importantly, they are flammable and can cause dangerous chimney fires if the deposits ignite in the chimney. Chimneys that burn natural gas drastically reduce the amount of creosote buildup due to natural gas burning much cleaner and more efficiently than traditional solid fuels. While in most cases there is no
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need to clean a gas chimney on an annual basis that does not mean that other parts of the chimney cannot fall into disrepair. Disconnected or loose chimney connections caused by rust and corrosion over time can pose serious dangers for residents due to leakage of carbon monoxide into the home.[7] Thus, it is recommended and in some countries even mandatory that chimneys be inspected annually and cleaned on a regular basis to prevent these problems. The workers who perform this task are called chimney sweeps. This work used to be done largely by child labour, and as such features in Victorian literature. In the Middle Ages in some parts of Europe, a crow-stepped gable design was developed, partly to provide access to chimneys without use of ladders. Masonry (brick) chimneys have also proven to be particularly prone to crumbling during an earthquake. Government housing authorities in cities prone to earthquakes such as San Francisco, Los Angeles, and San Diego now recommend building new homes with stud-framed chimneys around a metal flue. Bracing or strapping old masonry chimneys has not proven to be very effective in preventing damage or injury from earthquakes. It is now possible to buy "faux-brick" facades to cover these modern chimney structures. Liners have been standard in new construction for years, but are now lacking in many old structures whose masonry has not been restored and updated. Liners help keep flue gases where they belong. They isolate combustible building materials from high heat, and they prevent creosote and other by-products of combustion from seeping through porous brick and mortar.[8] Other potential problems include:

Chimneys on the Parliamentary Library in Wellington, New Zealand.

"spalling" brick, in which moisture seeps into the brick and then freezes, cracking and flaking the brick and loosening mortar seals. shifting foundations, which may degrade integrity of chimney masonry nesting or infestation by unwanted animals such as squirrels, racoons, or Chimney Swifts chimney leaks drafting issues, which may cause smoke inside building[9] issues with fireplace or heating appliance may cause unwanted degradation or hazards to chimney

Iconic non-operational chimney of the Chernobyl reactor #4, preserved as part of the Chernobyl sarcophagus.

Dual-use chimneys

[edit]

Some very high chimneys are used for carrying antennas of mobile phone services and low power FM/TV-transmitters. Special attention must be paid to possible corrosion problems if these antennas are near the exhaust of the chimney. In some cases the chimneys of power stations are used also as pylons. However this type of construction, which is used at several power stations in the former Soviet Union, is not very common, because of corrosion problems of conductor cables. The Dm Dt a Mldee v Modanech in Prague, Czech Republic is equipped with an observation deck. The chimney of Pei Tou Incinerator carries a revolving restaurant.

Modernist chimneys on the Casa Mil (Barcelona, Spain), by Antonio Gaud.

Cooling tower used as an industrial chimney [edit]

At some power stations, which are equipped with plants for the removal of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, it is possible to use the cooling tower as a chimney. Such cooling towers can be seen in Germany at the Power Station Staudinger Grosskrotzenburg and at the Power Station Rostock. At power stations that are not equipped for removing sulfur dioxide, such usage of cooling towers could result in serious corrosion problems.

See also

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Chimenea Chimney fire Cooling tower Count Rumford Flue gas stack List of tallest chimneys in the world Nitrogen oxide sensor Santa Claus Silos & Smokestacks National Heritage Area Stack effect Solar chimney

References
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

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^ C.F. Saunders (1923), The Southern Sierras of California ^ Jules Verne (1872), Around the World in Eighty Days ^ James Burke, Connections (Little, Brown and Co.) 1978/1995, ISBN 0-316-11672-6, p. 159 ^ Sparrow, Walter Shaw. The English house: how to judge its periods and styles. London: Eveleigh Nash, 1908. 85-86. ^ "Lead Mining" . The Northern Echo. Newsquest Media Group. Retrieved 4/10/2012. ^ Roofing, flashing & waterproofing. Newtown, CT: Taunton Press, 2005. 43-50. ^ Chimney Problems and Warnings Signs ^ Bringing an old chimney up to par ^ "ChimneyAirflow Problems" .
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External links

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How to calculate a chimney system Wikimedia Commons has media CICIND - International Committee on Industrial Chimneys related to Chimneys. Chimney Safety Institute of America Fireplace Chimney Look up chimney in Wiktionary, Power Station Konakovskaya GRES , at which chimneys serve as electricity pylons the free dictionary. Article about chimney breast removal Chimney Maintenance Information European Chimney Association ECA; to find further information on chimneys National Association of Chimney Engineers; UK trade association for the chimney engineering industry
v t e [hide] Supertall self-supporting chimneys (+300 meters in height) Armstrong Power Plant Berezovskaya GRES Bishkek TEC Boxberg Power Station Buschhaus Power Station Chvaletice Power Station Clifty Creek Power Plant Conemaugh Generating Station Cumberland Power Plant Duvha Power Station Ekibastuz GRES-1 Endesa Termic GRES-2 Power Station Hal B. Wansley Power Plant Harllee Branch Power Plant Harrison Power Station Scrubber Harrison Power Station Hayden Smelter HKW Chemnitz-Nord Homer City Generating Station Inco Superstack Independence Power Plant Jnschwalde Power Station Jaworzno Power Station Thermal power station Kakanj Kennecott Smokestack Kingston Fossil Plant Kirishi Power Station Kostromskaya Power Station Kozienice Power Station Kyger Creek Power Plant Lippendorf Power Station (chimney dismantled) Maritsa Iztok-3 Marl-Chemiepark Power Station (dismantled) Mitchell Power Plant Moldavskaya GRES-5 Mountaineer Power Plant Novaky Power Plant Orot Rabin Permskaya GRES Phoenix Copper Smelter Pirdop copper smelter and refinery Plant Bowen Coal Pleasants Power Station Plomin Power Station Provence Power Station Prunov Power Station Reftinskaya GRES Robert W Scherer Power Plant Rockport Power Plant Ryazan Power Station Rybnik Power Station Scholven Power Station Scholven Power Station Secunda CTL STEAG Power Plant Herne STEAG Power Plant Walsum Syrdarya Power Plant Teruel Power Plant Kharkiv TEC-5 Thierbach Power Station (dismantled) Tobolsk TEC Trepa Lead Smelter Trbovlje Chimney Troitskaya TEC (planned) Tuimice Power Station Ugljevik Power Plant Vojany Power Station (height reduced) Volzhskaya TEC-2 Vuhlehirska TES Kawczyn Heat Plant Westerholt Power Station (demolished) W. H. Sammis Power Plant White Bluff Power Plant Widows Creek Power Plant Zaporiska DRES Zuevska TES

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