KAMLA NEHRU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,SULTANPUR

ASSIGNMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

NAME: ADITYA SARASWAT

ROLL NO: 1010430004

BRANCH: ELECTRONICS ENGG. YEAR: FINAL YEAR ( 7TH SEM)

COURSE:B.TECH

QUE 1: Define Biology. ANS: The term Biology is formed by combining two Greek words- bios means life ;and the suffix logia meaning science of , or knowledge of or study of .Thus Biology is study of life. It is concerned with the characteristics , classification , and behaviours of living beings( organisms i.e. plants and animals), how species come into existence and the interactions they with each other and with the environment. Biology encompasses a broad spectrum of academic fields that are often viewed as independent disciplines. However together they address the phenomena related to living organisms ( biological phenomena) over a wide range of scales say ,from biomechanics to ecology . All concepts in biology are subject to the small laws that other branches of science obey- such as , the laws of thermodynamics and conservation of energy. QUE 2: Define the living beings/things and give the criteria for living things. ANS: Living beings: living beings/things are complex organizations of molecules, which perform certain life processes such as growth , metabolism, reproduction etc, that distinguish them from non-living matter. Criteria used to decide whether something is alive: I. All living things breathe. II. All living things grow. III. All those things that are green and growing are also living. IV. All living things repair and reproduce. V. All living things have a definite life span. VI. All living things have the ability to evolve. VII. All living things have the ability to covert simple things into complex things. VIII. Most of the living things have the ability to move. QUE 3: Differentiate between living and nonliving things. ANS: The differences between living and nonliving things are tabulated as follow: s.no. Living Things Non living Things 1 A living thing has a self built organization, consisting of In nonliving things ,the organization is imposed several components , that exists beyond the level of and limited individual. 2 Living things obtain simple molecules from outside and In nonliving things such an activity is absent. convert them into complex protoplasmic constituents.

Living things differentiation.

exhibit

growth,

development

and In nonliving things, no such activity occurs.

Living organisms have the property of self repair.

Non living things do not have the property of self repair . The repairs can be done by outside agencies.

Living beings have the ability to sense the surroundings Protection of non-living things is imposed. and protect themselves. Living beings have a definite life span. Non living beings do not have definite life span.

Living organisms reproduce and multiply. They produce In non living things ,multiplication is imposed. offspring s and pass on genes to next generation. Living organisms have the ability to evolve in time. Non-living things do not have the ability to evolve.

QUE 4 :Describe different characteristics of living organisms. ANS: Characteristics of living things: There are seven activities which make organisms different from non-living things. These are the seven characteristics of living organisms. 1 Nutrition: Living things take in materials from their surroundings that they use for growth or to provide energy. Nutrition is the process by which organisms obtain energy and raw materials from nutrients such as proteins, carbohydrates and fats. 2 Respiration: Respiration is the release of energy from food substances in all living cells. Living things break down food within their cells to release energy for carrying out the following processes. 3 Movement: All living things move. It is very obvious that a leopard moves but what about the thorn tree it sits in? Plants too move in variousdifferent ways. The movement may be so slow that it is very difficult to see. 4 Excretion: All living things excrete. As a result of the many chemical reactions occurring in cells, they have to get rid of waste productswhich might poison the cells. Excretion is defined as the removal of toxic materials, the waste products of metabolism and substances in excess from the body of an organism. 5 . Growth and Development 1. growth = when living things increase in size and become more complex. a. For a many-celled organism, growth happens when the number of cell in its body increases. 2. development = all of the changes an organism goes through as it grows. a. Examples: a tadpole develops into a frog; an egg develops into a caterpillar and then into a butterfly. 3. Organisms must grow and mature to adulthood. a. In biology, an organism is an adult when it is able to reproduce. a. Humans grow to be adults in about 14 to 18 years; dogs become adults in about 2 years,

lima beans become adults in a few weeks, and some insects can change from an egg to an adult in a few days. 6 Reproduction: All living organisms have the ability to produce offspring. 1. reproduction = the process by which living things produce the same kind of living thing. a. It is important to note that like produces like (ex. cats produce cats; roses produce roses). 2. There are 2 different types of reproduction: a. asexual reproduction = reproduction in which offspring come from only one parent. 1. The offspring will be genetically identical to the parent, having all of its parents traits. 2. Examples: bacteria split to form 2 new bacteria cells; growing a new plant from a cutting. b. sexual reproduction = reproduction requiring two parents or two parent cells coming together 1. The offspring will get some of their traits from one parent and some from the other. 1. Example: pollen fertilizing the egg in a flower. 7. Sensitivity:All living things are able to sense and respond to stimuli around them such as light, temperature, water, gravity and chemical substances.Learn these seven characteristics of living organisms. They form the basis of the study of Biology. Each one of these characteristics will be studied in detail during the course. Whilst many other things carry out one or more of the above processes . QUE 5: Define cytology. ANS: Cytology (from Greek , kytos, "a hollow and -, -logia) means "the study of cells". Cytology is that branch of life science, which deals with the study of cells in terms of structure, function and chemistry. Robert Hooke is sometimes seen as the father of Cytology. Based on usage it can refer to:

Cytopathology: the study of cellular disease and the use of cellular changes for the diagnosis of disease. Cell biology: the study of (normal) cellular anatomy, function and chemistry.

QUE 6: What is cell. Describe cell theory in detail with figures. ANS : Cell: Cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of living beings inhabited by a small mass of protoplasm( material that is the basis of life in living beings) having a nucleus and is delimited from its surrounding by a selectively permeable membrane which exchanges energy and material and is capable of independent existence ( growth, metabolism, and reproduction ) in a suitable medium free of other living systems. The Cell Theory: The COMBINED Work of Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow make up what is now known as the modern CELL THEORY. The Cell Theory consist of THREE Principles: A. All living things are composed of one or more cells. B. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in an organism.

 C. Cells come only from reproduction of existing cells. ALL cells share certain structural characteristics: Cell or Plasma membrane Cytoplasm Genetic Material The CELL THEORY or CELL DOCTRINE: states that all organisms are composed of similar units of organization, called cells. The concept was formally articulated in 1839 by Schleiden & Schwann and has remained as the foundation of modern biology. The idea predates other great paradigms of biology including . (1859), (1865), and the establishment of (1940). Ultrastructural research and modern molecular biology have added many tenets to the cell theory, but it remains as the preeminent theory of biology. The Cell Theory is to as Atomic Theory is t o Physics. Formulation of the Cell Theory. I n 1838, Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden were enjoying afterdinner coffee and talking about their studies on cells. It has been suggested that when Schwann heard Schleiden describe plant cells with nuclei, he was struck by the similarity of these plant cells to cells he had observed in animal tissues. The two scientists went immediately to Schwann's lab to look at his slides. Schwann published his book on animal and plant cells (Schwann 1839) the next year, a treatise devoid of acknowledgments of anyone else's contribution, including that of Schleiden (1838).

QUE 7 : Describe types of cellular organization. ANS: There are two types of cellular organizations; viz one envelop system and two envelop system of organizations. One envelop system of organization: In one envelop system of organization, The cells lack membrane bound organelles (parts) and ,therefore ,have only one membrane that surround whole cell. The organisms which possess single envelope system

of organization are called Prokaryotes or unicellular organisms and place in super kingdom Prokaryota. Two envelop system of organization: In two envelop system of organization, not only the whole cell is surrounded by a membrane but many of cell organelles are also covered by their own membranes. Some of the organelles have double membrane too. The organisms having double membrane or two envelop system of organization are called Eukaryotes and placed in super-kingdom called Eukaryota. QUE 8 : Differentiate between unicellular and multicellular organisms. ANS: The difference between unicellular and multicellular organism are tabulated as below: s.no. Unicellular organism Multicellular organism They are acellular and no division of labour exists They are formed of large number of similar and 1 among them dissimilar cells and therefore division of labour. They are easily killed and damaged by death of the The death of few cells does not create any 2 cell. serious consequences. A single cell of unicellular organism is directly Only the outermost cells of multicellular 3 exposed to environment on all sides. organisms are exposed to environment not all. All the functions of the body occurs in single cell The different cells of the multicellular 4 and there is every possibility of interfering of one organisms are fully specialized to do different function with other. functions. The unicellular organisms are sensitive to external The multicellular organism are highly sensitive 5 stimuli to a moderate level. to external stimuli. They are not efficient in saving energy and They are highly efficient in saving energy and 6 material. material. The unicellular organisms have shorter life span. the multicellular organisms have longer life 7 span.

QUE 9: Differentiate between prokarytes and eukarytes and their cells with figure. ANS: Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes Prokaryotes: those (generally smaller) organisms whose cells lack a nucleus and have no membranebound organelles are known as Prokaryotes. Eukaryotes: Organisms whose cells contain an organised nucleus coverd by a doublemembreneenvelop for separating the contained DNA from cytoplasm are called Eukaryotes.

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes:

QUE 10: Compare between plant and animal cell with figure. ANS: Comparison between plant and animal cell is givens as below under two heading plant cell and animal cell

Plant Cells:
shape - most plant cells are squarish or rectangular in shape. amyloplast (starch storage organelle)- an organelle in some plant cells that stores starch. Amyloplasts are found in starchy plants like tubers and fruits. cell membrane - the thin layer of protein and fat that surrounds the cell, but is inside the cell wall. The cell membrane is semipermeable, allowing some substances to pass into the cell and blocking others. cell wall - a thick, rigid membrane that surrounds a plant cell. This layer of cellulose fiber gives the

cell most of its support and structure. The cell wall also bonds with other cell walls to form the structure of the plant. chloroplast - an elongated or disc-shaped organelle containing chlorophyll. Photosynthesis (in which energy from sunlight is converted into chemical energy - food) takes place in the chloroplasts. chlorophyll - chlorophyll is a molecule that can use light energy from sunlight to turn water and carbon dioxide gas into glucose and oxygen (i.e. photosynthesis). Chlorophyll is green. cytoplasm - the jellylike material outside the cell nucleus in which the organelles are located. Golgi body - (or the golgi apparatus or golgi complex) a flattened, layered, sac-like organelle that looks like a stack of pancakes and is located near the nucleus. The golgi body modifies, processes and packages proteins, lipids and carbohydrates into membrane-bound vesicles for "export" from the cell. lysosome - vesicles containing digestive enzymes. Where the digestion of cell nutrients takes place. mitochondrion - spherical to rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. The inner membrane is infolded many times, forming a series of projections (called cristae). The mitochondrion converts the energy stored in glucose into ATP (adenosine triphosphate), a high energy molecule, for use by cell. nuclear membrane - the membrane that surrounds the nucleus.

nucleolus - an organelle within the nucleus. Ribosomal RNA is produced here, then exported into the cytoplasm where it forms the ribosomes. nucleus - The nucleus is a spherical body surrounded by the nuclear membrane. It contains mostly DNA in chromosomes. The nucleus controls many of the functions of the cell (by controlling protein synthesis). The nucleolus is found within the nucleus. ribosome - small organelles composed of RNA. Are sites of protein synthesis. rough endoplasmic reticulum - (rough ER) a vast system of interconnected, membranous, infolded and convoluted sacks that are located in the cell's cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane). Rough ER is covered with ribosomes that give it a rough appearance. Rough ER transport materials and produces proteins (which are sent to the Golgi body, or inserted into the cell membrane). smooth endoplasmic reticulum - (smooth ER) a vast system of interconnected, membranous, infolded and convoluted tubes that are located in the cell's cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane). It produces lipids (fats) and membrane proteins; smooth ER buds off from rough ER, moving the newly-made proteins and lipids to the Golgi body for further processing and to the membranes.

vacuole - a large, membrane-bound space within a plant cell that is filled with fluid, mostly water. Most plant cells have a single vacuole that takes up much of the cell. It helps maintain water balance and the shape of the cell.

vesicle - a small, membrane-bound space that helps to transport material in/out or within the cell. Some are storage vessels. eg. proteins produced in the rough endoplasmic reticulum are transported by vesicles produced at the tips of the rough ER, to the golgi body, for processing.

Animal Cell: shape - most animals cells are roundish or irregular in shape.
cell membrane - the thin layer of protein and fat that surrounds the cell. The cell membrane is semipermeable, allowing some substances to pass into the cell and blocking others. centriole - during cell division in animal cells, two pairs of centrioles form from microtubules at each end of the cell. The two centrioles are arranged perpendicular to each other. Microtubules formed in the centriole grow into spindle fibers which then attach to replicated chromosomes and assist in separating them during mitosis. cytoplasm - the jellylike material outside the cell nucleus in which the organelles are located. Golgi body - (also called the golgi apparatus or golgi complex) a flattened, layered, sac-like organelle that looks like a stack of pancakes and is located near the nucleus. The golgi body modifies, processes and packages proteins, lipids and carbohydrates into membrane-bound vesicles for "export" from the cell.

lysosome - vesicles containing digestive enzymes. Where the digestion of cell nutrients takes place. mitochondrion - spherical to rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. The inner membrane is infolded many times, forming a series of projections (called cristae). The mitochondrion converts the energy stored in glucose into ATP (adenosine triphosphate), a high energy molecule, for use by the cell. nuclear membrane - the membrane that surrounds the nucleus. nucleolus - an organelle within the nucleus. Ribosomal RNA is produced here, then exported into the cytoplasm where it forms the ribosomes. nucleus - The nucleus is a spherical body surrounded by the nuclear membrane. It contains mostly DNA in chromosomes. The nucleus controls many of the functions of the cell (by controlling protein synthesis). The nucleolus is found within the nucleus. ribosome - small organelles composed of RNA. Are sites of protein synthesis. rough endoplasmic reticulum - (rough ER) a vast system of interconnected, membranous, infolded and convoluted sacks that are located in the cell's cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the outer

nuclear membrane). Rough ER is covered with ribosomes that give it a rough appearance. Rough ER transport materials and produces proteins (which are sent to the Golgi body, or inserted into the cell membrane). smooth endoplasmic reticulum - (smooth ER) a vast system of interconnected, membranous, infolded and convoluted tubes that are located in the cell's cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane). It produces lipids (fats) and membrane proteins; smooth ER buds off from rough ER, moving the newly-made proteins and lipids to the Golgi body for further processing and to the membranes. vacuole - fluid-filled, membrane-surrounded cavities inside a cell. The vacuole fills with food being digested and waste material that is on its way out of the cell. Smaller than plant cell vacuole. vesicle - a small, membrane-bound space that helps to transport material in/out or within the cell. Some are storage vessels. eg. proteins produced in the rough endoplasmic reticulum are transported by vesicles produced at the tips of the rough ER, to the golgi body, for processing.

QUE 11: Write note on carbohydrate.

ANS: Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the most abundant class of organic compounds found in living organisms. They originate as products of photosynthesis, an endothermic reductive condensation of carbon dioxide requiring light energy and the pigment chlorophyll.
n CO2 + n H2O + energy CnH2nOn + n O2

Carbohydrates are called saccharides or, if they are relatively small, sugars. Several classifications of carbohydrates have proven useful, and are outlined in the following table.
Complexity Simple Carbohydrates monosaccharides Complex Carbohydrates disaccharides, oligosaccharides & polysaccharides Hexose C6 sugars Heptose C7 sugars

Size

Tetrose C4 sugars

Pentose C5 sugars

etc.

C=O Function

Aldose sugars having an aldehyde function or an acetal equivalent. Ketose sugars having a ketone function or an acetal equivalent. Reducing sugars oxidized by Tollens' reagent (or Benedict's or Fehling's reagents). Non-reducing sugars not oxidized by Tollens' or other reagents.

Reactivity

The four major classes of biomolecules are:

Carbohydrates (saccharides) - Molecules consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. A major food source and a key form of energy for most organisms. When combined together to form polymers, carbohydrates can function as long term food storage molecules, as protective membranes for organisms and cells, and as the main structural support for plants and constituents of many cells and their contents.

Lipids (fats) - Molecules consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. The main constituents of all membranes in all cells (cell walls), food storage molecules, intermediaries in signaling pathways, Vitamins A, D, E and K, cholesterol.

Proteins - Molecules contain nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They act as biological catalysts (enzymes), form structural parts of organisms, participate in cell signal and recognition factors, and act as molecules of immunity.

Proteins

can

also

be

source

of

fuel.

Nucleic acids (nucleotides) - DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid). These molecules are involved in genetic information, as well as forming structure within cells. They are involved in the storage of all heritable information of all organisms, as well as the conversion of this data into proteins.

QUE 12: What are saccharides? ANS:

Saccharides, or carbohydrates, are sugars or starches. Saccharides consist of two basic compounds: Aldehydes - composed of double-bonded carbon and oxygen atoms, plus a hydrogen atom. Keytones - composed of double-bonded carbon and oxygen atoms, plus two additional carbon atoms.

There are various types of saccharides:

Monosaccharide - this is the smallest possible sugar unit. Examples include glucose, galactose or fructose. When we talk about blood sugar we are referring to glucose in the blood; glucose is a major source of energy for a cell. In human nutrition, galactose can be found most readily in milk and dairy products, while fructose is found mostly in vegetables and fruit.

When monosaccharides merge together in linked groups they are known as polysaccharides.

Disaccharide - two monosaccharide molecules bonded together. Disaccharides are polysaccharides - "poly..." specifies any number higher than one, while "di..." specifies exactly two. Examples of disaccharides include lactose, maltose, and sucrose. If you bond one glucose molecule with a fructose molecule you get a sucrose molecule.

Sucrose is found in table sugar, and is often formed as a result of photosynthesis (sunlight absorbed by chlorophyll reacting with other compounds in plants). If you bond one glucose molecule with a galactose molecule you get lactose, which is commonly found in milk.

Polysaccharide - a chain of two or more monosaccharides. The chain may be branched (molecule is like a tree with branches and twigs) or unbranched (molecule is a straight line with no twigs). Polysaccharide molecule chains may be made up of hundreds or thousands of monosaccharides.

Polysaccharides are polymers. A simple compound is a monomer, while a complex compound is a polymerwhich is made of two or more monomers. In biology, when we talk about building blocks, we are usually talking about monomers.

Three main types of polysaccharides - storage, structural and bacterial

Polysaccharides may act as food stores in plants in the form of starch, or food stores in humans and other animals in the form of glycogen. Polysaccharides also have structural roles in the plant cell wall in the form of cellulose or pectin, and the tough outer skeleton of insects in the form of chitin.

Glycogen - a polysaccharide that humans and animals store in the liver and muscles.

Starch - these are glucose polymers made up of Amylose and Amylopectin. Amylose molecule chains are linear (long but no branches) while Amylopectin molecules are long and branch out - some Amylopectin molecules are made of several thousand glucose units. Starches are not water soluble. Humans and animals digest them by hydrolysis - our bodies have amylases which break them down. Rich sources of starches for humans include potatoes, rice and wheat.

Structural

polysaccharides

Cellulose - the structural constituents of plants are made mainly from cellulose - a type of polysaccharide. Wood is mostly made of cellulose, while paper and cotton are almost pure cellulose. Lignin, derived from wood, is a key component in the secondary walls of plant cells. Some animals, such as termites, can digest cellulose because their gut has a type of bacteria that has an enzyme which breaks down cellulose - humans cannot digest cellulose.

Chitin - chitin, a polysaccharide, is one of the most abundant natural materials in the world. Microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi secrete chitinases, which over time can break down chitin. These microorganisms also have receptors to the simple sugars that result from this breakdown (decomposition). The bacteria and fungi convert the decomposed chitin into simple sugars and ammonia.

Chitin is the main component of fungi cell walls, the exoskeletons (hard outer shell/skin) of arthropods, such as crabs, lobsters, ants, beetles, and butterflies. Chitin is also the main component of the beaks of squid and octopuses. Chitin is useful for several industrial and medical purposes. Bacterial polysaccharides

These are polysaccharides that are found in bacteria, especially in bacterial capsules. Pathogenic (illness causing) bacteria often produce a thick layer of mucous-like polysaccharide which cloaks the bacteria from the host's immune system. In other words, if the bacteria were in a human, that human's immune system would less likely attack the

bacteria because the polysaccharide layer masks its pathogenic properties. E. coli, which can sometimes cause disease, produces hundreds of different polysaccharides.

QUE 13: Write note on protein. Ans:

Protein

Proteins are large molecules consisting of amino acids which our bodies and the cells in our bodies need to function properly. Our body structures, functions, the regulation of the body's cells, tissues and organs cannot exist without proteins. The human body's muscles, skin, bones and many other parts contain significant amounts of protein. In fact, protein accounts for 20% of total body weight. Enzymes, hormones and antibodies are proteins. Proteins also work as neurotransmitters and carriers of oxygen in the blood (hemoglobin). Amino acids and proteins - protein is made up of amino acids; amino acids are the building blocks of protein, there are 20 of them. Imagine there are 20 different types of bricks, and a much larger number of different types of houses which we could name according to the way we combined the bricks (their sequence). The bricks are the amino acids and the houses are the proteins.

The function of proteins

In virtually every biological process proteins are playing a role. According to a report published in the journalMolecular Biology , some of the main functions of proteins in the human body are to:
2

Build, strengthen and repair/replace things, such as tissue. Examples include keratin (strengthens protective coverings, such as hair), collagen and elastin (both provide support for connective tissue).

Make antibodies for our immune system Make hormones, which help cells send messages and coordinate bodily activities Muscle contractions - actin and myosin, two types of proteins, are involved in muscle contraction and movement. Make enzymes. An enzyme facilitates a biochemical reaction. Carry things - hemoglobin, a protein, transports oxygen through the blood. Mediate cell response - rhodopsin is a protein in the eye which is used for vision Store things - ferritin is a protein which stores iron in the liver

QUE 14: Give the classification of protein. ANS:

Protein Classification Based on Structure and Composition

Proteins, which constitute about 10 to 12% of the cell contents, are macromolecules having a significant role in the metabolism of a cell. Proteins are polymers of amino acids. Each protein is a linear, unbranched, polypeptide molecule. The order in which amino acids occur is specific for each polypeptide. The protein molecules are very large and highly complex macromolecules. Insulin (human) has 53 amino acids arranged in two polypeptide chains of 22 and 31 amino acids. Human serum albumin has 582 amino acids in its polypeptide chain. Proteins show four structural levels namely, primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary. The linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain represents the primary structure. The enzyme ribonuclease and the protein myoglobin function only in their primary structure. If the polypeptide chain is coiled into a spiral or helix to have a three-dimensional structure, then it is called secondary structure. e.g., keratin of skin. If the helical polypeptide molecule is folded on itself assuming a complex but specific structure such as spherical or rod like, then it is called tertiary structure. e.g., globulins of blood. Some proteins have two or more polypeptides, each with primary, secondary and tertiary structures then it is called quaternary structure. e.g., Insulin and hemoglobin.

QUE 15: Define DNA.

2

ANS: Definition: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a type of macromolecule known as a nucleic acid. It is shaped like a

twisted double helix and is composed of long strands of alternating sugars and phosphate groups, along with nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine). It is organized into structures called chromosomes and housed within the nucleus of our cells. DNA contains the genetic information necessary for the production of other cell components and for the reproduction of life.

QUE 16 : How much deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is in a typical cell? ANS: Since it is safe to say that there are no typical cells, it is best to give a range of quantities of DNA. However, note that most geneticists talk about the quantity of DNA in the genome of an organism, not the quantity in a cell. The genome is the full set of genetic information in an organism. The cells of most higher organisms have two copies of their genome, one in each of the two copies (one coming from each parent) of each chromosome. Thus the quantity of DNA in a diploid cell (a single cell in which the basic chromosome number is doubled) is twice the quantity in the genome. The human genome has about 3 billion DNA base pairs. The common colon bacterium, E. coli, has 4.2 million base pairs (in both the cell and the genome, since it usually has only one copy of the chromosome in a cell). A common plant used in research, Arabidopsis thaliana (the mouse-ear cress, a small weed related to the mustard plant), has about 117 million base pairs in its genome, and the fruit fly has about 120 million base pairs in its genome. In some cases, very similar species can have radically different quantities of DNA in their genomes. For example, some amphibians have a genome that is 100 times larger than the genomes of other amphibian species.

QUE 17: what is DNA ? Describe it in detail with figure. ANS: DNA (DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid)
DNA is the genetic material of all living cells and of many viruses. DNA is: an alpha double helix of two polynucleotide strands. The genetic code is the sequence of bases on one of the strands. A gene is a specific sequence of bases which has the information for a particular protein. DNA is self-replicating - it can make an identical copy of itself. Replication allows the genetic information to pass faithfully to the next generation. Replication occurs during the S (= synthesis) stage of interphase just before nuclear division. The chromosomes contain 90% of the cells DNA. 10% is present in mitochondria and chloroplasts. Adenine (A) and Guanine (G) are purine bases Thymine (T) and Cytosine (C) are pyrimidine bases Hydrogen bonds link the complementary base pairs: o Two between A and T (A = T) o Three between G and C (G C) A single unit in the chain is a nucleotide. o This consists of a phosphate group, o a pentose sugar (D = DNA; R = RNA) and o an organic base (ATGC = DNA; AUGC = RNA)

QUE 18: What is DNA?

ANS: DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms. Nearly every cell in a persons body has the same DNA. Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus (where it is called nuclear DNA), but a small amount of DNA can also be found in the mitochondria (where it is called mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA). The information in DNA is stored as a code made up of four chemical bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). Human DNA consists of about 3 billion bases, and more than 99 percent of those bases are the same in all people. The order, or sequence, of these bases determines the information available for building and maintaining an organism, similar to the way in which letters of the alphabet appear in a certain order to form words and sentences. DNA bases pair up with each other, A with T and C with G, to form units called base pairs. Each base is also attached to a sugar molecule and a phosphate molecule. Together, a base, sugar, and phosphate are called a nucleotide. Nucleotides are arranged in two long strands that form a spiral called a double helix. The structure of the double helix is somewhat like a ladder, with the base pairs forming the ladders rungs and the sugar and phosphate molecules forming the vertical sidepieces of the ladder. An important property of DNA is that it can replicate, or make copies of itself. Each strand of DNA in the double helix can serve as a pattern for duplicating the sequence of bases. This is critical when cells divide because each new cell needs to have an exact copy of the DNA present in the old cell.

QUE 19: What is a gene? ANS: A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity. Genes, which are made up of DNA, act as instructions to make molecules called proteins. In humans, genes vary in size from a few hundred DNA bases to more than 2 million bases. The Human Genome Project has estimated that humans have between 20,000 and 25,000 genes. Every person has two copies of each gene, one inherited from each parent. Most

genes are the same in all people, but a small number of genes (less than 1 percent of the total) are slightly different between people. Alleles are forms of the same gene with small differences in their sequence of DNA bases. These small differences contribute to each persons unique physical features.

QUE 20:What is a chromosome? ANS: In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA molecule is packaged into thread-like structures called chromosomes. Each chromosome is made up of DNA tightly coiled many times around proteins called histones that support its structure. Chromosomes are not visible in the cells nucleusnot even under a microscopewhen the cell is not dividing. However, the DNA that makes up chromosomes becomes more tightly packed during cell division and is then visible under a microscope. Most of what researchers know about chromosomes was learned by observing chromosomes during cell division. Each chromosome has a constriction point called the centromere, which divides the chromosome into two sections, or arms. The short arm of the chromosome is labeled the p arm. The long arm of the chromosome is labeled the q arm. The location of the centromere on each chromosome gives the chromosome its characteristic shape, and can be used to help describe the location of specific genes.

QUE 21: WRITE SHORT NOTE ON RNA. ANS: RNA (RNA = ribonucleic acid):
Three different types of RNA, (messenger (mRNA), transfer (tRNA) ribosomal (rRNA)) All are made in the nucleus (transcription) o ribosomes are synthesised in the nucleolus; o mRNA prepared there too introns removed All types of RNA are involved in protein synthesis: o mRNA: copies the information from the DNA. o tRNA: carries the specific amino acid to the mRNA in contact with the ribosome. o rRNA: makes up 55% of ribosomes (the other 45% = protein).

Note: Some RNA molecules can function as enzymes.

QUE 22: Write Differences between DNA and RNA.

ANS: DNA is double stranded; RNA is a single stranded

N.B. ATP is also a nucleotide, with ribose as the pentose sugar. DNA contains the pentose sugar deoxyribose; RNA contains the pentose sugar ribose. DNA has the base Thymine (T) but not Uracil (U); RNA has U but not T. DNA is very long (billions of bases); RNA is smaller (hundreds to thousands of bases) DNA is self-replicating, RNA is copied from the DNA so it is not self-

replicating

QUE 23: Write note on DNA Replication DNA Replication ANS: This takes place during the S stage of interphase
Nucleotides are synthesised in huge quantities in the cytoplasm. An enzyme unzips the two complementary strands of DNA. New complementary nucleotides link to the exposed bases on the

separated strands.
The general name for this group of enzymes is DNA polymerase. A new complementary strand is built along each old strand. Two DNAs, identical to the original and each other, are now present. Each new DNA molecule is thus half old and half new

QUE 24 : What are antisense molecules? ANS: Antisense molecules are strands of ribonucleic acid (RNA) that are complementary to another piece of RNAone that is directing the production of a protein. QUE 25 : Do all organisms have DNA as their genetic material? ANS: In a word, yes. In prokaryotesorganisms without a nucleus that include bacteria, Achaea, and blue-green algaethe deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is usually a single circular molecule, although many species have variants of this shape, including multiple circles or linear molecules. All eukaryotes (organisms with a nucleus), which include plants and animals, have DNA that is linear in shape. Viruses are not considered organismsthey are cellular parasites. But in some viruses, such as the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), the genetic material is ribonucleic acid (RNA). During the life cycle of these RNA viruses, however, the RNA is copied into the DNA of a host cell in order to replicate more of the virus. Thus, even in some viruses with RNA as their genetic material, DNA still plays a vital role.

QUE 26 : Differentiate between DNA & RNA? ANS: Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) have similar structuresthey are both long strings of nucleotides linked by sugar-phosphate backbones. But these nucleic acids do have some important structural differences. Generally DNA occurs as a double-stranded molecule, whereas RNA is single stranded. DNA has a sugar component that lacks a particular oxygen atom, while the sugar in RNA contains that oxygen atom. Because of the difference of just one oxygen atom, the cell recognizes DNA for one purpose and RNA for another. This enables DNA to be the repository of genetic information in the cells nucleus and RNA to be the active agent that transports DNAs genetic information to the cells cytoplasm to be used in protein synthesis. DNA and RNA have another important structural difference. DNA contains four bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). RNA contains three of the same bases (A, C, and G) but uses uracil (U) in place of T. In addition, each DNA molecule typically carries hundreds or thousands of genes. An RNA molecule usually contains information from only a single gene. QUE 27 : How does the DNA found in the mitochondria of a cell differ from the DNA found in a cell's nucleus? ANS: Mitochondria are small structures in cell cytoplasm that provide the cells energy needs. Scientists believe that mitochondria were originally free-living bacteria that invaded other cells and over evolutionary time lost their independence and became mitochondria. As a result, mitochondria differ from most other cellular structures in that they contain deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Unlike nuclear DNA, which is linear, mitochondrial DNA is circular, resembling the DNA of bacteria. Mitochondrial DNA also carries out protein synthesis using bacterial mechanisms. Over the course of their evolution, mitochondria lost their independence. As a result, mitochondrial function came to be controlled dually, by their own DNA as well as by the nuclear DNA of the cell. Unlike the DNA found in a cells nucleus, which can be inherited from both the mother and the father, mitochondrial DNA typically has unusual inheritance patterns. Mitochondrial DNA is usually inherited only from the mother, not the fathersperm cells generally do not contribute mitochondrial DNA during fertilization, when egg and sperm fuse to form a zygote. This form of inheritance is called cytoplasmic inheritance.

QUE 28 : What is the difference between DNA replication and DNA transcription? ANS: Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a cells genetic material, found in the nucleus. When a cell divides, DNA directs the synthesis of an exact copy of itself. This process, known as DNA replication, enables the new cells that result from cell division to have the exact same genetic makeup. Proteins, which are composed of long chains of amino acids, control all the processes that occur in a cell. The sequence of amino acids in a protein determines its function. DNA contains the information that determines the sequence of a proteins amino acids. However, DNA itself is not involved directly in the creation of proteins. Instead, in a process known as DNA transcription, DNA directs the synthesis of an intermediate substance called ribonucleic acid (RNA). The structure of RNA contains the DNAs instructions that determine the amino acid sequence for a particular protein. RNA leaves the cells nucleus and travels to the cytoplasm, carrying DNAs coded information to structures within the cell call ribosomes, which are the site of protein synthesis. DNA replication and DNA transcription have similarities. In both processes, the genetic instructions stored within the structure of DNA are used as a template to make new nucleic acids: DNA in the case of replication and RNA in the case of transcription. The processes differ in that during DNA replication, the entire DNA molecule is copied, whereas during DNA transcription, only a section of the DNA structure is transcribed into RNA at one time.

QUE 29 : What is MITOSIS ?

Ans: Mitosis:- Mitosis is the process of nuclear cell division. During division, the nucleus of the cell divides, resulting in two sets of identical chromosomes, or organized DNA proteins. This process is almost always accompanied by a process called cytokinesis, in which the rest of the cell divides, leading to two completely separate cells, called daughter cells. There are four phases in the process: prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. There are a number of reasons for this process, including reproduction and replacement of cells, and problems with it can seriously damage or kill cells. It's often confused with meiosis, but the processes differ in several ways.

Stages :Prophase The DNA in the nucleus has already been duplicated in the previous stage of cell division, so by the time prophase starts, the nucleus contains two complete identical sets of DNA. As prophase begins, the chromatin, which are normally spread throughout the nucleus, begin to condense into an X shape, held together in the middle with a specific sequence of DNA called a centromere. Each half of the X is one replicated half of DNA. Once they coil together into the X, they're called mitotic chromosomes. Towards the end of prophase, the material enclosing the nucleus and the cytoskeleton disappear, except in the case of some fungi, algae, and similar organisms, in which the process happens entirely inside the nuclear membrane. This is called closed mitosis. Metaphase As prophase finishes and metaphase begins, the rope-like microtubules connect to the kinectochores on each side of the chromosome, so that they can later pull them apart. The chromosomes align themselves with the spindle apparatus, which is spread around the cell like the vertical lines on a globe. The soon to be divided chromosomes are symmetrically positioned on the metaphase plate, which is essentially the equator of the parent cell. At the end of metaphase, each chromosome has microtubules connected to both of its halves, and they are lined up in a straight line along the equator of the cell. Anaphase Once the chromosomes get lined up properly, the spindle apparatus immediately pulls the two identical DNA halves apart from one another and moves them to opposite sides of the cell. These two sets of chromosomes will develop into the nuclei of two daughter cells which are perfectly identical to each other and the parent cell. Telophase

After the chromosomes arrive at the ends of the cell, they start to uncoil and spread out again, as they were before they formed into Xs. This is basically the opposite of the beginning of prophase. While this happens, the spindle apparatus is broken down. After that, the nuclear membrane, which encases the nucleus, forms again around the chromosomes, unless it never dissolved in the first place, as in closed mitosis. Although this is the last phase, cell division is not complete until cytokinesis happens. Cytokinesis Cytokinesis is the next stage of cellular development, and is similar to mitosis, except it involves the other parts of the cell instead of the nucleus. During this phase, the equator-like metaphasal plate of the cell pinches together, separating the cell into two new cells. Once this is completed, there are two functioning, identical cells. Purpose One of the main purposes of this process is the natural growth of the parent organism. It's also done to replace cells that are worn out, damaged, or just at the end of their natural lifespan. For instance, a person continually sloughs of dead skin cells, so the body has to divide cells to make new ones. Some animals also use this process to regenerate parts of themselves, like lizards who can regrow their tails after losing them. Additionally, some animals undergo this process as part of asexual reproduction. Problems Problems with mitosis are devastating for cells, and can result in their death. Even if the cell doesn't die, the chromosomes can be damaged or altered, which can lead to genetic disorders; Down syndrome, for instance, is caused by a chromosomal problem that's connected to mitosis. Additionally, damage to the chromosomes or problems with the timing of how the cell divides can lead to growths and sometimes cancer. This can also happen if the chromosome isn't pulled apart properly. Meiosis Mitosis and meiosis are both means of cellular division, but they differ in a few key ways. First, meiosis only happens in specific types of reproductive cells called gametes in humans, eggs and sperm and spores. Also, in meiosis, the DNA from each contributing cell gets mixed up, with little pieces of DNA from different cells forming parts of the X. This is different from mitosis where the two halves of the Xs are identical. Also, meiosis ends up with four cells that are completely genetically unique, whereas in mitosis, the end result is two completely identical cells.

QUE 30: What is mutation ?

ANS: Mutation :- A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of a gene. Mutations in a gene's DNA sequence can alter the amino acid sequence of the protein encoded by the gene. How does this happen? Like words in a sentence, the DNA sequence of each gene determines the amino acid sequence for the protein it encodes. The DNA sequence is interpreted in groups of three nucleotide bases, called codons. Each codon specifies a single amino acid in a protein. A Mutation occurs when a DNA gene is damaged or changed in such a way as to alter the genetic message carried by that gene. A Mutagen is an agent of substance that can bring about a permanent alteration to the physical composition of a DNA gene such that the genetic message is changed. Once the gene has been damaged or changed the mRNA transcribed from that gene will now carry an altered message. The polypeptide made by translating the altered mRNA will now contain a different sequence of amino acids. The function of the protein made by folding this polypeptide will probably be changed or lost. In this example, the enzyme that is catalyzing the production of flower color pigment has been altered in such a way it no longer catalyzes the production of the red pigment. No product (red pigment) is produced by the altered protein. In subtle or very obvious ways, the phenotype of the organism carrying the mutation will be changed. In this case the flower, without the pigment is no longer red. QUE 31: Write on Type of Mutetion. ANS:Substitution A substitution is amutation that exchanges one base for another ( i.e. a change in a single "chemical letter" such as switching an A to a G). Such a substitution could: 1. change a codon to one that encodes a different amino acid and cause a small change in the protein produced. For example, sickle cell anemia is caused by a substitution in the beta-hemoglobin gene, which alters a single amino acid in the protein produced. 2. change a codon to one that encodes the same amino acid and causes no change in the protein produced. These are called silent mutations. 3. change an amino-acid-coding codon to a single "stop" codon and cause an incomplete protein. This can have serious effects since the incomplete protein probably won't function.

Insertion Insertions are mutations in which extra base pairs are inserted into a new place in

the DNA. Deletion Deletions are mutations in which a section of DNA is lost, or deleted. Frameshift Since protein-coding DNA is divided into codons three bases long, insertions and deletions can alter a gene so that its message is no longer correctly parsed. These changes are called frameshifts. For example, consider the sentence, "The fat cat sat." Each word represents a codon. If we delete the first letter and parse the sentence in the same way, it doesn't make sense. In frameshifts, a similar error occurs at the DNA level, causing the codons to be parsed incorrectly. This usually generates truncated proteins that are as useless as "hefatcats at" is uninformative.

QUE 32: What is Gene therapy ?

ANS: Gene Therapy :-Gene therapy is the insertion of genes into an individual's cells and tissues to treat a disease, such as a hereditary disease in which a deleterious mutant allele is replaced with a functional one. Although the technology is still in its infancy, it has been used with some success. Scientific breakthroughs continue to move gene therapy toward mainstream medicine.Scientists first took the logical step of trying to introduce genes directly into human cells, focusing on diseases caused by single-gene defects, such as cystic fibrosis, hemophilia, muscular dystrophy and sickle cell anemia. However, this has proven more difficult than modifying bacteria, primarily because of the problems involved in carrying large sections of DNA and delivering them to the correct site on the comparatively large genome. Today, most gene therapy studies are aimed at cancer and hereditary diseases linked to a genetic defect. Antisense therapy is not strictly a form of gene therapy, but is a related, genetically-mediated therapy. Gene therapy using an adenovirus vector: A new gene is injected into an adenovirus vector, which is used to introduce the modified DNA into a human cell. If the treatment is successful, the new gene will make a functional protein.The biology of human gene therapy remains complex and many techniques need further development. Many diseases and their strict genetic link need to be understood more fully before gene therapy can be used appropriately. The public policy debate surrounding the possible use of genetically engineered material in human subjects has been equally complex. Major participants in the debate have come from the fields of biology, government, law, medicine, philosophy, politics, and religion, each bringing different views to the discussion. There are a variety of different methods to replace or repair the genes targeted in gene therapy.

A normal gene may be inserted into a nonspecific location within the genome to replace a nonfunctional gene. This approach is most common. An abnormal gene could be swapped for a normal gene through homologous recombination. The abnormal gene could be repaired through selective reverse mutation, which returns the gene to its normal function. The regulation (the degree to which a gene is turned on or off) of a particular gene could be altered.''' Spindle transfer is used to replace entire mitochondria that carry defective mitochondrial DNA .

QUE 33: Write note on gene therapy types. ANS: Gene Therapy Types :Gene therapymay be classified into the following types: Germ line gene therapy In the case of germ line gene therapy, germ cells, i.e., sperm or eggs, are modified by the introduction of functional genes, which are ordinarily integrated into their genomes. Therefore, the change due to therapy would be heritable and would be passed on to later generations. This new approach, theoretically, should be highly effective in counteracting genetic disorders and hereditary diseases. However, many jurisdictions prohibit this for application in human beings, at least for the present, for a variety of technical and ethical reasons. Somatic gene therapy In the case of somatic gene therapy, the therapeutic genes are transferred into the somatic cells of a patient. Any modifications and effects will be restricted to the individual patient only, and will not be inherited by the patient's offspring or later generations. QUE 34: How do transcriptionally inert spermatids differentiate into spermatozoa? Ans. Spermiogenesis : Spermatids are spherical cells with centrally located nuclei. How are they transformed into functional spermatozoa? The morphological events during spermiogenesis are discussed in your textbook, and you should read them carefully. We shall focus here on nuclear modification andtheirconsequences. The major events in nuclear modification are: chromatin condensation and morphological changes.

Chromatin condensation helps to streamline the cell by reducing volume. It also may serve a protective function, reducing the susceptibility of the DNA to mutation or physical damage. Condensation is facilitated by formation of specific DNA-protein complexes. Proteins that may be involved include protamines (small, highly basic, arginine-rich proteins), histone-like proteins or other sperm-specific proteins.Replacement may be gradual, with somatic histones being replaced by spermspecific proteins, or it may involve discrete steps in which transitional proteins interact with the DNA after the histones are removed and before the protamines are added.In salmonid fishes, somatic histones become hyperacetylated or undergo similar modifications that reduce the binding between the histones and DNA. In mammals, somatic histones are removed by protease digestion. Remodeling of the chromatin in mammals is a two-step process. In the first step, the histones are replaced by small, highly basic transition proteins. This eliminates nucleosomes and stops transcription. The replacement of the transition proteins with protamines stabilizes and further compacts the chromatin via the formation of disulfide crossbridges. The replacement of histones by sperm-specific proteins results in a termination of transcription. This has important consequences for gene expression during spermiogenesis. It means that all events after

this must rely upon post-transcriptional processes. In Drosophila, this occurs in the primary spermatocyte stage. Thus, no transcription occurs in secondary spermatocytes or spermatids. In mammals and birds, some transcription has been detected after meiosis. It is a generalized phenomenon that spermatid.

QUE 35: What is Biotechnology? What are the Applications of Biotechnology ? Ans: Biotechnology is the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make useful products, or "any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use" (UN Convention on Biological Diversity, Art. Depending on the tools and applications, it often overlaps with the (related) fields of bioengineering and biomedical engineering. The concept of 'biotech' or 'biotechnology' encompasses a wide range of procedures (and history) for modifying living organisms according to human purposes going back to domestication of animals, cultivation of plants, and "improvements" to these through breeding programs that employ artificial selection and hybridization. Modern usage also includes genetic engineering as well as cell and tissue culture technologies. Biotechnology is defined by the American Chemical Society as the application of biological organisms, systems, or processes by various industries to learning about the science of life and the improvement of the value of materials and organisms such as pharmaceuticals, crops, and livestock.

Applications Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, Including health care (medical) Crop production and agriculture Non food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g. biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), Environmental uses. Branches of Biotechnology

Bioinformatics: Bioinformaticsis an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization as well as analysis of biological data possible. Blue biotechnology:Blue biotechnologyis a term that has been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare. Green biotechnology: Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example would be the selection and domestication of plants via micropropagation. Red biotechnology:Red biotechnologyis applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through genetic manipulation. Whitebiotechnology:White biotechnology also known as industrial biotechnology,is biotechnology. applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical

QUE 36: Write note on Ethical issues related to Biotechnology. ANS: Rapid progress in biotechnology and development of new products has raised legal ,safty and public policy issues but has raised ethical issues as well. The ethical issues related to modern biotechnology have been debated since the first rDNA experiments few decades back. The ethical issues are related with deliberate release of transgenic organism in environment; patenting of plants , animals and their genes; cloning and many more. The current debate on ethical issues related to biotechnology has raised many points in the following area /fields: Cloning of animals: a lot of debate has been going on the issues of cloning of animals. The ethical problems associated with cloning include the unforeseen biological risks associated with the in vitro fertilization , coupled with the uncertainty with the current state of technology. Cloning of human: a more serious debate has been on the issues of human cloning. The social and ethical problems associated with human cloning include the respect for human life and dignity; accountability; the social status of the clone, i.e. individual autonomy, equality ,etc. Genetically engineered plants: though genetically engineered crop plants have been introduced with little objection; however, some fear that genes could be transferred to weedy species through cross- pollination. Further, it is argued that recombinant crop plants differ little from those generated by classical breeding methods. Ecological imbalance: deliberate release of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) may replace natural organisms in the environment and/or transfer genes to other organisms, and thus cause the disturbance in the existing ecological balance in an unpredictable manner. For instance, genetically modified herbicides may confer resistance to weed species as well. Infections to other organisms: a recombinant virus used in the production of recombinant organisms might detrimentally infect other organisms. New infectious organisms: the real and use of genetically modified organisms for industrial purposes may lead to the formation of infectious type of organisms, which can have serious consequences for mankind. More tolerant weeds: Genetic engineering of plants for herbicide resistance and enhanced photosynthesis may result in more tolerant weeds, as a result of cross-pollination with related plants species. Harm to non-target species: newly developed plants pesticides may cause harm to non-target species such as insects. Elimination of indigenous agents: introduction of recombinant organisms may eliminate indigenous species through competition ,depletion of valuable resources and by incomplete degradation of toxic wastes to even more toxic by products during bioremediation. Biological control agents: introduction of artificial agents ,genetically modified microorganisms, as biological control agents can cause serious imbalance in the living environment and can lead to serious consequences. Objections from stakeholders: use of public resources for research in biotechnology has raised objections from the stakeholders who believe that biotechnology cannot benefit society, or who believe that the current course of development of biotechnology will pose only socio-ethical risks. Whereas, biotech industry believe that the facilitating the development of biotechnology is the responsibility of the government. A coin has two sides, similarly, powerful new biotechnology have the potential to alleviate medical, agriculture and environment problems, but they can also pose problems if we do not reflect on the implications of these developments and evaluate their risks. The socio-ethical

implementation of biotechnology must be thoroughly examined and addressed so as to ensure that biotechnology products/ applications contribute in the +ve ways.

QUE 37: Write a note on bacteria. ANS: Bacteria: The Basics

Bacteria are prokaryotic cells, the simplest of microbial cells. In essence, they consist of cell protoplasm contained within a retaining structure or cell envelope. Basic Characteristics: Prokaryotic Simplest of all microbial cells Single-celled organisms Distinctive cell walls, or unique cell envelopes, which contain a peptidoglycan layer Tiny; measured in units called micrometers (m) Lack a true nucleus; instead, have a region called the nucleoid region' (i.e., DNA) DNA is free floating May have additional DNA which is not associated with this nucleoid region (called a plasmid) Other Characteristics: Rapid growth and cell division (binary fission) under favorable conditions Mutants that arise from bacteria can become extremely resilient organisms because bacteria can: Grow and reproduce cells quickly Adapt quickly to changing environments Plasmids impart additional resistant characteristics to bacteria via cell-to-cell transfer of this extra DNA material Capable of colonizing in almost any environment Extremely diverse and numerous in soils or waters

Basic Bacteria
The overall form of a basic bacterial cell is that of a complex cell envelope that encloses cell protoplasm. Cell appendages from the envelope protrude into the environment surrounding the cell.

Classifying Bacteria
Most microbiologists classify bacteria according to a phylogenetic classification system based on Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology (Bergey's Manual). The Bergey's Manual is a guide to distinguishing bacterial species based on phenotypic differences. For our purpose, and for simplicity's sake, we will use a more basic classification approach. Understanding this simple classification method can lead to a better comprehension of the Bergey's Manual. We can classify bacteria according to: Shape Cell wall structure and the Gram Stain Cellular respiration Growth factors: Energy Source and Nutrient Source

Classifying Bacteria by Shape

Bacteria cells vary in shape: Cocci spherical

Bacilli rods, or cylindrical Spirillum spiral, or helical Filamentous complex forms, like jellybeans in a straw' The shape of a cell affects its survival and activity in the environment. For example, cocci have less surface area per volume than bacilli or spirillum, and thus can survive more severe desiccation or dehydration. Bacilli, however, have a greater surface area to volume ratio and can take up nutrients from dilute solutions more efficiently. Shape also affects motility. For instance, spirillum are spiral cells, move with a corkscrew motion, and meet less resistance from surrounding water.

Examples of Bacteria Classified by Shape: Cocci: Streptococcus Staphylococcus Bacilli: Bacillus anthracis Clostridium Spirillum: Treponema pallidum Filamentous: Leptothrix, Crenothrix

QUE 38: Write a brief note on vitamins. ANS: Vitamins: are defined as essential micronutrients that are not synthesized by mammals. Most vitamins are essential for the metabolism of all living organisms, and they are synthesized by icroorganisms and plants. Coenzymes (and/or prosthetic groups) are defined as organic compounds with low molecular weight that are required to show enzyme activity by binding with their apoenzymes. Many coenzymes are biosynthesized from vitamins and contain a nucleotide (or nucleoside) moiety in their molecules. Besides their functions as vitamins and coenzymes, most of vitamins and coenzymes have been shown to have various other biofunctions. A vitamin (US /vatmn/ or UK /vtmn/) is an organic compound required by an organism as a vital nutrient in limited amounts.[1] An organic chemical compound (or related set of compounds) is called a vitamin when it cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities by an organism, and must be obtained from the diet. Thus, the term is conditional both on the circumstances and on the particular organism. For example, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is a vitamin for humans, but not for most other animals, and biotin (vitamin H) and vitamin D are required in the human diet only in certain circumstances. There are several roles for vitamins and trace minerals in diseases: 1. Deficiencies of vitamins and minerals may be caused by disease states such as mal absorption; 2. Deficiency and excess of vitamins and minerals can cause disease in and of themselves (e.g., vitamin A intoxication and liver disease); 3. Vitamins and minerals in high doses may be used as drugs (e.g., niacin for hypercholesterolemia).

Vitamins are essential for the normal growth and development of a multi-cellular organism. The eveloping fetus requires certain vitamins and minerals to be present at certain times. If there is serious deficiency in one or more of these nutrients, a child may develop a deficiency disease. Deficiencies of vitamins are classified as either primary or secondary. 1. Primary Deficiency: A primary deficiency occurs when you do not get enough of the vitamin in the food you eat. 2. Secondary Deficiency: A secondary deficiency may be due to an underlying disorder that prevents or limits the absorption or use of the vitamin. Types of Vitamins Vitamins, one of the most essential nutrients required by the body and can be broadly classified into two main categories i.e., water-soluble vitamins and fat-soluble vitamins. Water-soluble vitamins: Water-soluble vitamins cannot be stored in the body, so you need to get them from food every day. They can be destroyed by overcooking. These are easily absorbed by the body. Human body doesn't store large amounts of water-soluble vitamins. B-complex vitamins and vitamin C are water-soluble vitamins that are not stored in the body and must be replaced each day. These vitamins are easily destroyed or washed out during food storage and preparation. They are eliminated in urine so, body need a continuous supply of them in diets. Fat-soluble vitamins: The fat-soluble vitamins include vitamins A, D, E and K since they are soluble in fat and are absorbed by the body from the intestinal tract. The human body has to use bile acids to absorb fat-soluble vitamins. Once these vitamins are absorbed, the body stores them in body fat. When you need them, your body takes them out of storage to be used. Eating fats or oils that are not digested can cause shortages of fat-soluble vitamins. Fat soluble vitamins should not be consumed in excess as they are stored in the body and an excess can result in side effects. An excess of vitamin A may result in irritability, weight loss, dry itchy skin in children and nausea, headache, diarrhea in adults. Characteristics of the vitamins are: 1. Most of the vitamins have been artificially synthesized. 2. Some of vitamins are soluble in water and others are fat-soluble. 3. Some vitamins are synthesized in the body. Some members of vitamin B complex are synthesized by microorganisms in the intestinal tract. 4. Vitamins are partly destroyed and are partly excreted. 5. Vitamins can be stored in the body to some extent, for example the fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the liver and subcutaneous tissue. 6. Vitamins can perform their work in very small quantities. Hence, the total daily requirement is usually very small.

QUE 39: Why We Need Vitamins? ANS: cannot manufacture on its own. So you must consume vitamin directly in the form of food or through supplements as tonic or pills. The whole process of assimilation of vitamins depends on ingestion of food. 1. Vitamin A is referred to be a vitamin for growth and body repair. It is very vital in the formation of bone and tissues and also keeps your skin smooth. And if you are night blind, the cure is having more Vitamins A. 2. Vitamin B1 is an energy building vitamin which helps you to digest carbohydrates. It also keeps your heart and muscles stable. 3. Vitamin C is a very commonly pronounced vitamin world wide. From kids to veterans, this vitamin is very essential as it protects your bones, teeth and gums. The ultimate medicine for curing scurvy and also resists any infection to grow in your body. Without its support collagen cannot be synthesized in the body. 4. Vitamin D is very important for children. The common disease seen in kids suffering from malnutrition is Rickets, which is actually caused by the deficit of Vitamin D. Bones cannot grow in a normal way if there is a lack of this vitamin. Direct sunlight is a natural source of vitamins apart from spinach and vegetables. In adults, Osteoporosis is caused due to lack of Vitamin D. 5. Vitamin E is a wound treating vitamin. It is very mush essential to prevent sterility and to break up blood clots. Damage of cells due to aging can be protected to supplement of this vitamin. 6. Vitamin B6 is necessary for production of antibodies 7. Vitamin B12 is required for carbohydrate and fat metabolism. This is a must for children's growth. 8. Vitamin B2 and Folic Acid help in the formation of red blood cells. QUE 40: write note on human hormones. ANS: HORMONES AND NEUROTRANSMITTERS help shape important aspects of our lives, including growth, differentiation, sexuality, physiology, emotion, and cognition. From romantic thoughts to jealous rage, from the release of gametes to lactation and parent-offspring bonding, the extraordinary molecules produced and released by tiny and otherwise seemingly insignificant cells and glands orchestrate our reproductive strategies. A key research objective is to understand the evolutionary functions of this chemical language. Endocrine and neuroendocrine systems may be viewed as complex sets of mechanisms designed by natural selection to communicate information among cells and tissues. Human body contains more than one hundred di_erent types of hormones, and they run in our bloodstream atthe rate of thousands of billions on units a day. Hormones regulate your heartbeat and your breathing. Hormones make men men and women women. Hormones put you to sleep at night and they wake you up in the morning. They control your blood pressure, build up bone, maintain muscle tone and lubricate joints. Hormones govern growth; they make the body produce energy and heat. Hormones burn fat. Hormones govern the menstrual cycle and allow pregnancy (and birth) to occur. They _ght stress, prevent fatigue, calm anxiety and relieve depression. Hormones make and keep memories. Hormones maintain the correct level of sugar in the blood and tissues. They resist allergic reactions and infections. They soothe pain. Hormones control your sex drive, virility and fertility. They stimulate your brain and your immune system. Sometime during our 20's, our hormones begin a process of degeneration. This degeneration eventually produces the signs and symptoms of premature aging. Hormones are really quite complex, but if you understand that they are critical to growth of cells and system processes, then you can imagine their importance in the Age Management Treatment program. During youth, hormones are key in our growing up process: we build strong bones, increase lean muscle, build strength and endurance and combat disease. Essentially, hormones help us mature to adulthood.

What exactly are these hormones? A few of our essential hormones: Estrogen - Main sex hormone of the female body, in females, it causes puberty. Causes menstrual cycle, prepares uterus for fertilization Progesterone - Not main, but similar to Estrogen. Helps maintain menstrual cycle FSH - Causes menstrual cycle to START LH - Midway through menstrual cycle, triggers ovulation and creates corpus luteum. In guys, it is responsible for production of testosterone Insulin - Decreases Blood Sugar, created by Pancreas Glycagon - Increases Blood Sugar Testosterone - Makes guys grow male body parts, muscles Thyroxin- Promotes Metabolism Aldesterone - Regulates Kidney functions Oxytocin - Triggers childbirth Anti-diuretic Hormone - Regulates water retention