ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS & MEASUREMENTS

RAHMAN SONOWIJOYO 130421036

DEPARTEMEN TEKNIK MESIN FAKULTAS TEKNIK

UNIVERSITAS SUMATRA UTARA

MEDAN 2013/2014
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Book

Book

Lesson Plan
Week - 1 INTRODUCTION TO MEASUREMENT Measurement units, Measurement system applications, Elements of a measurement system, Choosing appropriate measuring instruments INSTRUMENT TYPES AND PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS Review of instrument types, Active and passive instruments, Null-type and deflection-type instruments, Analogue and digital instruments, Indicating instruments and instruments with a signal output, Smart and non-smart instruments, Static characteristics of instruments, Accuracy and inaccuracy(measurement uncertainty), Precision / repeatability / reproducibility , Tolerance Range or span, Linearity, Sensitivity of measurement, Threshold, Resolution, Sensitivity to disturbance, Hysteresis effects, Dead space, Dynamic characteristics of instruments, Zero order instrument, First order instrument, Second order instrument, Necessity for calibration
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Week - 1

AGENDA CHAPTER 1 & 2

INTRODUCTION TO MEASUREMENT Measurement units Measurement system applications Elements of a measurement system Choosing appropriate measuring instruments INSTRUMENT TYPES AND PERFORMANCE Review of instrument types Active and passive instruments Null-type and deflection-type instruments Analogue and digital instruments Indicating instruments & instruments with a signal output Smart and non-smart instruments

AGENDA
Static characteristics of instruments
Accuracy and inaccuracy (measurement uncertainty) Precision/repeatability/reproducibility Tolerance Range or span Linearity Sensitivity of measurement Threshold Resolution Sensitivity to disturbance Hysteresis effects Dead space
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AGENDA
Dynamic characteristics of instruments
Zero order instrument First order instrument Second order instrument Lecture Summary

Introduction to Measurement
Measurement techniques have been of immense importance ever since the start of human civilization, when measurements were first needed to regulate the transfer of goods in barter trade to ensure that exchanges were fair. The massive growth in the application of computers to industrial process control and monitoring tasks has spawned a parallel growth in the requirement for instruments to measure, record and control process variables. As modern production techniques require high accuracy limits so the requirement for instruments to be both accurate and cheap becomes ever harder to satisfy. In the past few years, the most cost-effective means of improving instrument accuracy has been found in many cases to be the inclusion of digital computing power within instruments themselves.
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Measurement Units
The first improved measurement unit was a unit of length (the metre) defined as 1/10000000 times the polar quadrant of the earth. A platinum bar made to this length was established as a standard of length in the early part of the nineteenth century. This was superseded by a superior quality standard bar in 1889, manufactured from a platinumiridium alloy. Since that time, technological research has enabled further improvements to be made in the standard used for defining length. Firstly, in 1960, a standard metre was redefined in terms of 1.65076373 x 106 wavelengths of the radiation from krypton-86 in vacuum. More recently, in 1983, the metre was redefined yet again as the length of path travelled by light in an interval of 1/299 792 458 seconds. In a similar fashion, standard units for the measurement of other physical quantities have been defined and progressively improved over the years.
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Measurement Units

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Fundamental Units

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Supplementary Fundamentals

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Derived Units

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Derived Units

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Derived Units

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Elements of Measurement System

A measuring system exists to provide information about the physical value of some variable being measured. In simple cases, the system can consist of only a single unit that gives an output reading/ signal according to the magnitude of the unknown variable applied to it. However, in more complex measurement situations, a measuring system consists of several separate elements. The term measuring instrument is commonly used to describe a measurement system, whether it contains only one or many elements. A measuring system normally consists of following elements: Sensor Variable conversion element Signal processing unit Signal presentation or recording/Signal Utilization unit

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Block diagram of Measurement System

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Functional Elements of an Instrument

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Typical Measurement System Architecture

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The Principles of Basic Electronic Instrument

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Instrumentation and Measurement Applications

Measurement System Applications Applications of measuring instruments can be classified into three major areas. The first of these is their use in regulating trade, applying instruments that measure physical quantities such as length, volume and mass in terms of standard units. The second application area of measuring instruments is in monitoring functions. These provide information that enables human beings to take some prescribed action accordingly. The third application area of measurement systems is automatic feedback control systems.

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Instrumentation and Measurement Applications

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Application Areas

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Choosing Appropriate Measuring Instruments

The starting point in choosing the most suitable instrument to use for measurement of a particular quantity in a manufacturing plant or other system is the specification of the instrument characteristics required, especially parameters like the desired measurement accuracy, resolution, sensitivity and dynamic performance. It is also essential to know the conditions that the instrument will be subjected to, as some conditions will immediately either eliminate the possibility of using certain types of instrument or else will create a requirement for expensive protection of the instrument.
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Choosing Appropriate Measuring Instruments

It should also be noted that protection reduces the performance of some instruments, especially in terms of their dynamic characteristics A skilled instrument engineer, having knowledge of all the instruments that are available for measuring the quantity in question, will be able to evaluate the possible list of instruments in terms of their accuracy, cost and suitability for the environmental conditions and thus choose the most appropriate instrument The instrument characteristics are the features that form the technical basis for a comparison between the relative merits of different instruments.
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Choosing Appropriate Measuring Instruments

Generally, the better the characteristics, the higher the cost. However, in comparing the cost and relative suitability of different instruments for a particular measurement situation, considerations of durability, maintainability and constancy of performance a re also very important because the instrument chosen will often have to be capable of operating for long periods without performance degradation and a requirement for costly maintenance. In consequence of this, the initial cost of an instrument often has a low weighting in the evaluation exercise.

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Choosing Appropriate Measuring Instruments

So instrument choice is a compromise between performance characteristics, ruggedness and durability, maintenance requirements and purchase cost. To carry out such an evaluation properly, the instrument engineer must have a wide knowledge of the range of instruments available for measuring particular physical quantities and must also have a deep understanding of how instrument characteristics are affected by particular measurement situations and operating conditions

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INSTRUMENT TYPES AND PERFORMANCE

Review of Instrument Types Active and passive instruments Null-type and deflection-type instruments Analogue and digital instruments Indicating instruments and instruments with a signal output Smart and non-smart instruments
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Active and Passive Instruments

Instruments are divided into active or passive ones according to whether the instrument output is entirely produced by the quantity being measured or whether the quantity being measured simply modulates the magnitude of some external power source. In active instruments, the external power source is usually in electrical form, but in some cases, it can be other forms of energy such as a pneumatic or hydraulic one.
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Active and Passive Instruments

One very important difference between active and passive instruments is the level of measurement resolution that can be obtained. In terms of cost, passive instruments are normally of a more simple construction than active ones and are therefore cheaper to manufacture. Therefore, choice between active and passive instruments for a particular application involves carefully balancing the measurement resolution requirements against cost.
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Active and Passive Instruments

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Null-Type and Deflection-Type Instruments

The pressure gauge is a good example of a deflection type of instrument, where the value of the quantity being measured is displayed in terms of the amount of movement of a pointer. An alternative type of pressure gauge is the deadweight gauge which is a null-type instrument. Here, weights are put on top of the piston until the downward force balances the fluid pressure. Weights are added until the piston reaches a datum level, known as the null point.
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INSTRUMENT TYPES AND PERFORMANCE

Pressure measurement is made in terms of the value of the weights needed to reach this null position. The accuracy of these two instruments depends on different things. For the first one it depends on the linearity and calibration of the spring, whilst for the second it relies on the calibration of the weights.
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INSTRUMENT TYPES AND PERFORMANCE

As calibration of weights is much easier than careful choice and calibration of a linear characteristic spring, this means that the second type of instrument will normally be the more accurate. This is in accordance with the general rule that null-type instruments are more accurate than deflection types. In terms of usage, the deflection type instrument is clearly more convenient.
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INSTRUMENT TYPES AND PERFORMANCE

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Analogue and Digital Instruments

An analogue instrument gives an output that varies continuously as the quantity being measured changes. The output can have an infinite number of values within the range that the instrument is designed to measure. A digital instrument has an output that varies in discrete steps and so can only have a finite number of values.
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Analogue and Digital Instruments

The distinction between analogue and digital instruments has become particularly important with the rapid growth in the application of microcomputers to automatic control systems. Analogue instruments must be interfaced to the microcomputer by an analogue-to-digital (A/D) converter, which converts the analogue output signal from the instrument into an equivalent digital quantity that can be read into the computer.
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Indicating Instruments & Instruments with a Signal Output

Instruments can be divided is between those that merely give an audio or visual indication of the magnitude of the physical quantity measured and those that give an output in the form of a measurement signal whose magnitude is proportional to the measured quantity. The class of indicating instruments normally includes all null-type instruments and most passive ones.
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Indicating Instruments & Instruments with a Signal Output

Indicators can also be further divided into those that have an analogue output and those that have a digital display. Instruments that have a signal-type output are commonly used as part of automatic control systems. In other circumstances, they can also be found in measurement systems where the output measurement signal is recorded in some way for later use.
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Smart and Non-Smart Instruments

The advent of the microprocessor has created a new division in instruments between those that do incorporate a microprocessor (smart) and those that dont.

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Performance Characteristics of Instruments

Static Characteristics Dynamic Characteristics

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Static Characteristics of Instruments

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Accuracy and Inaccuracy (Measurement Uncertainty)

The accuracy of an instrument is a measure of how close the output reading of the instrument is to the correct value. In practice, it is more usual to quote the inaccuracy figure rather than the accuracy figure for an instrument. Inaccuracy is the extent to which a reading might be wrong, and is often quoted as a percentage of the full-scale (f.s.) reading of an instrument.
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Accuracy and Inaccuracy (Measurement Uncertainty)

It is an important system design rule that instruments are chosen such that their range is appropriate to the spread of values being measured, in order that the best possible accuracy is maintained in instrument readings. The term measurement uncertainty is frequently used in place of inaccuracy. Example: A pressure gauge of range 010 bar has a quoted inaccuracy of 1.0% f.s then the maximum error to be expected in any reading is 0.1 bar. This means that when the instrument is reading 1.0 bar, the possible error is 10% of this value.
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Precision/Repeatability/Reproducibility
Precision is a term that describes an instruments degree of freedom from random errors. If a large number of readings are taken of the same quantity by a high precision instrument, then the spread of readings will be very small. High precision does not imply anything about measurement accuracy. A high precision instrument may have a low accuracy.
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Precision/Repeatability/Reproducibility
Low accuracy measurements from a high precision instrument are normally caused by a bias in the measurements, which is removable by recalibration. Repeatability describes the closeness of output readings when the same input is applied repetitively over a short period of time, with the same measurement conditions, same instrument and observer, same location and same conditions of use maintained throughout. Reproducibility describes the closeness of output readings for the same input when there are changes in the method of measurement, observer, measuring instrument, location, conditions of use and time of measurement.

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Precision/Repeatability/Reproducibility
Both terms thus describe the spread of output readings for the same input. This spread is referred to as repeatability if the measurement conditions are constant and as reproducibility if the measurement conditions vary. The degree of repeatability or reproducibility in measurements from an instrument is an alternative way of expressing its precision.
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Precision/Repeatability/Reproducibility Example

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Tolerance
Tolerance is a term that is closely related to accuracy and defines the maximum error that is to be expected in some value. Tolerance describes the maximum deviation of a manufactured component from some specified value. Example: One resistor chosen at random from a batch having a nominal value 1000W and tolerance 5% might have an actual value anywhere between 950W and 1050 W. Range or Span The range or span of an instrument defines the minimum and maximum values of a quantity that the instrument is designed to measure.

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Linearity
It is normally desirable that the output reading of an instrument is linearly proportional to the quantity being measured. The non-linearity is then defined as the maximum deviation of any of the output readings from linear behavior. Non-linearity is usually expressed as a percentage of full-scale reading Example:?????????
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Sensitivity of Measurement
The sensitivity of measurement is a measure of the change in instrument output that occurs when the quantity being measured changes by a given amount.

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Sensitivity of Measurement
The sensitivity of measurement is therefore the slope of the straight line drawn on instrument response/output characteristics. Example: A pressure of 2 bar produces a deflection of 10 degrees in a pressure transducer, the sensitivity of the instrument is 5 degrees/bar (assuming that the deflection is zero with zero pressure applied).
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Threshold

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Resolution
When an instrument is showing a particular output reading, there is a lower limit on the magnitude of the change in the input measured quantity that produces an observable change in the instrument output. One of the major factors influencing the resolution of an instrument is how finely its output scale is divided into subdivisions. A car speedometer has subdivisions of typically 20 km/h. This means that when the needle is between the scale markings, we cannot estimate speed more accurately than to the nearest 5 km/h. This figure of 5 km/h thus represents the resolution of the instrument.
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Sensitivity to Disturbance
All calibrations and specifications of an instrument are only valid under controlled conditions of temperature, pressure etc. These standard ambient conditions are usually defined in the instrument specification. As variations occur in the ambient temperature etc., certain static instrument characteristics change. The sensitivity to disturbance is a measure of the magnitude of this change.
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Sensitivity to Disturbance
Such environmental changes affect instruments in two main ways, known as:
Zero drift or Bias Sensitivity drift or scale factor drift

Zero drift or bias describes the effect where the zero reading of an instrument is modified by a change in ambient conditions. This causes a constant error that exists over the full range of measurement of the instrument. Zero drift is normally removable by calibration.
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Sensitivity to Disturbance
Example : Zero drift is also commonly found in instruments like voltmeters that are affected by ambient temperature changes. Typical units by which such zero drift is measured are volts/C. This is often called the zero drift coefficient related to temperature changes.

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Hysteresis Effects
Next Figure illustrates the output characteristic of an instrument that exhibits hysteresis. If the input measured quantity to the instrument is steadily increased from a negative value, the output reading varies in the manner shown in curve (a). If the input variable is then steadily decreased, the output varies in the manner shown in curve (b). The non-coincidence between these loading and unloading curves is known as hysteresis. Two quantities are defined, maximum input hysteresis and maximum output hysteresis.
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Hysteresis Effects

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Hysteresis Effects Examples

Hysteresis is most commonly found in instruments that contain springs, such as the passive pressure gauge Hysteresis can also occur in instruments that contain electrical windings formed round an iron core, due to magnetic hysteresis in the iron.

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Dead Space
Dead space is defined as the range of different input values over which there is no change in output value. Any instrument that exhibits hysteresis also displays dead space. However some instruments that do not suffer from any significant hysteresis can still exhibit a dead space in their output characteristics.
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Dead Space

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Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments - Introduction

The static X-tics of measuring instruments are concerned only with the steady state reading that the instrument settles down to, such as the accuracy of the reading etc. The dynamic characteristics of a measuring instrument describe its behaviour between the time a measured quantity changes value and the time when the instrument output attains a steady value in response. As with static characteristics, any values for dynamic characteristics quoted in instrument data sheets only apply when the instrument is used under specified environmental conditions. Outside these calibration conditions, some variation in the dynamic parameters can be expected.
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Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments - Introduction

The dynamic characteristics are necessary to find dynamic response of the instrument. Input varies from instant to instant, so it is dynamic. Dynamic input may be:
Periodic Transient Random Periodic varying cyclically with time or repeating at constant interval Transient varying non cyclically and signal is of definite duration, becomes zero after regular intervals Random varying with respect to time no definite period & amplitude is continuous but not cyclical

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Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments - Introduction

To study dynamic characteristics it is necessary to represent each instrument by mathematical model. By mathematical model we get laws governing I/p and o/p. Dynamic characteristics are experimentally determined by dynamic input. For theoretical analysis for any dynamic input , a solution of it s governing equation is obtained by mathematical models. Two main parameters of system response are:
Speed of response Fidelity
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Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments - Introduction

Speed of response is defined as rapidity with which a measurement system responds to change in measured quantity.
Rise Time Time Constant

Fidelity is quantity of indication by which the instrument as regards the change of input Or change in quantity without dynamic error Dynamic behavior of measurement systems is studied in two domains:
Time domains Analysis Frequency domain analysis
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Response/Transfer Characteristics of Instruments

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Response/Transfer Characteristics of Instruments

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Zero Order Instrument

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Zero Order Instrument

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First Order Instrument

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First Order Instrument

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Second Order Instrument

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LECTURE SUMMARY QUESTIONS

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