Introduction

In recent years, sex has been one of the major themes covered by contemporary

mass media. Sex is shown in popular dramatic narratives within relationships involving

sexual interactions and in the news with scandals involving politicians, media celebrities

and other public figures (Gunter 1).

Recent studies have looked at the prevalence of sex in today’s media concerning

sexual dialogue and sexual behavior. Both portrayals have the potential to influence

viewers’ beliefs and attitudes about sexual issues. In a 1999 study by Dale Kunkel of the

Department of Communications at the University of California at Santa Barbara, a

sample of 942 programs was examined during the course of one week. Of those

programs, 56% contained some sexual content and 39% contained one or more scenes

with a substantial emphasis on sex. Of the 528 programs that contained any sex at all, an

average of 3.2 scenes per hour involved sex. More than half (54%) of all programs

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contained talk about sex, with an average of 3.0 scenes per hour. Twenty-three percent of

the programs studied contained sexual behavior, averaging 1.4 scenes per hour (Gunter

30).

These overwhelming figures suggest that mass media are an increasingly

accessible way for people to learn about and see sexual behavior. However, despite an

increasing concern about this fact, most of the mass media do not depict responsible

sexual behavior. Commitment, contraceptives and consideration of consequences in

regard to sexual activities are rarely shown on television, yet it is important for media

producers and creators to understand that television can be used as an educational tool

when portraying issues concerning sex (Brown).

There are a number of issues surrounding this topic, including society’s

perceptions of sexuality in the media, the media’s potential to be degrading to women

and misleading to men in its portrayal of sexual issues, youth and sex in the media,

sexually deviant behavior in the media and the regulations and controls on sexual content

in television programming.

Perceptions of sexuality in the media

“Children know a lot more than adults realize. They get bombarded with images

on TV, movies, in videos, magazines, and from seeing people making out in public, etc”

(forums.christianity.com). Over the past two decades, the increase of sex in the media has

led it to become a primary source of sexual education for children and teenagers.

Moreover, it seems that cable television is seeping its way into prime time, and many

Americans are questioning “how much is too much?”

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 Heterosexual men and women view sexual content in the media in different ways

because of the social construction of the meaning of sex. Research found that, “female

inexperience and discomfort with sexual material may be explained partly as

symptomatic of their conditioning not to display sexual excitement overtly to avoid

sexual exploitation by males” (Gunter 66). Viewers said they would rather see violence

than sexual material in the media and believed that these materials “contribute to sexual

promiscuity, loss of respect for women and increases in acts of sexual violence” (Gunter

58-59). Since it appears that sex will always be a facet of television, audiences believe

that sex scenes should at least imply that condoms were used and safe sex was practiced.

However, this is rarely illustrated in most television shows that the mass audience has

access to on a daily basis.

The definition of a proper or traditional family is a “married, heterosexual

couple with children” (Croteau and Hoynes 20). In such relationships, the expected role

of the wife is to work at home raising children and the expected role of the husband is to

work for a paycheck to cover the household bills (Croteau and Hoynes 20). This

definition is being challenged by interracial or gay and lesbian families in prime time

through television shows such as Ellen, Spin City, and Buffy the Vampire Slayer (Croteau

and Hoynes 181). These shows cast gay or lesbian characters, but in non-sexualized roles

which “do not pose a threat to heterosexuals” (Croteau and Hoynes 225-226). In one

survey, 62 percent of the participants found any physical contact between homosexuals to

be offensive. Only 10 percent of those same respondents were opposed to a scene on

television in which a heterosexual couple was engaged in sex but was covered with bed-

clothes (Gunter 62-63).

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 Media Sex: Degrading to women and misleading to men

Television viewers are an active audience - not a passive one. As a result, viewers

of all ages and backgrounds socially construct a personal vision of reality as it is depicted

in television, specifically as it relates to gender issues and sexuality (Croteau and Hoynes

7). The most problematic aspect of this phenomenon is that television under-represents

women and frequently stereotypes them as subordinate, domestic, yet highly sexual

beings in comparison to their male counterparts. In fact, studies show that “females

accounted for a greater proportion of kissing, hugging, and affectionate touching, and of

implied sexual intercourse than would have been expected on the basis of their overall

representation” (Gunter 113). No matter what domestic roles women play in many

television shows - mother, housewife, or socialite - they are often highlighted in their role

as lover and defined by whom they do and do not love and how they love (Loveless).

Rarely are women appreciated for their intellectual value, achievements and professional

roles, but frequently for their roles as a “sex objects” dominated by sexually demanding

men (Portrayal of Women; Gunter 128). Research “of female and male involvement in

sexual behavior” shows that “men were found to initiate a far greater proportion of sexual

acts [on television] than did females” (Gunter 113). The primary concern about media

depiction of gender roles and sexual behavior is the perpetuation and imitation of this

behavior by viewers. It also creates misleading images about women's sexuality,

appropriate sexual behavior by men and women, and what constitutes appropriate ways

of displaying one's own sexual urges (Gunter 129).

Because of the way women are commonly depicted in television and the regular

consumption of sexual material that occurs, men often receive inappropriate messages

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about female sexuality and sexual relations with women. Such a portrayal of women as

“sex objects” allows men to formulate aggressive fantasies and sexual thoughts about

women, anti-female attitudes and an overriding superiority complex (Gunter 131-133). In

an article titled Loveless in the Media, television is assigned an appropriate, yet

troublesome label. “Television is like a drug - to be consumed with awareness and

caution. It seems that the roles [portrayed in television] are still a far cry from being

realistic and only serve to reinforce old stereotypes” (Loveless).

Youth and Sex

The depiction of sex in the media perpetuates the socialization process - a process

“whereby we learn and internalize the values, beliefs, and norms of our culture and, in so

doing, develop a sense of self” (Croteau & Hoynes 13). The medium and socializing

agent, television, provides society with access to a fantasy world in which pre-marital sex

is glorified, thereby substantiating it as an acceptable behavior. This idea effects society

because, “socialization continues throughout life, but is especially influential for children

and adolescents” (Croteau and Hoynes 14). Media sex, specifically in television,

influences the ideals and mentality of youth in society.

Sex manifests itself as a prevalent subject matter on television. Research shows

that, “television can influence viewers’ conceptions of social reality by displaying certain

patterns of behavior on screen, especially when these portrayals are credible and relevant

to the lives of viewers” (Hawkins and Pingree). Although sex remains a prevalent subject

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matter, it also remains one of much privacy. “For many people, it is a discomfort or

embarrassment to talk openly about sex or to be in the presence of others doing so. A

psychological climate is then created that further fuels the young person’s curiosity. This

may lead young people to actively seek out opportunities to find out about this

mysterious forbidden fruit. […] the media provide an available and necessary information

source” (Gunter 81). Television serves as an outlet and a source of information for youth.

It allows youth to explore a world in which they can find similarities and comfort.

Additionally, Croteau and Hoynes point out that, “Because media are such an integral

part of our lives, they generate a great deal of popular interest and debate” (Gunter 13).

Moreover, in addition to the socialization process, two theoretical models address

the reasons for the influence of media sex on youth. The first model, the cultivation

theory, suggests that, “a steady diet of television can influence viewers' conception of

social reality such that heavy viewers' beliefs about the real world are shaped by the

images of television” (Gerbner et. al 81). In numerous studies of the cultivation theory,

stronger gender-stereotyped beliefs have been repeatedly correlated with heavier

television watching (Gunter 82). The second model, the social learning theory, suggests

that, “actions depicted as rewarding, in the sense that they obtain status, success, or

personal gratification, have greater potential as exemplars that others might copy” (85).

The main concept within the social learning theory is that the greater the perceived

similarity between the viewer and the actor, the greater the likelihood that the former may

imitate the latter (Gunter 85).

Television contributes to youths’ perception of sex. It provides a world in which

one can enjoy the pleasures of pre-marital sex, but neglects the reality of its

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consequences. Television inhibits youths’ freedom to experience and appreciate their

differences. Instead, it imposes the idea of socialization, among other theories, in which

an underlying idea of a homogenous society is continually reinforced.

Sexually Deviant Behavior

According to some experts, the media have the power to construct how we

perceive our world. In doing so, all aspects of our lives, including social relationships

and how we respond to certain situations may serve as a model of what we witness

occurring on television.

In relation to sexual conduct, the media have the power to normalize behavior that

one might consider “risky,” stemming from their principle beliefs about sex. (Croteau &

Hoynes 163) These principle beliefs are usually one’s very first opinions about what sex

is and how it should be approached. Places where these beliefs tend to first develop are

in the home, church, or sometimes in conversation with one’s peers. In addition, a

person’s first ideas about sex may come directly from the media, without any form of

filtration. In such a case, the range of what that person deems sexually deviant and

acceptable behavior does not change much over time. Regardless of what one’s original

thoughts concerning sex may be, the media does indeed have the power to shape our

views as acceptable or deviant. According to Croteau and Hoynes, the media is able to

accomplish this by simply repeating images and sound bites that display sexual actions.

Therefore, what might be considered deviant to an individual can now be seen as normal

and can thereby lead the individual to imitate what they saw on television (163).

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 Media is considered to be an ideology, encompassing all things necessary to be

classified as an ideology such as cultural leaders and their ideas, which can be

subsequently taken as forms of social construction. For example, producers are

considered to be culture leaders, and thus their portrayals of sex in the media, whatever

they may be, can be taken as normal behavior.

Obviously, television has increased its acceptance of what sexual actions can be

shown on the air. Yet, producers would argue they are not spreading sexually deviant

behavior and expanding the range of what are acceptable actions, but rather that their

work merely reflects society’s already established attitudes about sexual behavior. This

is a common point of debate within this topic, and no side has proven to be more

convincing than the other (Croteau & Hoynes 164).

Controls on Sexual Content in Television Programming

In an age when television viewers can see a female superstar bare her breast at

dinner time, or hear the “F-word” used in exclamation on live broadcast, it could easily

be said that there is not enough control over sexual content on television. While

organizations such as the National Association of Broadcasters, the National Cable

Television Association, and the Motion Picture Association of America banded together

to create a television ratings system, the brunt of the responsibility to control what is seen

on television lies with the viewer (Croteau and Hoynes 104).

There are six categories in the television ratings system (Gunter 273). Each

rating has a certain level of sexual content that is allowed. For example, the TV-Y rating

is for shows that contain no sexual content, whereas, the TV-MA rating is given to

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programs that may contain sexually explicit material (Gunter 273). The ratings system

also has a content lettering system that tells viewers what to expect in terms of language

and substance (Croteau and Hoynes 104). Content lettering can lead to some ambiguity

because, while the letters stand for the same words in each rating, their definitions differ.

When the content letter S is use with a TV-PG rating, the program is defined to have

“some sexual situations”(Croteau and Hoynes 106). However, when the letter S is used

after a TV-14 rating, the program is said to have “intense sexual situations”(Croteau and

Hoynes 107). Ratings were developed mainly to work in combination with the V-chip

(Price 23). A V-chip is an apparatus inside a television that has the ability to block

certain shows based on their rating. As of January 2000, the FCC required that all new

TVs include a V-chip (Croteau and Hoynes 104).

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 Therefore, although television shows are given ratings, they are not necessarily

helpful in controlling sexual content because viewers must decipher the meanings of the

ratings themselves, or viewers must use the V-chip as a filter.

Other controls on sexual content in television programming include fines by the

Federal Communications Commission for indecent language and later time slots for

indecent shows (Lipshultz 7; Croteau and Hoynes 108). The FCC defines broadcast

indecency as, “language or material that, in context, depicts or describes, in terms

patently offensive as measured by contemporary community standards for the broadcast

medium, sexual or excretory organs or activities (www.fcc.gov).” Indecent and profane

broadcasts are restricted to airtime from 10 p.m. until 6 a.m.

Conclusion

Issues abound when considering the topic of sexual education in the media. The

sections above merely brush the surface of controversy and topics of discussion

surrounding the subject. Factors such as gender, age and sexual orientation can influence

how one perceives sexual activity on television. Many people cannot relate to what is

seen on television in their own lives. For example, not all families in the U.S. are made

up of heterosexual couples and their offspring. This type of family is commonly seen on

shows such as Everybody Loves Raymond (CBS), Happy Family (NBC) and even The

Simpsons (FOX). Television shows that include a romantic homosexual partnership are

scarce on non-cable television (Croteau and Hoynes 225-226). Non-existent are shows

that include a homosexual couple raising a family. Another important issue surrounding

sex education on television is the role of women. Women are highly under and

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misrepresented in television programming. Females play the part of the passive appeaser

while men are more likely the sexual aggressor (Gunter 113). Possibly, this could show

young men that women are sex objects and reinforce old masculine values that do not

include things that are considered feminine such as warmth and tenderness (Vargas

March 16, 2004). In turn, the cultivation theory model of socialization proposes that the

more youth watch television the stronger their ideas of what is considered masculine and

what is considered feminine will be (Gerbner et. al 81). Also, in digesting what is shown

on television, youth could develop the misconception that STDs and pregnancy are not

realistic consequences for sexual activity. This misconception can lead to sexually

deviant behavior, in which people think that their sexual actions are appropriate on the

basis of what they see on television. In deed their actions, for example having

unprotected pre-marital sex, may not be appropriate. Considering all of these issues

surrounding sexual behavior on television, the need for more regulation can be

questioned. At the present, television shows have a ratings and content lettering system.

Although they provide more information about the content of programming than there

has ever been in the past, many times the system is ambiguous in its definitions.

In the United States, people are introduced to sexuality at a young age through the

daily viewing of television. The perception of sexual reality on television, the use of

women as “sex objects” in programs, the effects of sexual socialization through television

for youth and the possibility of this socialization leading to deviant sexual behavior are

calls for concern for parents and the population as a whole. In order to reinforce

responsible sexual behaviors such as using condoms to prevent venereal diseases and

birth control methods, television writers and programmers must be more socially

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conscientious. They can do this without compromising their artistic integrity in two

ways: by including more educational aspects into shows such as the promotion of safe

sex and by creating a clearer, more defined ratings and lettering system and by promoting

the V-chip.

To promote safe sex, policymakers could create regulations that would require

networks to give agencies, such as local health departments, free airtime for public

service announcements. Provided with a tool to learn safe sexual behaviors, viewers will

be able to discern behaviors that are healthy and behaviors that are deviant. A more

defined ratings and lettering system would enable viewers to have a clear understanding

of what they are going to see. For example, a summary could be placed on the screen

before a program begins to divulge all sexual content. That way, viewers can decide

based on the summary, whether they would like to view such acts. Also, promotion of

the ratings system and the V-chip would enable viewers to have more control over the

content of what they watch. People may not know how to use the V-chip and ratings

correctly. By educating them on proper use, viewers can become more knowledgeable of

their ability to control programming.

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