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Ecological Engineering 37 (2011) 20352043

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Ecological Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecoleng

Loss of soil and nutrients by surface runoff in two agro-ecosystems within an Andean paramo area
a , M.R. Pena b J.D. Otero a , A. Figueroa a, , F.A. Munoz
a b

Universidad del Cauca, Environmental Studies Research Group, Cll 2a 3N-100, Popayan, Colombia Universidad del Valle, Instituto Cinara, A.A 25157, Cali, Colombia

a r t i c l e

i n f o

a b s t r a c t
High Andean paramo and cloud forest ecosystems in South America are undergoing transition to agricultural activities such as potato farming and cattle grazing in many areas. There is a lack of data quantifying the contributions of these land uses to soil erosion and nutrients loss. Thus, we assessed soil quality in patches of potato crops and pasture for cattle grazing, and tested soil and nutrient loss from these two land uses in response to heavy rainfall simulation rates (100 mm h1 ). Physico-chemical analyses were also carried out in soil and runoff water samples. We found that potato farming had more severe impacts on soil quality, with substantial loss of the silt fraction (low silt levels of 11.9% were found in soil composition) that prevents aggregates formation and increase soil instability. Furthermore, we found that potato farming resulted in much higher soil loss rate (5.67 g h1 ) compared to that of pastoral land use (0.61 g h1 ). Meanwhile, N and P average losses measured in runoff were 1.22 mg N-NO3 l1 plus 0.12 mg P-PO3 l1 for the potato crop, and 0.86 mg N-NO3 l1 plus 0.09 mg P-PO3 l1 for the pastures, respectively. We postulate that more effective and continuous rooting prevents soil disaggregation in pasture relative to cropping, and that continuous and extensive foliage protects the soil from rain-splash erosion. Finally, direct relationships appeared between the two agricultural practices evaluated and the loss of soil and nutrients. Thus, if anthropogenic practices such as those studied herein continue their widespread trend observed in recent years in the region, then two of the most important paramo eco-systemic services, that is, water regulation and high water quality supply, may be impaired with all the consequences this brings for human settlements and their livelihoods located down waters. 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Article history: Received 16 September 2010 Received in revised form 11 July 2011 Accepted 7 August 2011 Available online 20 September 2011 Keywords: Paramo Agro-ecosystems Surface runoff Nutrients Soil particles

1. Introduction Agricultural sustainability plus food production and safety for future generations is a worldwide concern set out in international policies and agreements. In this sense, rational use of soil and water resources become crucial; nonetheless, major pressure is increasingly being put on areas without farming vocation such as the Andean paramo ecosystems. These ecosystems are at the very heart of water resources management in the South American Andes because they play key ecological functions in terms of water catchment, regulation and supply of pristine water resources for different uses (de Groot et al., 2002). According to Podwojewski and Poulenard (2000), anthropogenic factors are the main cause of paramo degradation, due to the generation of physical and chemical alterations of soils. Therefore, anthropogenic activities such as agricultural practices

Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 572 824 1726; fax: +44 572 820 9860. E-mail address: apolinargueroa@gmail.com (A. Figueroa). 0925-8574/$ see front matter 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2011.08.001

have probably the highest negative environmental impacts on the Andean paramo ecosystems. Soil preparation for agriculture often releases part of the immobilized or captured nutrients (i.e., which are only available for short periods of time) and alters the soil physical properties. Consequently, paramo ecosystems with increasing agricultural settings are being deteriorated, also because these high-altitude ecosystems have low resilience and it is slowly recovered. As pointed out by Jaramillo (2004), the majority of Colombian soils have low fertility. Nevertheless, farmers are not seriously taking into consideration the vulnerability to soil degradation especially in mountainous areas, where erosion generates irreversible damages to soil properties and this in turn quickens major (2007), reductions in crops productivity. As discussed by Munoz vegetation coverage reduces the erosive forces and supplies different protection functions, for instance, absorbs energy from rain droplets by intercepting them, reduces water ow velocity on the soil surface and physically restricts soil particles loss. Meanwhile, uncovered soil (i.e., without vegetation) becomes more susceptible to particles loss and soil structure modication. Based on

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Fig. 1. Location of the research area in Paramo Purace, Colombia.

the previous considerations, erosion impacts are also expected to grow if climate, topography and environmental management are inadequate for productive agro-ecosystems. Thus, it seems that agricultural practices in fragile ecosystems such as Andean paramo and surrounding buffer areas may have important implications on soil and water quality as well as on the regulation of water ows and natural drainage. Therefore, the aim of this work is to assess the erosion enhancement resulting from potato farming and cattle grazing activities in a high-altitude Andean area bordering the paramo system of Purace. These results may also yield criteria for agro-ecosystem management practices in this very fragile natural Andean setting. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Site description This research was carried out in Purace town, Cauca region, on Southwest Colombia. This is an area of traditional Amerindian communities, bordering the National Natural Reserve Park of Paramo Purace (NNPP): 2 21 47 N and 76 24 28 W. The study area is right on the hillside of Purace volcano, is located at 3260 (m.o.s.l), average annual rainfall of 1905 mm, T = 16 C (annual mean), relative moisture (87%, annual mean), evaporation of 4.6 mm (annual mean), wind velocity of 23 km h1 (annual mean), and terrain slopes ranging from 15 to 75%. Most of the area is covered by potato crops and pastures for cattle grazing; there are also some scattered patches of Andean tropical forest. The main economic activities in the region are cattle farming and small-scale agriculture mainly for self-consumption (SIRA, 2010). The soils in the research area were developed from well-drained volcanic ash and mud, in some sectors there is laminar erosion and

tiptoe-like patterns; black and dark greyish horizons; frank textures in the surface and clayish in deeper layers, with strong to medium acidity, high concentrations of organic carbon (6.2%) and high-cation exchange capacity (EOT, 2000). Pastures such as the Pennisetum clandestinum and the velvet grass Holcus lanatus are the dominant plants species in the area. Fig. 1 shows the location of the research area in the Paramo Purace. 2.2. Experimental set-up Historical rainfall distribution series for the region allowed for the selection of the high-frequency simulated rainfall event with an intensity of 100 mm h1 and a 30-min duration (SIRA, 2010). Thus, a rain simulator under controlled conditions was set up in order to produce fast, reliable, efcient, replicable and cost-effective data for soil studies. The simulator trickled water droplets of about 2.75 mm in diameter, by means of hypodermic needle-like nozzles (n = 24), distributed in an area of 0.42 m 0.33 m. This simulated rain had droplets with terminal velocities of around 4.0 m s1 , and rain kinetic energy of 17.9 J mm1 m2 h1 (Cobo, 1998). Therefore, the simulated rain intensity was adjusted according to the following equation: I= V A (1)

where I is the rain intensity (mm); V is the water volume collected from simulator tray (ml); A is the surface area of the simulator tray (cm2 ). The time period chosen for the tests was 30 min according to the historical rainfall distribution series. Fig. 2 shows the rain simulators installed on experimental plots at different terrain slopes.

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Fig. 2. Rain simulators for the evaluation of soil and nutrients losses.

2.3. Experimental design Data series were generated by applying a fully randomized design with three (3) repetitions per sampling journey. Thus, a total of 108 sampling journeys were carried out in a 6-month period (running from September 2009 to February 2010) on a total of 6 rectangular experimental plots (10.0 m 6.0 m). The terrain gradient (i.e., slope in %) was taken as a co-variable for the whole experiment, since paramo areas are fairly steep. Other authors in the Andean region or similar settings have successfully applied this methodology too (Torres, 2000; Munoz, 2007, 2010; Moss, 2008; Otero, 2009; Figueroa and Valencia, 2009). It has to be said that there was great difculty in using properly the rain simulator within the Andean tropical forest due to the very high density of trees and robust bushes. This is the main reason to use the pasturecovered lands as the reference condition in this study. All physicochemical analyses of water samples collected were carried out according to Standard Methods (APHA, 2005). Descriptive statistics were applied to data series and specic statistical tests on variables independence and signicant differences of mean values were run by statistical packages SPSS V.14 and R 2.12.

Table 1 Average physical properties of soil by applying the MannWhitney U-test. Variables Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%) Texture Total porosity (%) Real density (g cm3 ) Apparent density (g cm3 ) Permeability (cm h1 ) Humidity (%) Pasture 75.2 17.3 6.5 Medium Sandy 75.7 3.40 0.82 0.81 92.1 Potato 81.6 11.9 6.5 Medium Sandy 65.4 2.50 0.90 0.28 67.70 S.D. 0.33 0.67 1.0 N.A 0.02 0.02 0.59 0.03 0.02

3. Results Table 1 shows data on the main physical soil properties and the corresponding statistical tests results. A sandy-loamy soil was found according to the texture classication system of soils from the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). The latter might have been inuenced by vegetation protection that hindered the movement of the nest and more reactive soil particles, and the necessary nutrients along with them (PPO4 3 and N-NO3 ) for agro-ecosystem development. Table 2 displays data on the main chemical properties of soils and the corresponding statistical tests.

High values of organic matter were found between 0.0 and 0.05 m depth in both agro-ecosystems. According to the SCCS (2000), soils are considered as organic when organic matter content is higher than 10%. Meanwhile, C:N ratio values allowed for the interpretation of organic matter fertility. According to Nicholas (1968), organic matter quality is acceptable within a range of 1215 C:N. This indicates a normal mineralization process of organic matter in pastures but low mineralization rates in potato crops. The latter is likely inuenced by the application of fertilizers (N:P:K = 10:30:10), which provide available nitrogen for microorganisms that do not need to mineralize organic matter in the presence of excess nutrients.

Table 2 Average chemical properties of soil by applying the MannWhitney U-test. Variables Organic matter (%) C/N ratio pH Interchangeable Al3+ (meq/100 g) Total nitrogen (%) Available phosphorus (mg l1 ) Pasture 13.8 12.5 5.05 1.65 0.64 7.03 Potato 13.64 13.40 4.81 1.92 0.59 6.43 S.D. 1.00 N.A 0.33 1.00 0.004 0.002

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J.D. Otero et al. / Ecological Engineering 37 (2011) 20352043 Table 3 Inter-factors test for land use, slope and time. Dependent variables: pH, NO3 and PO4 3 . Source Slopes Months Uses Slopes Months Uses Mean Conductivity 0.00 0.00 0.00 pH 0.01 0.47 1.65 S.D. 0.06 0.00 0.24 0.68 0.00 0.00 Source Slopes Months Uses Slopes Months Uses Mean PO4 3 (mg l1 ) 0.01 0.01 0.01 NO3 3.17 1.21 2.36 S.D. 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.07 0.05

The USDA classies strong acidic soils as the result of its volcanic origin, the high contents of organic matter and the medium level of aluminium contents. Nonetheless, the latter is likely to becoming toxic for plants and soil microbiota. In potato-based agro-ecosystems, manure addition contributes to soil acidity and despite of lime addition during planting, the soil kept a low pH most probably due to lime leaching by surface runoff. Montenegro and Malagn (1990) showed that the optimal pH range for farming is between 5.5 and 6.7. On this study, however, the median pH value was 4.81, and this acidity level inuences the availability and absorption of nutrients by plants. Additionally, it also inhibits some chemical and ion interactions and exchanges within the soil matrix. (1985) points out that medium level On the other hand, Munoz of interchangeable aluminium generates acidity and a moderately toxic effect on plants. This might have been the case in this research given the aluminium levels found (see Table 2). Notice that it may have also inhibited the cell division process and affected the normal development of enzymatic activity. Meanwhile, high levels of nitrogen (SCCS, 2000) were found in both agro-ecosystems, and this is attributable to a high content of indigenous organic matter and external sources like fertilizers. There are different ways of biological nitrogen xation in pastures caused by vegetation and microorganisms. Additionally, soils high porosity and low apparent density allow for proper air circulation, and in this way oxidation processes may greatly contribute to nitrication. According to the SCCS (2000), available phosphorus concentration is low when measured values are below 30 mg l1 . In our case this may be attributed to the strong acidity of these soils. According to Pumisacho and Sherwood (2002) quoted by Nustez et al. (2006), phosphorus interacts with reactive surfaces and the humusaluminium complexes, affecting plant development, and making fertilizers addition necessary. Phosphorous fertilization doses higher than 200 kg Ha1 yr1 do not show any positive response in yields, which breach the traditional practice of most farmers that generally use doses well over 400 kg Ha1 yr1 , thus, incurring into major production costs and higher water contamination and eutrophication risks. Data on physical and chemical analysis of surface runoff in regards to land use, slope and time are presented in Table 3.

R2 = 0.63 (square R corrected = 0.45).

This research started in January 2009, when land was just being prepared for potato cropping, and when soil rotation left the ne and active soil particles exposed to aquatic erosion. Fertilizers were also added at this point (see Fig. 3). Runoff was expected to have higher conductivity values because of these anthropogenic factors, nevertheless, conductivity readings were falling remarkably as time passed, and this might be attributed to the constant wash out caused by heavy rains in the study area. Meanwhile, the pasture agro-ecosystem showed a higher and more stable pH value than the potato agro-ecosystem, this indicates to some extent the protection and buffering effects of vegetal cover, that helped controlling soil acidication. Moreover, cultivating in the slopes gradient direction favoured soil and nutrient losses during surface runoff events. Other factors that may also inuence acidity are the high percentage of organic matter, medium values of interchangeable aluminium and fertilizers application. Phosphates concentration showed slight variations from September to January, even though an extra phosphorus source was applied (i.e., fertilizer). This effect can be directly attributed to the crops nutrient uptake from soil, but the remaining part might have also been xed or adsorbed onto the soils colloidal surface. A phosphorous increase observed in February may have been attributed to land preparation for another agro-ecosystem in the upper part of the sampling site (upon a 50% slope gradient area). Over there fertilizers were added but soil particles were carried away to the sampling area increasing phosphates due to strong precipitations

Fig. 3. Dependent variables behaviour during the six-month sampling period.

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on the few days following crop establishment. Fig. 3 shows the changes observed, but according to recorded values they did not even reach 1.0 mg l1 . These values were low and may not represent an important phosphate loss by surface runoff; nevertheless, in the long run this can certainly contribute towards a sustained aquatic ecosystem contamination. The pasture agro-ecosystem showed a better stability since phosphates values were lower. The vegetal cover protected from soil disaggregation by intercepting raindrops; additionally, it also worked as a physical ow barrier, preventing surface runoff from higher speeds and its consequently higher erosion rates. Meanwhile, the potato agro-ecosystem showed a slight increase in phosphates loss during the six-month sampling period, with a total loss of 0.113 mg l1 , against 0.092 mg l1 for pastures. The difference could have been greater due to the fertilizer addition to the potato agro-ecosystem; nonetheless it is possible that phosphorus was xed on soil. On the other hand, surface runoff carried away more soil and nutrients from steeper slope areas (50%) compared to those areas with smaller terrain gradients. For this reason, slopes of 50% inclination exhibited higher losses of phosphate, with a total of 0.65 mg l1 , whilst slopes of 25% inclination had a phosphate loss value of 0.57 mg l1 . At the beginning of the sampling campaign, the potato agroecosystem released a high amount of nitrates as a consequence of fertilization, resulting in an average concentration of 1.22 mg l1 ; this contrasted with the 0.86 mg l1 measured in the pasture. However, between September and October, a signicant nitrates decrease was observed due most likely to nutrients uptake by the crops and wash out by water erosion since nitrates are highly soluble in water. The 25% degree slope yielded an average of 1.25 mg l1 N-NO3 in the run off water, and this was higher than the 0.83 mg l1 N-NO3 found in the runoff from the 50% slope degree. This might have been due to the lesser runoff velocity in the atter slope, thus, enhancing time contact for nitrates solubilisation reaction from the soil matrix. On the other hand, inltration and surface runoff regarding land use, slope and time were also studied. Different statistical tests were run on data series as depicted in Tables 46.

Fig. 4. Eroded soil comparison for both agro-ecosystems.

Table 4 Contrast statistics (grouping variable: use of soil). Tests MannWhitney U Wilcoxon W Z Asymptotic sig. (bilateral) Runoff (ml) 642.0 1308.0 0.07 0.95 Inltration (ml) 543.0 1209.0 1.18 0.24 Eroded soil (g) 116.0 782.0 5.99 0.00

The pasture agro-ecosystem reacted different to erosion (Fig. 3), demonstrating that vegetation cover has a protective effect by maintaining low levels of eroded soil. In addition, the roots improved the porosity and inltration rates, thus limiting and controlling runoff development. The factor alleged to cause these differences was land use; in the potato agro-ecosystem, uncovered soil favoured particle disaggregation and losses by surface runoff. The loss of structure generates changes like pore sealing or rapid saturation, nally expressed as low permeability (Table 1). Furthermore, farmers customarily prepared cultivable land in the slopes direction in order to avoid oods or humidity excess in the crops. This, in turn, favoured higher speeds of the surface runoff, thus progressing from a transport factor to a soil matrix detachment phenomenon, and this caused more severe erosion rates (Fig. 4). The data series allowed for the generation of Fig. 5 by taking a representative rain intensity of 100 mm h1 . Table 5 presents data on runoff, inltration rates and eroded soil in regards to land slope. Fig. 6 shows that inltration behaviour was inverse to surface runoff for both slopes, and the higher runoff was observed for the 50% slope degree. November showed the highest precipitation of the year, and this tted well to the highest rates of runoff. Notice that soil humidity contents in the 50% and 25% slopes were 79.7% and 86.9%, respectively. The statistical tests results on Table 5, suggest that eroded soil was not apparently inuenced by either of the slope gradients; this may be argued based on the high values of the coefcient of variation (i.e., 1.69 for the 50% slope and 1.10 for the 25% slope). Furthermore, eld data for eroded soil were most likely inuenced by a range of factors related to the very physical and chemical properties of soil particles, type of vegetation cover, as well as to environmental variables such as moisture contents and temperature.

Table 5 Contrast statistics (grouping variable: slope). Tests MannWhitney U Wilcoxon W Z Asymptotic sig. (bilateral) Runoff (ml) 450.0 1116.0 2.23 0.03 Inltration (ml) 464.0 1130.0 2.07 0.04 Eroded soil (g) 644.0 1310.0 0.05 0.96

Table 6 Contrast statistics (grouping variable: time in months). Tests MannWhitney U Wilcoxon W Z Asymptotic sig. (bilateral) Runoff (ml) 450.0 1116.0 2.23 0.03 Inltration (ml) 464.0 1130.0 2.07 0.04 Eroded soil (g) 644.0 1310.0 0.05 0.96

Fig. 5. Likely eroded soil rate in ton ha1 for each month in the period.

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Fig. 6. Comparison of surface runoff and inltration rates for both slopes.

Nonetheless, the slope gradient suggests, at least descriptively, an inuence on soil losses (Fig. 7). A great amount of soil loss was observed in November (Fig. 7) in the potato agro-ecosystem (19.8 g) for 50% slope, contrasting with the 0.75 g in the same agro-ecosystem for 25% slope. Similar contrasting gures were obtained for the other months in this research. Meanwhile, in the pasture agro-ecosystem a smaller inuence was observed for November (8.08 g for 50% slope and 1.42 g for 25% slope). Based on these previous gures, the soil loss rates for a rain intensity of 100 mm h1 (for rainy periods such as November) in the potato agro-ecosystem were around 1.31 ton ha1 for 50% slope, and 0.53 ton ha1 for 25% slope. In this sense, Jordan and Martinez (2007) found that in order to keep erosion under reasonable limits (i.e., soil loss rates below 0.18 ton ha1 ) it is necessary to reduce the terrain slope gradient well below 40% and to increase plant cover above 3540%. 3.1. Runoff, eroded soil, and inltration for different periods The following table shows the statistical parameters for the data series of each variable when tested for different distributions (Table 6). Meanwhile, Fig. 8 shows the relationship between precipitation versus surface runoff and inltration. OctoberNovember was the period of greater precipitation and runoff with 83.3% soil humidity; this caused a high level of saturation in the soil. Therefore, soil macro-pores could not accumulate more water any further. This level of saturation prevented inltration and enhanced runoff

Fig. 8. Variables behaviour (SeptemberFebruary).

during

six-month

sampling

period

Fig. 9. Erosion susceptibility map from Pillimbalas region.

ows. On the other hand, September was the month with lower precipitation, and most likely the macro-pore structure of the soil matrix was more open as a consequence of the drier conditions occurred in the hot season period (i.e., July and August). At rst, this soil dryness may have increased inltration rates and decreased runoff ows. Consequently, during September eroded soil and runoff rates diminished signicantly. Ruiz (2009) showed a clear inverse correlation between natural vegetal cover reduction (i.e., forest and paramo vegetation) and the signicant increase of intervened areas. Thus, crops showed an increase of 93% in a ten-year period (19891999) with an annual rate of change of 96.7 Ha yr1 . These gures evidenced the great impact of the anthropogenic interventions on paramo vegetal covers. In this sense, Fig. 9 shows the current soil degradation risk by erosion in the sampling area and its surroundings. This gure conrms that the study area posses an extensive surface with high-erosion susceptibility (see purple polygons), especially in the zones near the river San Francisco. These areas show very steep slopes (i.e., higher than 50%), where it is likely to nd commercial potato agro-ecosystems that noticeably increase the erosion on these Andean soils. 4. Discussion Based on Table 1, a change was observed in sands and silt, indicating that soil use would have affected its internal characteristics, and this led to progressive and continuing erosion. The latter was important in potato agro-ecosystems where sand percentage was

Fig. 7. Eroded soil comparison in relation to slope gradients.

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signicantly superior (81.5%), thus causing nutrient wash-out from the soil. Moreover, the low silt levels (11.9%) also prevented aggregates formation and this may have caused soil instability. On the other hand, the pasture agro-ecosystem showed a lower percentage of big particles and higher percentage of small silt particles. Table 1 also shows higher percentages of sand and this increases the porosity levels, thus, favouring aeration and water ow. Claver (1981) pointed out that for a similar soil texture to the one shown herein, the percentage of available water is from 10 to 15%. According to SCCS (2000), the values for a better-balanced texture are between 50 and 65% for sand, 10 and 25% for clay and 28 and 50% for silt, so that plants do not suffer from physiological limitations, and good water and oxygen retention also prevail. According to the SCCS (2000), the apparent densities (AD) are low when values are below 1100 kg m3 , indicating high contents of organic material, high porosity and humidity. The pasture agroecosystem showed a very high value for real density (3390 kg m3 ); whilst for potato agro-ecosystem the value fell in the range from low to normal (2530 kg m3 ) as dened by SCCS (2000). Experiments in these landscapes showed that vegetation patches that retained more water had greater clusters of plant growth, and hence higher inltration capacity and biomass production than open inter-patch areas. It has also been found (mainly in the hilly side) that runoff, sediment transport, and vegetation growth were interlinked so that when vegetation patches decreased in coverage due to grazing, then nutrients and soil losses via runoff but especially sediment drifting, increased whilst forage production decreased (Ludwig et al., 2005). In terms of nutrients, McLauchlan (2006) pointed out that C, N, and P cycles have unique properties that determine their presence and resilience to change during agricultural practices. Thus, C and N are easily and rapidly transformed or lost from ecosystems due to multiple transformation pathways, but their long-term accumulation is generally low due to ecological constraints on N xation. Meanwhile, phosphorus is the element least susceptible to depletion by agriculture, unless high erosion rates occur. This is also the element with the slowest accumulation rate (i.e., without extra P amendments) because its ultimate natural source is weathering processes in the soil. Although fertilizer amendments in agro-ecosystems certainly increase C, N, and P levels when compared to natural ecosystems, it is also true that nutrient depletion is more severe in the Andes as pointed out by Koning et al. (1997). These authors worked in the Andean region of Ecuador and found higher erosion rates and consequently higher losses of soil and nutrients especially in temporary crops. 4.1. Disturbances in the agro-ecosystems In the pasture agro-ecosystem several anthropogenic activities that affect water resources were found: changes in native plants cover (i.e., high plateaus) to pasture agro-ecosystems, and introduction of seeds (i.e., foreign grass) not native from the biogeographic area were found. Derivation and collection of water streams for different purposes were observed (i.e., regional water supply systems and agro-productive purposes). Transformation of riparian zones was also found, and this causes losses of waterrelated niches; free animal access to the study area increased sedimentation and contamination patterns expressed in highcounts of total and faecal coliforms as reported by Ruiz (2009). In addition, high-abundance of algae was observed in water streams as a likely result of physical, chemical and biological alterations of water quality induced by nutrients runoff from terrestrial agroecosystems. Pasture agro-ecosystems caused soil disturbances due to reduced-protection covers, and exposure of soil to environmental

factors such as water erosion. This generated changes in the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil, causing reduction in the fertility and production capacity. Chemical degradation was also observed via the interchangeable Aluminium medium levels (1.65 meq 100 g), most likely producing a mod 1985). Acidication of soil erate toxic effect in plants (Munoz, signicantly altered nutrients availability and solubility (i.e., nitrates and phosphates) and also their cycling (nitrogen and phosphorus). Surface runoff transfers soil and nutrients towards the lower parts of the slopes, such as lagoons and crevices. This in turn generates eutrophication and silting. Additionally, cows leg-erosion was noticeable in several areas by the constant transit of cattle, deteriorating the quality of soils surface layer. Likewise, a compaction effect and hardening of surface soil was also increased and evidenced by the low levels of permeability (0.81 cm h1 ). Other problems such as deforestation, res and excessive uptake of water streams as a consequence of agricultural expansion have modied specic features of paramo ecosystems. In this particular case, an increase of forest fragmentation was observed, and this causes niches and habitats losses as well as biodiversity reduction. On the one hand, plant species are most likely affected by the interruption of the sequential processes and ecological ows, and on the other, native fauna displacement (especially of endangered species) occurs due to trophic web alteration. According to Joaqui (2005), for this particular location of the project, about 2144 Ha of paramo cover were lost only in a decade period. Intentional res increase CO2 levels and contribute to greenhouse gases emissions and global warming, this also affects air quality in the study area. Another factor is the proximity to the open volcanic-originated sulphur mines whose exploitation allows for some eventual acid rains in the inuence area. On the other hand, agricultural expansion causes the establishment of native Amerindian communities and colonizing farmers upon this territory. These factors increase the demands for natural resources, and the related contamination production but at the same time force people to use protected areas as production grounds. Although the natural ecosystem is altered via these practices, it has to be bear in mind that human impacts on these settings are mainly related to poverty alleviation and their efforts to improve the standard of living. Meanwhile, the potato agro-ecosystems stand out in the study area and appear to be one of the main polluting agents of water resources. First, when soil is carried away, a massive transport of sediments and nutrients (including fertilizers) is shifted towards the lowest areas, usually the closest areas to the water streams too. This causes silting and alters the soil physical and chemical properties by providing eutrophic conditions with direct effects on the biological growth of algae. Further alterations were also noticed upon the main riparian zones, which are the natural protecting barriers of water resources (Schepers et al., 1980). Several researchers also demonstrated that in rural environments, faecal indicators contribution from wildlife to runoff and base-ow surface waters can result in bacteriological counts that exceed most recommended microbiological water quality standards. Local farmers in the study zone carry out traditional agriculture and although on smaller scale, the use of agrochemicals for production enhancement is still evident. High precipitations cause crop ooding; therefore, farmers prepare their land in the slopes direction. This practice increases the erosive processes, concomitant losses of organic matter, nutrients and other key elements involved in soils fertility. Another factor that alters soil layers is land preparation for agriculture; soil is turned by tillage tools or machinery and this favours obstruction and disconnection of the soil pores matrix, thus, changing the structural stability as shown by this research. Papiernik and Schumacher (2000)

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evaluated changes in soil properties and soil productivity as the effect of topsoil layer movement from areas of soil depletion to areas of soil accumulation. The increase in soils acidity (pH = 4.81) diminishes the availability of nutrients and facilitates its wash out by surface runoff, and Aluminium interchange. The latter also produces moderate toxicities for crops as pointed out by Munoz (1985). Information taken from the community showed that soils in steep slopes (>25%) are cultivable once every 5 years approximately; therefore, agricultural expansion towards paramo areas becomes almost compulsory for farmers survival. Replacement of native vegetal cover by bare soil is the most important driver for losses of niches and habitats that in turn causes biodiversity loss in the whole ecosystem. The ultimate consequence is the increase of the fragmentation processes rate, interruption of trophic webs and the delay in typical sequential processes of these high-mountain ecosystems. The acidity of soil also hinders most plant life, even so in potato agro-ecosystems where acidity favours diseases (i.e., spots and plagues) in the plants by the lack of strong immune responses to environmental pathogens. The constant soil removal, lime and fertilizers addition, and acidity along with soil compaction are also serious threats for the survival of edaphic organisms that were found in major numbers in pasture agro-ecosystems. Agricultural and livestock expansion is a key factor for the replacement of native vegetal cover; this increases the area of agricultural productive land, and generates alterations of the landscape units and ecosystems. Additionally, the new establishment of agricultural parcels increases natural resources demands and waste production, such as agro-chemical residuals and metabolites that end up in water streams. On the other hand, potato agro-ecosystems are a source of income for the communities, and they generate commercial activities at local and regional levels. This interweaves with socioeconomic variables such as employment opportunities for the inhabitants of the region. All of the previous inter-twined factors and conicts between human beings and nature contribute to the reduction or misbalance of the water regulation function in the Andean paramo ecosystems on southwest Colombia. Finally, and as pointed out by Nearing and Jetten (2005), the precipitation patterns and changes occurred over the last century in this Colombian region, and the expectations regarding changes on extreme events (i.e., precipitation and droughts) over the next century, together with the results of this study, suggest a signicant potential for climate change inuence in the region and this may lead to ever increasing global soil erosion rates and its consequences, unless conservation measures are urgently taken to offset this worrying trend. The ndings of this study may be useful to develop proposals aimed at implementing more sustainable agricultural schemes that consider soil types, climate, terrain gradients and the indigenous human culture. Besides, we may think of agro-ecosystems as mixed ecosystems (partially natural and partially constructed) where natural dynamics and man-made interventions have to coexist in parallel. Thus, ecological engineering principles founded upon good science are to be responsibly applied upon crop development and harvesting when dealing with the old dilemma of agricultural production versus nature conservation, particularly in fragile but strategic biomes such as the Andean paramos. In this sense, a recent publication by Sahu and Gu (2009) found that the application of contour and riparian buffer strips planted with perennial vegetation improved surface water quality by reducing nutrients and sediment outow from croplands to freshwater streams. This may well be a sustainable-engineered way to reduce the impact of agricultural activities but at the same time, safeguarding food production and poverty alleviation in tropical Andean settings.

5. Conclusions The rain mini-simulator was adequately set up to the precipitation conditions in the study area, and it made possible the study of erosion rates and nutrient losses. In this sense, the potato agroecosystem showed the highest values for eroded soil (14 g) and surface runoff (2306 ml), along with the lower value of inltration (5093 ml) in comparison to the pasture agro-ecosystem. An average soil loss of 0.32 tons per hectare for a rain of 100 mm h1 intensity was estimated from the simulations. A directly proportional relationship between the surface runoff and the eroded soil was found. Thus, in potato agro-ecosystem approximately 3.11 g of soil were lost per litre of precipitation, but in contrast only 0.03 g per litre was the gure found for the pastures. Eroded soil behaviour and loss rates were seemingly inuenced by the terrain slopes as shown by the high values of the coefcient of variation. However, the expected inuence of terrain slope may have been offset by the interaction amongst soil and plants rhizosphere (mainly in the case of pasture agro-ecosystem) along with soil properties such as cohesiveness and friction. Surface runoff pH was slightly acid in the potato agro-ecosystem due to soil wash out, whilst pasture agro-ecosystem kept a better pH stability at the expense of an enhanced vegetal cover protection. Soils in the study area showed an intermediate permeability mainly related to their structure modication, high levels of organic matter and humidity, but also to likely clogging of the interconnecting porous system. Nitrogen contents percentage in the potato agro-ecosystem was relatively high (0.60%) due to the introduction of fertilizers. Meanwhile, pasture agro-ecosystem had even a higher value (0.67%) for Nitrogen contents. The latter value was most likely due to the presence of decaying vegetal cover that surely enhanced various Nitrogen transformation processes in the pasture-covered soil. Phosphorous content in both agro-ecosystems was very low. This result might have been due to the acidic soil pH and the very nature and constitution of these volcanic soils that make phosphorus tracking a very complex task. The implications of the ndings from this research in the contemporary context of climate change and variability call for ecologically sound agrological engineering interventions in agroecosystems, which are located upon or closed to fragile natural settings such as the Andean paramo. Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the Colombian Ministry of Agriculture and Universidad del Cauca for the nancial support of this research project under contracts No. 143-2008P5611-3902 and 144-2008P5611, respectively. References
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