Personality & Managerial conveys a message to the public. Thus, he conveys a message of self and the role he played.

That is what he speaks through. The study of personality includes how people affect others and in that their physical appearance, like body features, height, weight, body colour, facial features, even their behaviour, interaction with others, being courteous or discourteous all get included. Thus, individual differences form a distinct personality of his or her own. People have some traits in common but they also have other traits which are not common with others. In this way people are different than others. Traits like aggressiveness, anger or short temperedness behaves in some manners when a particular type of situation arises. Such traits become so important in the behaviour of that person that people choose to address him by those specific traits like calm, aggressive or angry. e is addressed so because people choose a small number of traits in an individual. These traits are very prominent and visible repeatedly in his behaviours. In this unit we will understand the concept of personality along with the various theorys of personality. 1.2 !"#!$PT "% P$&S"#'(IT) _____________________________________________ The concept of personality is *uite comple+. $ven today, the psychologists do not agree to any one definition. In one study ,ordon 'llport, a well known psychologist, gave as many as-fifty definitions of personality. 'fter considering historical, theatrical, theological, .uristic, sociological, biosocial, omnibus, psychiatric and other definitions, 'llport put forth the following definition/ 0Personality is the dynamic organi1ation within individual of those psycho2physical systems that determine his uni*ue ad.ustment to the environment. The 3ord dynamic used in this definition refers to the changing nature of personality. 3hereas 0organi1ation4 emphasi1es the patterning of the independent parts of the personality of the independent parts of the personality structure, each of which has a special relation to the whole. It may also be noted that 0psychophysical system4 is composed of habits, attitudes, emotional states, sentiments, motives and beliefs, all of which are psychological but have a physical basis in the individuals neutral glandular, or general bodily 5 -states. The analysis of the above definitions gives the following elements personality / 6. 7. 8. 9. :7 Personality represents certain distinctive traits It is an integrating and organi1ing agent between physiologic, and psychological facets of an individual. It is uni*ue in nature. It becomes habitual to the person.

;.

It resulting finally into action behaviour in relation to a

person, organi1ation or situation. Definition of Personality 0Personality includes e+ternal appearance and behaviour, inner awarness of self as a permanent organi1ing force and the particular pattern or organi1ation of measurable traits, both inner and outer4. 2 Flayed L Ruch 0Personality means how a person affects others and how he understands and views himself as well as the pattern of inner and outer measurable traits and the person situation interaction4 2 Fred Luthans Personality denotes the distinctive traits of an individual, the stable and shifting pattern of relationship between these traits and the ways to traits interact to help or hinder the ad.ustment of a person to other people and situations4. 2 Morgan and King 0Personality is stable set of characteristics and tendencies that determine those commonalities and differences in the psychological behaviour <thoughts, feelings and actions= of people that have continuity in time and that may not be easily understood as the sole result of the social and biological pressures of the movement4 -Maddi 0Personality may be understood as the characterstics pattern of behaviour and modes of thinking that determine a persons ad.ustment to the environment4. 2 Hilgrad, Atkinson and Atkinson 1.3 FACTORS IN SHAPING OF PERSONA IT!

Personality Concept & Theories

Personality denotes the psychological characteristics of a person that influence his behaviour towards goal achievement. It is the sum total of ways in which an individual interacts with others. Personality has key influence on work performance. In .obs where human relations are very important, personality of the incumbent determines his effectiveness. The factors which shape the personality of an individual are as under 2

1. Here"ity 2 It means the transmission of the *ualities from ancestor to descendant through a mechanism lying primarily, facial attractiveness, se+, temperament, muscle composition, refle+es, etc are inherited from ones parents. owever the importance of heredity varies from one personality trait to another. %or e+ample, heredity

Personality & Managerial 6S generally more important in determining a person s temperament Per or!ance ", . Personality Concept & The family si1e will ,also affect the behaviour . of a child. The Theories , child is different from the personality of a personality of a single than values and ideals. person who is brought up in a family of two on more than two siblings. 2. #rain biological that influences personality is the role Similarly, the personality of2a'nother person brought upfactor in nuclear family of brain ofa an individual. Though promising in roads are made by will be different from the of person brought up in a some .oint family. theborne psychologists are unable to prove empirically the Studies have alsoresearchers, shown that first children are more contribution of human brain and in influencing personality. Preliminary results responsible, rational, independent, ambitious more sensitive fromThe thefamily electrical stimulation ofathe brain <$S>= research gives indication to social acceptance. environment has great influence
f

that better understanding of human personality and behaviour might come on the development of personality of a child. from the study of the brain. 2. So%ial Fa%tors 2 The development of individual personality is P$ysi%al Traits 2 'n ac*uires individuals e+ternal appearance may have a also influenced by 3. social factors. The infront those behaviour tremendous effect on his personality some patterns the standards of the community where the family lives.people give relatively higher weightage the physical feature of an individual while defining his The status of the family in the to society influences individuals personality good money. physical appearance is an asset for the .ob of a sales perception about self, others, work, person and public relations. 3. Sit+ational Fa%tors 2'n individuals personality may change in &.The E'otional or situations Te',era'ent * Temperament and other non2 different situations. demands(a)e*+, of different may call intellectual personalityTherefore, traits are for different respect of ones personality. wedistributed should not according to the normal Temperament is the degree to which one responds look at personalitydistribution. factor in isolation. 'lthough certain emotionally. generali1ations can be made about personality there are significant individual differences which are* further influenced by situational -. Interest The individual normally has many interests in various areas. factors. The top e+ecutives in any organi1ation should provide opportunities like and special programme to satisfy the interests of The relationship of.ob the rotation above factors affects training the formation and e+ecutives. The successful persons is in entirely the same development of personality. Physiological inheritance anoccupation have to a large e+tent, the same internal contribution. ,roup and theinterests. culture are the early

y
e Br

er tie ne

Cus (de to the

hey

environmental factors that influence later behaviour. .. (oti/es 2 ?otives are the inner%amily drives and of the individual. They represents goal2 (tive the social setting during early stages of education are the important directed behviour of individual. ' motive is a cognitive factor which operates in Doal. factors which influence the initial formation of personality. 3hatever detemining ones behaviour towards goal. Individual differ in variables which The the child learns, lasts for life time. (ater in life, it is the peer determine the inner drives. The group, behaviour of an individual to accomplish the se of groups of primary affiliations at work, social activities, etc, which goal varies because of shape his inner drive. shape the personality of an individual. Erson 0. Fa'ily Fa%tors 2 %amily influences the behaviour of a /pend 1.& PERSONA IT! AND CHARACTER Personality is often confused in with !haracter4 but the two especially early stages. The nature of terms such influence will depend P erson are not synonymous, and so cannot be used interchangeably. upon the following factors 2 !haracter implies a moral standard and involves a .udgement based Socio2$conomic level of the family on values. 3hen used connection with personality, character 6 in %amily si1e relates to behaviors is regulated by personal effort and will. 7 that !onscience, an essential element 8 >irth orderof character, is a pattern of inhibitory conditioning which 9 &ace control the persons behaviour, making t conform to the socially approved patterns of the group with which &eligion ; le or she is identified. Parents educational level @ .- PERSONA IT! INDI4ID5A IT! etc. A AND ,eographic location,
_

1 & ,i
person

are no

!harac on valu relates !onscit inhibito. t confor ie or si 6; P$%

%or instance, a person brought up in a rich family has a differentlndividu .ifferentlndividuality4 refers to the uni*ueness of personality. 'ccording to family2 personality as compared to a person who belongs to. a poor family All,ort1 9 . 5llport, 0personality itself is a universal phenomenon though it is :;F

Personality & Managerial found only in individual forms4. ' person has many attributes or Per or!ance characteristics of the human species, and many that resemble his cultural fellows, but he weaves them all in to a uni*ue idiomatic system. 0$ach person is a uni*ue and never repeated phenomenon4. )ou may, for e+ample, find any number of brave men, but each mans braverH2 will differ *ualitatively from that of the others. People are commonly described as belonging to certain4 types4. "ne person maH- be said to be of the ambitius type, second of the 0morose type4, and still another of the 0stingy type4, while it is true that people resemble one another in some respect, this does not mean that they are alike in all respects. $ach person is to some e+tent uni*ue. e is an individual, even though in some respects he may be characteri1ed as belonging to some common 0Type4, say, gentle, kind, mature, active, etc. It may also be noted that individuality is a product of both heredity and environment.
I5T$($?$#TS "% T $ P$&S"#'(IT) P'TT$&#

!ai of s corr the proc !arF indi 6 e+p( reali imag betw dutie who , he hi work, maint and Since betwe learnii The h realistF people they he nature, will be

The personality pattern is composed to a core called 0self concept4 and an integrated system of learned responses, called 0traits4. These are inter related, with the core influencing the traits, which are the individuals characteristics methods of ad.ustment to life situations. To show the interrelationship, the pattern can be compared to a wheel in which the huh represents the concept of self and the spokes represent his traits.

1.0 SE F CONCEPT The core of personality pattern which provides its unity was referred p erfom to as 0self by Games. Self is the sum total of all that person can call vvith ot his. %reud refered to it as the ego and Sullivan sued the phase 0the self system4. owever, in the recent years, what a person 0can 1.0.1 C call his4 has been spelled out in more definite terms. It has beenE Th e self referred to as his4. %reud refused to it as the 0ego4 and Sullivan used the pharse 0the self system4. owever, in the recent years,
66/I

<i= <ii=

Th e Th e

what a person 0can call his4 has been spelled out in more definite terms. It has been referred to as his 0attitude towards self as an -

0organi1ed configuration of perceptions of self, as 0those p e r c e p t i o n , J e K < beliefs, feelings, attitudes, and values which the individual views LpMeararE as part on characteristics of himself4 and as a 0system of central it inclm meaning he has about himself and his relations to the world aboutappropria him4. 'ccording to 'llport, 0the self is something of which we are immediately aware. 3e think of it as the warm, central, private region of our life. 's such it plays a crucial part in our consciousness <a concept broader than self=, in our personality <a concept borde than consciousness=, and in our organism <a concept border tliL :@E personality=4. Thus, the self is some kind of core in our begin.

bod y, groe calk

%on %e*

pe Personality & Managerial confidence independence, courage and their opposites. Personality Concept !arl &. &ogers and enry P. are closely related with the approach of self or Per or!ance & self concept as an organi1ed consistent, conceptual gestalt composed of The attitudinal component includes the feelings a person have about Theories perceptions of T or ?e !arl &. &ogers described I as the personal self or himself, his attitudes about his present status and future prospects, ones belief in oneself. It is a psychological process which helps understand his feelings about his worthiness and his attitudes of selfesteem, the self. pride and shame. 's the person reaches adulthood, the attitudinal also convictions, values, ideals, !arl &. &ogers has component defined ?e asincoporates social self. the It isbeliefs, the way an individual aspirations, and commitments which up his of life. appears to others or others appear to him. The ?e is make e+plained inphilosophy more e+plicit terms. >ehaviour is the out come of the reali1ation of ?e or is a 1.0.2 Rinds of Self2!oncept __________________________________________________ reflection of inner self. ?e is the mirror image of what I believe others Self concept has four dimensions, 2 e+pect from me. The relationship between N and namely ?e develops ones personality. e who performs duties without attachment gets ma+imum >asic his selfrconcept strength, and persons are too attached to the I are unable to perform <ii= who Transitory self2concept efficiently, as he has been described in the >hagvad ,ita. 3ithout <iii= Social self2concept engaging in work, one is harming social development. ' wise man tries to <iv= Ideal self2concept maintain world order with unattached actions. If one reali1e the T and ?e, #asi% Self Con%e,t he duly perform all his duties. The basic self2concept corresponds to Games concept of the 0real Since people have different levels of concept understanding relationship self4. It is the persons of what and he rally is. It includes the between I and ?e, perception the application of various reinforcements, learning and of his appearance, his reorgani1ation of his abilities and motivation have diverse impacts an people. The nature is disabilities and of different his role and status in human life, and his values, beliefs purposeful, constructive, forward moving, realistic trustworthy and self2 and aspirations. The basic self2concept tends to be realistic. The satisfying. Onder normal conditions, people perform their duties as per person sees himself as he really is, not as he2 would like to be. basic human nature. >ut, when they have developed some abnormality, Sometimes the basic self2concept is to the persons linking. they go against basic human nature. The more abnormal a man is the Transitory Self*Con%e,t more negative functions will be visuali1ed in his action where man is full In addition basic self2concept, person has transitory self2 human being, he performs in to a a positive and rationalamanner. ea lives in concept. Games first suggested this when he referred to the 0self harmony with others. he hopes he now is4 and the 0self he fears he now is4. This means that a person has a self2concept which he holds for a time and then relin*uishes. ' person who is well and happy, who is accepted by 1.0.1 Co',onents of Self Con%e,t others, and who achieves what he has set out to do many have a transitory2self concept that as been The self concept has three ma.or components / is more favourable than his basic self2 concept. Sullivan <i= The perceptual it years, So%ial Self*Con%e,t <ii= The conceptual / definite The social self concept is based on the way the individual believes 7ii8 T1 others If as an <iii= The attitudinalperceive him, depending on their speeches and actions. It is as Id usually referred to as a 0mirror If a person child is has constantly oonsci that he is 0naughty4, he /rception, The perceptual component is the image4. image the of the told ial views develops a concept of himself as a e+tern naughty child. People build up appearance Pf his body andsoon of the impression he makes on others. Hf centrallt social self2concepts whene depending on the includes the image he has of different the attractiveness and se+ rid aboutappropriateness ofkinds of social groups like home, peer, M6 of ego co/ community with which they are most often associated. his body the importance of the different parts his body, such as his muscles to his behaviour and the prestige they give to him in the eyes of others. The perceptual component is I"eal Self*Con%e,t )i we Qrc often called the 0physical self2concept4 The ideal self2concept is made up of perceptions of what a persor d, private .ciousnessThe conceptual component isbe the persons conception of his distinctive ept be relatec aspires to and what he believe he ought to be. It may bordeicharacterstics, ability and disabilities, his background, and his Jrder thaif uture2 It is often called the 0psychological self concept and is C n composed of such life :SF to the physical self image the psychological self2image, ad.ustment *ualities as honesty, self2 or both, i
Su

by the

7iii8 T$
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may be realistic in the sense that it is within the reach of the person, or it / about spects , /steem , tudinal may be so unrealistic that it can never be achieved in real life. In childhood, the discrepancy between the ideal self2concept and the basic, the transitory and the social self2concept is usually large. Towards adolescence, the discrepancy normally diminished as the other self2 concepts become stronger and play a larger role indetermining the persons image of himself. In adulthood and middle age, the ideal self2 concept usually has little impact on the persons concept of himself. 6.S T $"&I$S "% P$&S"#'(IT) ______________________________________________ Narious authors have contributed immensely in the ptudy of personality. They have given various theories on psycho2'nalytical and psychological factors of personality. 'n overview of these theories are given below 2 1.2.1 %reud Psycho2'nalytical Theory of Personality _________________________ Sigmund %reud is credited with the Psycho2analytical theory of personality. It is based on the notion that person is motivated more by unseen forces the 0real udes the (ities and :stic. The to iitory his ke be. self2 means /s, beliefs than by conscious and rational thoughts. %reud noted that his patients behaviour-could not always be consciously e+plained. It was a clinical finding that let him to conclude that the ma.or force which motivates a human being is his unconscious framework. This framework includes three conflicting psychoanalytic concept, namely, the Id, the ego an the super ego.Their brief description is as follows/ 7i8 T$e I" 2 The Id is the foundation of the unconscious behaviour and is the base of libido derives. In simple words, Id is the source of psychic energy and seeks immediate satisfaction of biological on instinctual needs. These needs include se+ual pleasure and other biological pleasures. Id has animalistic instincts of aggression, power and domination. It demands immediate pleasure at whatever cost. 's individual matures, he learns to control the Id, but even then it remains a diving force throughout life and an important source of behaviour.

Personality Concept & Theories

B the 0sel

and then

ccepted by my have a basic self

.al believes 7ii8 T$e E9o /2 The ego is associated with the realities of life. Gust ctions. It is as Id is the unconscious part of human personality, ego is the
(stantly

told conscious and

logical part. $go is concerned about the realities of dmself as L e+ternal environment. The ego of a person keeps the Id in check f2concepts whenever it demands immediate pleasure. 3ith its logic an intellect, ie, peer, oi ego controls the Id so that the pleasures unconsciously demanded by the human beings are granted at an appropriate time and place and in an appropriate manner.

nat a persoi ay relatec be or both,

7Hi8 T$e S+,er E9o 2 The super ego is the higher level force to restrain in Id and is described as the conscience of a person. The super ego represents the norms of the individual, his family and

;,

Personality & Managenal the society and is an ethical constraint on the behaviour. The Per or!ance " K c conscience of a person continuously tells him what is right and what is wrong. ' person may not be aware of the working of the super ego, because conscience is developed by the cultural values inculcated in a person by the family and the society. The Id, the $go and Super $go are inter2related. In order to. create a normal personality, there must be a proper balance in the relationship among these forces. %or e+ample, if the super ego is overdeveloped, a man will become very impractical and irrational. e will feel guilty over trivial matters. Such a person cannot e+ist in normal life. "n the other hand, an under2developed, Super $go would let the Id urges loose, which would make a man highly immoral or with very few moral. Then there will not be much difference between the man and the animal. That is why, there must be a proper balance between these three forces. 1.2.2 %reudian Stages of Personality Jevelopment/ _________________________ %reud proposed that ones personality develops as ones age increases. e divided personality development under ifve stages, i.e. oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital. Their brief description is given below 2 7i8 Oral Sta9e 2 In this stage the infant first e+periences social

contact with the outside world through mouth 2 crying and swelling, drinking, laughing, eating crisis develops if the child is weaned. 7ii8 Anal Sta9e 2 Primary source of pleasure is the process of elimination crisis stages when the child starts toilet training. 7iii8 P$alli% Sta9e 2 In this stage child discovers himself. se+ual desires 7i/8 aten%y Sta9e 2 %reud opined that se+ual instincts lie dormant (UG 1 now achi e child of 91 7i/: and c e reali1es

all his important organs, Ni1. eyes, hands, e+perience sensual and

from the age five to the beginning of adolescence, i.e. the tenth 2 year of a child. The modified version of his theory refers to sensual development. The main crisis of this stage is that there is no significant impact of parents. The social process influence personality development. 7/8 Genital Sta9e 2 In this stage adolescent starts feeling all senses seriously.

e is particular about se+. The main crisis is that the attachment with
emer c

parents is reduced. %reud proposed that if the child is not satisfied with the needs of the earlier stages, he ties to satisfy his needs at a later stage. Smoking, gum chewing, etc. are 7/8 A% observed in those children who did not get parental affection at the of iden initial stage. !ritics have critici1ed %reud for his se+ based theor= 2inderV on personality development. ?any authors have branded %reud asestabli silly and bi1aue, as he did not include the development of otherThe au
6M

T h e a n d : t h e il u e s E

organs, i.e. physical and sense organs. Juring the fourth stage, child does not develop his personality according to %reud, but learns the ma+imum during the pre2adolescence and the adolescence stages from parents, classmates and family friends. The %reudian theory cormotes that many human drives and motives lie hidden in the minds of people and can be brought to the personality surface through the sociali1ation process. 1.2.3 $rikson Stage of Personality Jevelopment _____________________________ $rikson critici1ed the heavy emphasis given by %reud on the se+ual and biological factors in the developing personality. attention should be given to the social factors. life that characteri1e the unending e felt that relatively more e identified eight stage of of a person. e

Personality Concept & Theories

development

characteri1ed each stage by a particular conflict that needs to be resolved successfully before a person can move to the ne+t stage. owever, these eight stage are2 not totally separable, and the crisis are never fully resolved. ?ovement between stages is developmental as e+plained below / 7i8 Infan%y 2 Juring the first year of life, a child resolves the basic crisis

Es

age

of trust Ns. mistrust. 'n infrant who is cared for in an affectionate way learns to trust other people. (ack of love and affection results in mistrust. This stage makes a serious impact on a child that influence events for remaining life. 7ii8 Early C$il"$oo"* In the second and third years of life, a child begins to assert independence. If the child is allowed to control those aspects of of life that the child is capable of controlling, a sense of autonomy will develop. If the child encounters constrant disapproval by elder a sense of self2doubt and shame is likely to develop. 7iii8 Play A9e 2 The four and five years old seeks to discover .ust how much he can do. If a child is encouraged to e+periment and to achieve reasonable goals, he will develop a sense of initiative. If the child is blocked and made to feel incapable, he will develop a sense of guilt and lack of self2confidence.

stages, ption is

s social swelling , /aned. ocess ing. e reali1es .sual and

; "or'ant t$e tent$

/o
sens+al ere is no

.ersonalit 7i/8 S%$ool A9e 2 %rom age @ to 67, a child learns man new skills E all
senses

develop social abilities. If a child e+perience real progress at a

is that the rate compatibi e with his abilities, he or she will develop a sense of that if the enterprise. The reverse situation results in a sense of inferiority, i, he ties to ng etc. are 7/8 A"oles%en%e 2 The crisis of the teenage years is to gain a sense ction at the of identify rather than to become confused about who you are, while ased theory undergoing rapid biological changes, the teenager is also trying to ed %reud initiative and enterprise developed in earlier stages
66
as

establish

himself or herself as socially separate from the parents, ent of otheiThe autonomy,

Personality & Managerial Per or!ance

are

very important in helping the teenager to successfully resolve , . . . , . , , , this crisis and prepare for adulthood. 7/i8 Early A"+lt$oo" 2 The young adult during the twenties faces <ii= fiii.

the crisis of intimacy versus isolation. The sense of identify developed during the teenage years allows the young adult to begin developing deep and lasting relationships. 7/ii8 A"+lt$oo" 2 Juring this stage, the adults face the crisis of $i%&

generativity versus self2absorption. Self absorbed person never develop an ability to look beyond themselves. They become absorbed in career advancement and maintainedE and they never learn to have concern for future generations, the welfare of organi1ation to f which they belong or the welfare of society as a whole. ,enerative
#

people see the world as such fogger than themselves. Productivity Jrgar at work and societal advancement become important to them.5 ePei6 Through innovation and creativity, they begin to e+ert influence ;66 bWr that benefits their organi1ation. 7/iii8
ac

5 W

(at+re A"+lt$oo" 2 The person is developed as a highly e has gained a sense of wisdom and perspective that car erson leory Ttt Ind sue dep Trai The

matureI.S.; person.

p ers really guide the younger generation.

1.2.& !hris 'rgyriss Immaturity ?aturity Theory _________________________ !hris 'rgyris a noted thinker, has identified specific dimensions the human personality as it develops. e proposed that the hum oweve personality, rather than going through distinct stages, progresse along a continuum from an infant maturity as an ad+ilt. according to the seven dimension shown below / T$e i''at+rity * (at+rity Contin++' '!!aturity Characteristics Passivity Jependence %ew ways of behaving Shallow interests Short time perspective Subordinate position (ittle self awareness Maturity Characteristics 'ctivity Independence Jiverse behaviour Jeep interests (ong time perspective Super ordinate position ?uch self awareness at any stage, people can have their degree of development plott

'rgyris argued that healthy individuals tend to move from immatur fun.*u to maturity. 'ccording to him, healthy people display the behayioi thus r of maturity while unhealthy people tend to demonstrate child2li indrvirf immature behaviours. C$irs Ar9yi< f+rt$er %onten"e" t$at =
67

<i= The seven dimensions represent only one aspect of the

& Managerial Personality Concept & resolvePersonality personality. ?uch also depends uponTheory individuals perception, 1.2.. !attels Trait ___________________________________________________ Per or!ance Theories %rom out of different and, sometimes, overlapping words self concept and adaptation andseveral ad.ustment. representing personality. !attle has <ii= The seven dimensions continually change in degree from theselected one hundred and seventy2one , words that be used to describe personality. Osing the factor analytic , . infant to the adult end of thecan continuum. .veloped approach, he has identified two categories of traits and labeled them
I8.!!S

veioping <5= The model, being only a construct, cannot predict specific surface traits and source traits. In all he identified thirty surface traits behaviour. owever, it does and provide method of describing ten a source traits. ' surfaceand trait is something like a medical course of of any individual in the 'n culture. the diverse symptoms. e+ample of surface trait is affectionate versus crisis of measuring the growth an never absorbed learn to i1ation to ,enerativ e6
e

7i/8 The seven dimensions upon characterstics of cold. are 'n based e+ample of latent source trait is dominance versus submissiveness. the personality which may be *uite different from the observable !attle identified si+teen primary traits of personality. These traits were behaviour. found to be generally steady and constant sources of behaviour. >ut these were found bein of noorgani1ation scientific relevance. These traits have been sho The personality development of a to man the is towards below2 the mature end of the continuum. This will warrant a formal Si>teen Pri'ary Traits

oductivity#5ni1ation to ensure activity for passivity, independence for to them. Pendence, long for short perspective, super ordinate in place of influence mbordlnate 6. &eserved Ns. "utgoing position and self awareness and control in place of ack of awareness and perhaps 7. (ess intelligent Ns ?ore intelligent hly matureI. S.; Traits of Personality 8. 'ffected feelings Ns. $motional more Xe that caiY personality trait can be defined as 0an enduring attribute of a 9. Submissive Ns. Jomination erson that appears constantly in a variety of situations4. The trait ;. Serious Ns. appy2go2lucky KKKKK2ZZZneory makes certain fundamental assumptions 2 @. $+pedient Ns. !onscientious nsions o= Traits distinguish one personality from another, A. Timid Ns. Nenturesome the humai= Individuals can be described in terms of construction of traits S. Tough2minded Ns. Sensitive progresses such as affiliation, achievement, an+iety, aggression and \. Trusting Ns. Suspicious It. oweverI dependency. 6M. Practical Ns. Imaginative Cnent plottet.= Traits can be *uantifiable and do not defy measurement.
r

66. %orthright Ns. Shrewd = The amount of each trait that a person has is assumed to be stable 67. fairly, and the difference in personality and'pprehensive behaviour Self2assured Ns.

KKKKKKKKKKKKZ between two individual is assumed to be the result 68. !onsevative Ns of differences $+perimenting ;KKKKKKKKKKZ in the amount of each trait each person has one of the most 69. ,roup dependent Ns. Self2dependent e+citing versions of trait theory is provided by 'llport wherein 6;. Oncontrolled Ns. !ontrolled he mentions common traits that are used to compare one 6@. &ela+ed Ns. Tense personality with another. %or such comparison, he has identified si+ categories of values 2 social, political, religious, theoretical, 1.2.0 The >ig %ive Traits ?odel __________________________________________ economic and aesthetic 2 in his theory. >esides these common The >ig %ive Personality Traits ?odel has attracted the attenti of both traits, 'llport also made use of some uni*ue traits the researchers and managers. The potential values of this fr work lies in

ve
8S

tion

individuals possess.the e calls these traits as fact that ituni*ue emphasi1es an personal integrated set of tr that appear to be

valid predicators of certain behaviours in workplace. 'ccording to %red KKKKKKKKKKKKKKdispositions. They can be cardinal <?ost pervasive=, central (uthans, 0'lthough traits are lar independent factors of a personality, rom immaturi <uni*ue and limited in number= or secondary <periphery=. 'llport the like primary colours, they be mi+ed in countless proportion and with behavior thus recogni1e the comple+ity of human personality. $ach [Irate child2lil other characteristics yield a uni*ue personality whole. owever, also individual has values that emphasi1e these si+ orientations <common traits=. Some like colours, may dominate in describing an individuals personality4. It individuals may be high in economic and low in others. It is the profile of an may be noted that different people have these traits in varying deg individuals values that is useful in defining his personality. from high to low. pect of the to

Z2222222222222222The descriptive characteristics of these traits are given below / pping5words .undred and nality. Osing categories of its. In all he 62
( T$e

?#iS Fi/e@ Personality Traits Des%ri,ti/e C$ara%teristi%s of $i9$ S%ores !onscientiousness Jependable, selfdisciplined, responsible $motional stability !alm, secure, happy, unworried. !ooperative, warm, caring, good2 hardworking, organi1ed, persistent,

Personality Concept & Theories

!<=re Traits

surface trait

ymptoms. 'n e+ample of

ittle identified 2e found to be 82 8ut these were %e been shown9

'greeableness $+troversion

natured, courteous, trusting. Sociable, outgoing, assertive, gregarious. ;. "penness to e+perience !urious, intellectual, creative, cultured, artistically sensitive, fle+ible, imaginative. 1.2.2 !arl Geng Yccroding to !arl ,ustav Ging, personality has four dimensions. Thinking, feeling, Sensation and intuition. The first two are mportant for evaluating or .udging the situationE the last two are mportant for gathering information. Thinking I iensation II Intuition talkative,

Ent BrL stable

ky is e

III

IN

%e /ing lent %eeling ccording, the four types of personality are / Sensation * T$in)in9 Personality alytic and oriented towards the present. Primarily interested in icted the attenti Xalues of this fra] Instit+tion * T$in)in9 Personality grated set of tra ture oriente<.= imaginative and creative behaviours in rh traits are larg2 Sensation * Feelin9 Personality T Cy colours, they cen observation, methodical problem solving. ^Br characteristics ;M like colours, M Int+ition * Fellin9 Personality .onality4. It may oriented, personal charisma and enthusiasm, s in varying degr e+tremely practical.

%ts1

and

6;

Personality & Managerial Per or!ance

1.2.3 ?yers and >riggs Type Personality _____________________________________ ?yers and >riggs developed four types of personalities based on their researches. They are 2 1. 2. 3. &. $+trovent <$= 2 Introvert <I= Sensing <S= 2 Intruitive <#= Thinking <T= 2 %eeling <%= Perceiing <P= 2 Gudging <G=

These types are amplified into si+teen personality types as shown below 2 Si>teen Personality Co'Ainations ISTG ISTP IS%G IS%P $STG $STP $S%G $SP% I#TG I#TP I#%G I#%P $#TG $#TP $#%G $#%P

Some of the combination will reveal personality types. %or e+ample people with $STP i.e. $+tovert, sensing, thinking and perceiving are practical, realistic, ingenious. They are fit _for starting new venturesF $STGs are known as organi1ers because they are realistic, practice have natural liking to business. I#TIs are vision and missionaries as they have original thinking great drives, independence and critical minds. This theory is weU recogni1ed in organi1ational behaviour by the name of ?yers 2 >rigg type induction <?>IT=. 6.S.6M G.(. ollands Typology of Personality ___________________________________

olland has identified si+ personality types and fitness

occupations. The personality types are realistic, investigative, socia conventional, enterprising and artistic as discussed below 2 6. Realisti% Personality 2 They are shy, genuine, persistent ai.

conforming. Persons having such personalities are mechanism, li/ operators, farmers. 7. In/esti9ati/e Personalities 2 Persons having investigation persoi

are analytical, original, independent and ambitious. They generally mathematicians, economic professors and reporter. 8. Con/entional Person 2 They are conforming efficient, practi52-22

infle+ible and realistic. They prefer rules and regulations. Tb c22 obey orders and follow the seniors. Such people are accountant25 bankers, supervisors and clerks. 9. 5 .

So%ial Personalities 2 Sociability, friendly cooperativeness helpful are

the personality characterstics. They like to deve

of ionsPersonality & Managerial personality development. $motional e+pression provides a powerful others. They are leaders. Social workers, teachers, doctors and 5NIT*2 E(OTIONS Per or!ance communication system, one that is especially important early in professionals. life before language develops. 'n infants cry of distress brings a sed on fied si+ ;. Enter,risin9 Personalities 2 Persons possessing enterprising caregiver running,, a babys beaming smile invites love and care tigative personalities are self confident, ambitions, domineering and active. earnin9 OA:e%ti/e from the parents. 's development proceeds, voice, face, gesture , They like dominating activities and holding power. Such person are and posture to communicate feelings to others and to 'fter the end of thiscontinue Onit, you will be specialists. able to understand 2 lawyers, agents, manager and influence their behaviour. ' scream of fear can crowd to panicE a @. Artisti% Personalities 2 They are imaginative, disorderly, The concept of the termdefuse $motion smile can sometimes the most dangerous of situations and with in emotional and impractical. They prefer ambiguous and unsystematic Narious types of $motions. create instant bonding among stranger. etermine C activities. Such people are painters, writers, dances and musicians. Jifferent theories of $motions. $motions play an important role in many ma.or psychological s shown Eestor to C The concept of $motional Intelligence. disorders witnessed by the blunted emotional e+pression seen in 1.3 S5??'&) ___________ ` y in the s. ality2 (I his. C schi1ophrenia, the e+treme elation or sadness in per manie2depressive. Significance of $motional Intelligence. The term Personality has been derived from the latin term In fact 0?ental disorder4 and emotional disorder are used almost sona which means speak through. Narious methods of to managing emotions!ommon at work. usage of the

Personality Concept & Theories

N T

Si
ch tu th e n w b pr c $ m e+ ever situE prod at t( 3. SD

Br e+ample patters and conditioned certainare stimuli that formulate process is thatresponses emotionalto feelings incontrast with rational 7.9 the impression an individual makes upon others. thinking comes from the 0head4. %or e+ample, a young managerI 5 7.; ceiving given a choice between two assignments undergo the following of $motional Intelligence % ventures 7.;.6 Significance cognitive processing. 0?y 0head4 tells me to get involved with pro.ect The factors which shape the personality of an individual are heredity, practical 7.;.7 'pplication of more $motional in organi1ation. > will be fun, IIntelligence like the people better, and I can take more brain, physical traits, emotional make2up, interest, motives, family 7.;.8 !omponents pride in of any $motional results we Intelligence achieve4. in "bviously, work organi1ation, such emotions elf often ctors, social factors and situational factors. win out$motions over rational thinking in what people decide, do or how theY conceptil thinkin 7.@ ?ethods of ?anaging at work. e Personality pattern is composed of a core calld self concept behave. eory is we Summary 7.A d an integrated system of learned responses, called 0traits4 the rers 2 $motions may be both positive and negative. Positive emotion ievelopmenfc.S Reywords lf2concept has three ma.or components the perceptual, the >rigE include love and affection, happiness, surprise, and negativ2 7.\ Puestions nceptual and the attitudinal. Self concept has four dimensions emotions include fear, sadness, anger, disgust and shame. Thei namely, basic self2concept, transitory self2concept, social self2 2.1 INTROD5CTION brief description is given below 2 d``p2ness fM66M@T6 ideal self2concept. n our day to day life we all come across the word 0emotions4. They ire an Ty,e of E'otions native, socialarious authors have given different theories on personality. %reud .low 2 n tyimportant part of the human behaviour and interplay of motions has a big A. Positi/e E'otions his Psycho2analytical theory has given the concept of IJ, ego and arfuper ego. e impact on the organi1ation behaviour as well. divided personality development under five stages 2 Ers - adoration, . Dral. anal, phallic, C (oveX'ffection 2 'cceptance, longing, devotio n general, the term emotion is used to designate 0a state of latent and genital. infatuation chanism, In tmsciousness having to do with the arousal of feelings. It is distinguished C appinessXGoy 2 !heerfulness, contentment, bliss, delig no %reud theory and has given eight of from Inkson other critici1ed mental states, from cognition, volition nd stages awareness of ersonality Jevelopment namely infancy, early childhoodE play age, nation amusement, en.oyment, enthrallment, thrill, euphoria, 1est physical sensation4. %eeling refers to 0any of the ab.ective reactions, person, C Surprise 2 'ma1ement, wonder, astonishment, shock. pleasant or unpleasant4 that one mayadulthood, sperience in a situation. age, early adulthood and mature us. They #. adolescence, Ne9ati/e E'otions nt. dulthood. !hirs 'gryris has given the immaturity2?aternity theory, reporter2 attlet C %ear 2 'n+iety, alarm, apprehension, concern, *ulm, dre .2 BHAT ARE E(OTIONSC identified si+teen primary traits of personality, which is ient practif entiWned in his !attels terror. le term emotions is fright, derived from the (atin word ?overe which eans to trait theory. 'ccording to >ig %ive Traits &ations ThWdel-th e >ig %ive Personality Traits C Sadness 2 disappointment, sorrow, gloom, despai move, to e+cite, to stir of, or ,rief, to agitate. The traditional Citers regarded are conscientiousness and e accountan Beners to e+perience. emotion as a base instinct to de.ection. be subdued or pressed. >ut the modern suffering, arl Gung has propsed four personality namely thinking, writers view it C as safeguard of dimension survival idof an enrichment of e+perience 'nger 2 "utrage, e+asperation, warth, indignation, hospit
a sensat n tiveness iW and intuition. ?yers2>riggs Type Indicator <?>TI= throughout the process of irritability. , well recogni1ed in the field of organi1ational behaviour. It fore (ike to aeve

C 5nit synonymously in everyday language. signifies the role which the person displays to the public. $#TG Personality Personality of an individual is uni*ue, personal and a ma.or 7.6. $#TP 2.3 E(OTIONA PROCESSING determinant of his behaviour. >ecause of differences in personality, 7.7 individuals differ in their manner of responding to different $#%G ow do emotional reactions come about, and what the inputs into is a set of traits and characteristics, habit 7.8 situations. Personality emotional processingT ' very simple, laypersons e+planation of the
$#%P

>oth
"f O-l

++er:
she f{

viiai
Then.

nter,

$oi

7M

:6A6

werfu l in ings a d eare E estur e and to anicE a ins and ologic irly

C C

Jisgust 2 !ontempt, disdain, abhorrence, revulsion, distaste. Shame 2 ,uilt, remorse, regret, embauassment, humiliation.

)!otions

2.& T EORIES "% E?"TI"#________________________________________________ Narious theories have been given on emotions by different authors. The brief description of their theories are given below2 6. Ea'es * an9e T$eory 7132F8

Sub.ective emotional response are the result of physiological changes within human bodies. The brain perceives an event and, in turn, sends messages down its neural circuitry to other areas of the brain. This action ultimately produces motor, autonomic and endocrine responses. These responses elicit an emotional response, which in turn, is perceived by the brain. Therefore, it is cyclical process. This theory argues that physiological behaviours precede emotion. 7. Cannon*#ar" T$eory 713208

$motion providing events induce t h e . sub.ective- emotional e+periences into and physiological arousal simultaneously. Through e+periences, individuals ion of the ( begin to ac*uire certain e+pectations for every given situation. These puts rational manager following ith pro.ect take more (ions often ,r how they e+pectations provide a filter and every situation is processed through this filter. Juring this process, brain produces the emotion and corresponding physiological behaviours at the same time. 8. S%$a%ter*Sin9er T$eory 713.28

emotion

>oth feedback from peripheral responses and a cognitive appraisal of what caused those responses produces emotions. ow one interprets the peripheral response will determine the emotion heX she feels. Individuals label the emotional response depending on what we think is causing the response. %or e+ample when someone interprets a stimulus as dangerous, it leads to physiological arousal. Then, this physiological arousal is interpreted to a particular emotion,

d negativ iame. Thei

.it can be fear, surprise, e+citement and astonishment depending

(

g, devotion on

arousal is labeled. aGar+Hs a,,raisal T$eory 7132F8

1 .. 1 1&. iliss, deligh.

ahoria, 1est.'n individual makes an initial sometimes unconscious cognitive hock appraisal of the situation to decide, if there is a threatE coping action is taken if necessaryE and the individual takes a closer look and identifies the emotions he on she is feeling, nulm, dreaa -. BeinerHs attriA+tion T$eory 7132.1 13328 =om despair2ertain attributions produce specific emotions. "nce the initial evaluation has been made the individual looks at what caused the hospitalif vent These attributions of causality can modify the emotion felt. perceived internal and e+ternal causes, :76 6

InH

is the interaction of the

Personality & Managerial controllability and outcome that will determine the emotional response. Per or!ance 3hat are the basic emotionsT "rtony and turner <6\\M= collated a wide range of research as to what basic emotions one and the basis of including them as basic emotion and proposed a comprehensive description of basic emotions and corresponding reasons for inclusion. 7.; $?"TI"#'( I#T$((I,$#!$ ________________________________________________ 0$motional Intelligence is the ability to command respect by building relationships or the ability to get along with the people and situation4. Janiel ,oleman vividly remarked, 0$ffective leaders are alike in critical way, they all have a high degree of emotional intelligence.... $motional intelligence is the sine *ua non of leadership. 3ithout it a person can have the best training in the world, and incisive, analytical mind and as endless supply of smart ideas, but he still wont make a great leader4. Technologies and !redit Surprise and concluded that e analy1ed emotional competency models from 6SS companies including >ritish 'irways, (ucent intelligence plays increasingly important role at the higher levels of the company where differences in technical skills are of negligible importance. >ut alternatively, the higher the rank of a person considered to be a star performer, the more emotional intelligence capabilities show up as the reason for his or her effectiveness. 'ccording to Janiel ,oleman, 0$motional intelligence refers to emotional awareness and emotional ?anagement skills which provide the ability to balance emotion and reason so as to ma+imi1e long2term happiness4. $motional Intelligence includes components like self2awareness, ability to manage moods, motivation, empathy, and social skills such as cooperation and leadership. 'ccording to ,oleman, there are hundreds of emotions along with their blends, variations and nuance. their blends are as follows/ 1. An9er 2 %ury, outrage, resentment, wrath, e+asperation indignation, ve+ation, acri money, animosity, annoyance irritability, pathological hatred and violence. 2. Sa"ness 2 ,rief, sorrow, cheerlessness, gloom, melancholy, sel pity, lonliness, de.ection, despair and pathological serve depression. 3. Fear 2 'n+iety, apprehension, nervousness, concern, misgivin wariness, fright, terror, phobia and panic. &. En:oy'ent 2 appiness, .oy, relief, content pride, sensu pleasure, owever, some of the main emotions with

thrill, amusement, pride, sensual, satisfactio euphoria and at the e+treme, mania. -. o/e 2 'cceptance, friendliness, trust, kindness, affinit

122 F

otional

2 .. 0. 2.
one a

devotion, adoration, and infatuation. S+r,rise 2 Shock, astonishment, ama1ement and wonder. Dis9+st 2 !ontempt, disdain, scorn, abhorrence, aversion, distaste and revulsion. S$a'e 2 ,uilt, embarrassment, chagrin, remorse, humiliation, regret and mortification. .

)!otions

<6\\M= ans posed ponding

[ building ituation4. / alike in ligence.... 3ithout it I incisive, ut he still

8

2.-.1 Si9nifi%an%e of E'otional Intelli9en%e is i',ortant in the following ways____________________________________________________ 1. General Ha,,iness 2 $motional Intelligence leads to general happiness. ,iven below shows the features of a persons felling with high and low $P. igh $P generates positive feelings which results into general happiness. 's against this, (ow $P generates negative feelings which results into general unhappiness. Feelin9s Jit$ Hi9$ an" Hi9$ EK ?otivation Satisfaction ?ental peace 'ppreciation %riendship %ulfillment oJ EK oJ EK %rustration Jisappointment ?ental disturbance $mptiness (oneliness &esentment ,uilt Sorrow Jepression Jependence Nictimi1ation Instability

dels from

ilogies and snce plays E company mportance. dered to be lilities show

id emotional i nee emotion/

Y $motional

'wareness appiness Self2!ontrol 'utonomy !ontentment >alance

.s, *i,

ability to

dlls such asI there are

s and nuance,

are as

follows/

2. Rationality in #e$a/io+r 2 &ationality is defined as the capacity E+asperation, 5 or annoyance,5 etween

M

k.ective action. It is usually characteri1ed by behavioural ne+us , . .

me

enc s an<

ans. Thus, if appropriate means have been chosen to reach

desired ends, the behaviour is rational. 3ith high elancholy, self2$P, a person is able to_ see the situation under which the behaviour ilogical serveitakes place in the right perspective. 3ith such a perspective, the person is able to establish right relationship between ends and . . means and his behaviour tends to be rational. (ack of emotional rern misgiving intelligence leads to wrong perception of situation and the parson interprets the inflammation based on his emotions rather than pride, sensua.. ea5y .nfact= emotional barrier is one of the highest problems
.6, satisfaction ne ff e! L2 ve

communication.
[23

E. F+lfillin9 So%ial OA:e%ti/e 2 3hile living in the society a person dness, affinitH55 gome5ng f rMm it and gives something to it. This something

Personality & Managerial Per or!ance

may be in physical as well as in psychological form. In taking and giving process, a person with high $P displays the same behaviour towards others which he e+pect from them. If such a behaviour is reciprocated by others, the behaviour become gratifying to all the persons concerned. This brings general happiness in the society including family, friendship group and work organi1ation. 2.-.2 A,,li%ation of E'otional Intelli9en%e in Or9aniGations The critical areas in which emotional intelligence has the greatest potential to constitute are as follows 2 It multiplies ones achievements by inspiring oneself and others assumed. It work like a magic by adopting an empathic attitude towards others. It kills the spoiling powers by controlling negative thoughts. "ne can see the doughnut note the hole through learning optimism. "ne gets it if one through developing trust. "ne can ad.ust his soils to meet the challenges of the wind by. building stress immunity. (ogic is not everything but comple+ decision making a n d . emotions are essential. It resolves to resolve through managing conflicts. Surveying the emotional landscape by increasing sensitivity. "ne can contribute to building and maintain cohesive team. 2.-.3 Co',onents of E'otional Intelli9ent in Bor) ________"rganiGation_________________________________________________________ Co',onents of E'otional Intelli9en%e in Or9aniGation

Component
6. Self2awareness

Definition
The ability to and self

Hallmarks
Self2confidence realistic self2assess ment2self2depreciat ing sense of humour.

recogni1e understand

moods, emotions, and drives, as well as their effect on others. The ability to control 7. Self2regulation or redirect disruptive impulses and moods. The propensity to suspend .udgement.

Trustworthiness integrity comfort

an wit

am2biguit to change,

Think before acting.

:79F

Personality & Managerial shoes4 that is, understanding the emotions and feelings of others while interacting with them. It is important to listen to others without 8. ?otivation away ' getting passioncarried to work for by ones own personal emotions. $mpathy helps in )!otions Strong drive to achieve understanding situation in a better way. reasons that any go optimism even in the beyond money or 9. Coo,eration 2 It isface an attitude of of collective failure2 actions with another or status 2 a propensity other persons towards aocommon employees work as team in r g a n i goal. 1 a t Since i o n a l toan pursue goals with organi1ation, it is essential for them to know how and when to take the commitment. energy and lead and 3hen to follow. This knowledge brings better cooperation in persistence. teamwork. 9. $mpathy The ability to ;. Resol/in9 Confli%ts 2 People conflict are generally locked into a $+peritse in in building and understand the self2perpetuating emotional spiral in whichtalent the genesis, of the conflict is reataining emotional make up of usually not clear. Therefore, c r o by s s managing 2 c u l t u the r a lemotional issues, conflicts other people. Skill in can be resolved. sensitivity to clients and trating people customers. @. Co,yin9 Jit$ An9er 2 'nger is one of the most common negative according to their emotions. $veryone gets angry at some point of time. 'nger is ma.or emotional reactions. departure from normal behaviour caused by situational variables. 'nger is Proficiency inman2 because any action taken during this period may often dysfunctional $ffectiveness in aging relationship depart from rationality. leading Therefore, there is a need for overcoming anger. change 2 and building The steps to cope with anger are as follows 2 persuasiveness, e+pe2 networks an ability to rtise in and building andby compassion to oneself C 'nger should be restrained controlled find common ground leading teams and others and by resorting to core values. and build rapport C It is desirable to analyse the cause of anger a+id the situation under which anger takes place so that these causes and situation are modified to produce positive thinking. 2.. ?$T "DS OF ( '#',I#, $?"TI"#S 'T 3"&ma.or L________________________ C It is better to avoid actions during the period when one is angry ?anaging emotions at work and in other walls of life essential for because these actions tend tois be irrational. success. There are certain like develop fear, anger, which to should be C emotions "ne should skill etc to avoid psychological hunt b developing controlled as they affect life adversely. Similarly, the lotions which are strong sense of sense2concept, that is, what one i and how one gratifying like happiness, contentment, 8uld be developed and should behave in etc. abnormal conditions. emphasi1ed. $mployees in an organi1ation adopt several methods for SO??'&) ___________________________________ managing their emotions 2.0 effectively le of the methods are described below The term emotion is derived from latin word movere which mean to / move, to e+cite, to stir of, or to agitate. The traditional writer regarded Self*aJareness 2 %or managing it is y that people emotion emotional as a base intelligence, instinct to be subdued emotion as base instinct to be must develop self2awareness, i.e. they able >ut to evaluate themselves sub direct on should repressed. the modem writer view it as a safeguard of in the light of their emotions and igs. The ability to be aware of the survival and an enrichment of e+perienc throughout the process of relationship between 8ns personality and actions, i.e. also important being aware what development. emotions caused what actions. This awareness helps an individual to $motions may be both positive and negative. Positive emotion include love positive emotions and overcome negative emotions. and affection, happiness, surprise and negative emotio include fear, trol of E'otions 2It is anger, necessary thatand one should be able to sadness, distrust shame. t$ose emotions which are dysfunctional like anger, fear et%. $motional intelligence is the ability to command respect by buildini these emotions may be channeli1ed to positive ones +o+s relationship on the ability to get along with the people and situation Includes components like self2 tness ar practice. "ne of the better ways of overcoming these is to refrain awareness, ability to manage mood motivation, empathy, and social skills such as cooperation an nfort wit . from taking any action when an individual is of s+%$ emotions. :7@ F leadership. C change. 'fter a certain period of time, he may o $is nor'al1 behavioural pattern for taking -any action.

;. Social skill

it$y 2 $mpathy is act of 0putting ones legs in another

f 7; 6

Personality & Managerial Per or!ance

5NIT*3 ATTIT5DES

earnin9 OA:e%ti/e 'fter the end of this Onit, you will be able to understand 2 C C. C C C C !oncept of attitudes %eatures of attitudes Source of attitudes !omponents of attitudes %unctions of attitudes !hanging employee attitude

5ni Str+%t+re t 8.6 Introduction 8.7 ?eaning and Jefinition 8.8 #ature of 'ttitudes 8.9 'ttitude and "pinion 8.; 'ttitude and >elief 8.@ 'ttitude and Nalues 8.A %ormation of 'ttitudes 8.S !omponents of 'ttitudes 8.\ Types of 3ork &elated 'ttitudes 8.\.6 Gob Satisfaction 8.\.7 Gob Involvement 8.6M "rgani1ation commitment 8.66 $ffect of $mployees 'ttitudes 8.67 !hanging $mployee 'ttitudes 8.68 Summary 8.69 Reywords 8.6; Puestions 3.1 I#T&"JO!TI"#_______________________________________________________

'ttitude is a very comple+ cognitive process .ust like the personali of an individual. The difference between these two is that personali is usually thought of as the whole person, where as attitude m make up the personality. It is a very important variable in hum behaviour, because it constitutes an important psychological attrib of individual which shapes their behaviour. The important of attitud in understanding psychological phenomenon was given for/ introduction early in the history of social psychology.2 %rom the ti of its entry into the sub.ect of psychology till now, interest attitudes has been strongly growing. owever, over the ye attitudes have been studied with differing methods and the emph
[281

has also been different. 'ttitudes are evaluative statements. These are fre*uently used in describing people, ob.ects and events and e+plaining the peoples behaviour. These reflect how one feels about something or some body. 3hen I say, 0I like &am4. I am e+pressing my attitude about &am. Thus, we can say that attitude is a bent of mind, predisposition of certain actions. 3.2 ?$'#I#, '#J J$%I#ITI"#

Attitudes

'n attitude may be defined as the way a person feels about something 2 a person, a place, a commodity, a situation, or an idea. It e+presses an individuals positive or negative feelings about some ob.ect. It describes an individuals feelings, thoughts and pre disposition to act towards some ob.ect in the environment. attitude is a predisposition to respond in a positive or negative y to someone or something in ones environment. %or e+ample, en a person says, that he 0likes4 or 0dislikes4 someone, an attitude being e+pressed. To take another e+ample, the statement I love key and football4 conveys ones general attitude towards sport a rson may develop love for hockey football which playing the game the %$il"$oo" or by watching the game on television. 'ttitudes y be regarded as varying in several ways. 8 Dire%tion* %or or against something. De9ree* %avourable. To be neutral in attitude is to be indifferent the ob.ect. 8 Intensity 2 Jgree of confidence. .me important definition of attitudes are as given below 2 'n attitude is a tendency or predisposition to evaluate an ob.ect or pmbol of that ob.ect in a certain way4. 2 Kat+ and ,cotland

An attitude is a predisposition react to a situation, person, or Jncept with a particular response. This response can be either ositive or negative. It is a learned reaction2one that results from a individuals past observation, direct e+perience, or e+posure to the personalil ters attitudes. that persoi as attitude Ciable in hi 2logical attnbul 2 ,a!eul !. Certo

ttitudes is a mental and neutral state of readiness, organi1ed gh e+perience, e+erting a directive or dynamic influence upon idividuals response to all ob.ects and situations with which it
re a

. 5ec.

2 ,.3. Allport

rtant of attitudiKKKKKKKKKKK
as

given formfo NAT5RE OF ATTIT5DES

y.. %rom the twl m a5ove definitions of attitudes we can bring about the now, i nterest bowing salient features which contribute to the meaning of , over the y eatra<.es and the emphaT
:29 F

Personality & Managerial Per or!ance

'ttitudes refer to the feelings and beliefs of individuals or groups : oet, of individuals. %or e+ample 0 e has a poor attitudes4, I like her attitudes4.
>eGi

part

The feelings and beliefs are directed towards other people, 5 ob.ects or ideas when a person says, I like my .ob4. It shows that he has a positive attitudes towards his .ob. 'ttitudes constitutes a psychological phenmomenon which cannot be directly observed. owever, an attitude can be
Mr

whic $ observed indecently by

observing its conse*uences. %or e+ample, if a person is very regular in his .ob, we may infer that he likesW- 5 his .ob very much. 'ttitudes often result in and affect the behavior or actions o(
sna)e

2onsic

the people. 'ttitudes can often lead to intended behavior ii there are.no e+ternal intervention. 'ttitudes are evaluative statements, either favourable o..2 e v unfavourable. 3hen a person says he likes or dislike somethingE Ore or somebody, an attitude is being e+pressed. 'ttitudes are gradually ac*uired over a period of time. Th] process of learning attitude starts right from childhood ar continues throughout the life of a person. In the beginning, tl family members may have great impact on the. attitude of child. 'll people, irrespsecitve of their status and intellegence hoi attitudes. 'n attitudes may, be unconsciously held. ?ost of our attitude may be about those ob.ects which we are not clearly aware Pre.udicial furnishes a good e+ample. 3.& ATTIT5DES AND OPINION 'ttitude and opinion are used closely with each other. >ut there a basic difference in these terms. 'ccording to Thursten 0"pini are e+pression of attitudes4. 'ttitudes tend to be generali predisposition to react in some way towards ob.ects or conce "pinions, on the other hand, tend to be focused on more spec/ aspects of the ob.ect or the concept. ?c!ormick and Tiffin observe that the measurement of attitudeE generally based on the e+pressions of opinion. >ut we sho distinguish between attitude scale which, like a thermomete barometer, reflects the generali1ed level of individuals aptitu towards some ob.ect or concept and opinion survey, which typi are used to elicit the opinions of people towards specific aspect, for e+ample, their work situations. e
Of
T
6

#"- A.

sr_i"e fi Dire%t

to I

5enc

3.- ATTIT5DE AND #E IEF Though closely related with each other, a difference can be

Personality & Managerial Fa%tors 2 &eligious institutions, social organi1ation groups v= Instit+tional between attitude UL and belief. educational institutions, etc. also help in shipping the attitudes of tike >elief is a hypothesis concerning the nature of the ob.ects, more pepole. her particuarlly, concerning ones .udgment of the probability regarding 7/8 (ass (e"ia 2 'ttitdues are generally less stable as compared /heir nature. >elief reveals that what one supposes to be true. people, to valves. 'dvertising message, for e+ample, attempts to alter the >elief may also be e+plained as the congnitive component of attitude t attitude of the people toward a certain product or service. Similarly which reflects the manner in which an ob.ect is perceived. social messages on TN and in newspapers can have mass appeal a which %or e+ample, a boss may the believe his subordinate to be very hard among people. can be working. >ut infact, he may or may not be hard working. The attitude e+ample 7/i8 E%ono'i% Stat+s an" O%%+,ations 2 "ur economic and of the boss towards the subordinate reveals whether he like him or , "ccupational potions also contribute to attitude formation. They not. The positive attitude and the conse*uent liking may rather determine, in part, our attitudes towards unions and managemen . he likes make the boss condone all the bad *ualities in the subordinate and and our belief that certain laws a+e 0good4 or 0bad4 . Socio2economi ictions Wf!onsider him hardworking. background influences both present and future attitudes of people Ehavior if 3.. ATTIT5DE AND 4A 5ES irable

Attitudes

fa ?E N< 3. to thi

M6

he values of an individuals generally reveal the moral side of his

something tature. These include his ideas about what is good or bad, what ihould be done and what should not be done. These are some of the time. Ihood am inning, thi titude of gence holi Things which are inculcated in the individuals since childhood. lonesty is the best policy4. ' worker must be honest to his work4 re statements of values. It is an evaluative statement that 0 onest .rkers are good4 are reveals the attitude of a person towards honest .rkers. It can be said that values-are one of the determinants of ies attitudes. 'n individuals considers an honest workers to be =d because of his values that 0' workers must be honest to his

th
(

COE

per
/u0

.rk4. ur attitude ly aware M6.A FOR(ATION OF ATTIT5DES

Fig. 3.1 Sources of Attitu es

rdafle

ttitudes are ac*uired and not inherited. ' person can ac*uire titude from 3.2 CO(PONENTS OF ATTIT5DES several source as discussed below 2 'ttitudes are internal and may be largely kept to oneself or tip] fa Dire%t Personal e>,erien%e 2'ttitude is learnt through specific >ut there may be made known to others overt behavior . ,enerally, attituc in 0"pinioi generali1f or concept more .erience with the ob.ect of pri!ary the attitude. %or instance, often have three components as shown in a fig. 8.7 ies of rewarding e+perience in dealing with a person we usually le to like him. Similarly a series of frustrating negative
I#%"&?'TI"#'(

!"?P"#$#T $?"TI"#'( !",#ITIN$ specil !"?P"#$#T !"?P"#$#T Asso%iation 2 'ttitudes towards one ob.ect may develop from 8 f attitudes .ociating

Erience will usually engender "& "&an unfavourable attitude.

'%%$!TIN$ >$ 'NI"O&'(

that ob.ect with another ob.ect about which attitudes it we shoure been previsouly formed. ermometer g oc2a. (earning
or

(o"ellin9* 3e often observe how other person al s ap i

tO< es an<

lave. 3e may interpret the behavior of a person in terms of the vhich typic beliefs his action implies. !hildren are *uite vigilant ific aspects parents react to different people. >y observeing whom they regard as friend
lP

U / 2]s

5ng .6P3 5eir

learn whom their parents respect,

Z22`00Bm they dislike. Infact, children begin modeling their attitudes Z22222222 r parents, teachers relatives. Inor organi1ation, also employees 1. and Infor'ation Co9niti/e Co',onent 2 The informal ma e can be Iire attitudes fromcomponent seniors andconsists peer groups. of beliefs, values, ideas and other informa
32

Fig. 3.! Components of an Attitu e

:86F

a person has about the ob.ect. It makes no difference whether or not this information imperially correct. %or e+ample, a person seeking a .ob may learn from some sources that in a particular company, the promotion chances are very favourable. In reality, it may or may not be correct. )et the information that the person in using is the key to his attitudes about the company and the .ob. 2. E'otional or Affe%ti/e Co',onent 2 The informational

components sets the stage for the more critical part of attitude, its affective component. The emotional component involves the persons feelings or affect. This component can be e+plained by this statement. -I like this .ob because, the future prospects in this company are very good4. 3. #e$a/io+ral Co',onent 2 It consists of the tendency of a person

/o behave in a particular manner towards an ob.ect. %or e+ample, ihe concerned individuals in the above case may decide to take up the .ob because of good future prospects. "ut of the three components of attitudes, only the bevaioural components can be directly observed. "ne cannot see another persons belief the informational components= and his feelings <the emotional component=. These two components can only be inferred. >ut still understanding these two components is essential to understand the behavioural components of attitudes. 3.3 T!PES OF BORL RE ATE ATTIT5DES ' person may posses hundreds and thousands of attitudes, but organi1ational behavior focuses an a very limited number of .ob related attitudes. These attitudes are generally evaluations which employees hold about their work environment. These attitudes may If or thG
be

favourable or unfavourable, positive or negative. ?ost of the

attitudi research has been done with the following work related attitudes U<as shown in fig 8.8=.

Fig. 3.3 "o#$relate

attitu es

p.\.6 Gob Satisfaction _________________________________________________________ lob satisfaction refer to ones feeling towards ones .ob. 'n individual kaving satisfaction is said to possess attitude towards the .ob. iformatiotonversely, a dissatisfied person will have negative attitudes towards informatfcs or her .ob. 3hen people speak of employee attitudes, they

Personality & Managerial invariably refer to .ob satisfaction. ' person who is satisfied with his .ob Per or!ance will generally be punctual, absenteeism will be minimum, performance will be high, his attitude towards his co2workers and his boss will also by very positive. In case of a dissatisfied person, he will genrally be late for the office, on small prete+ts he will absent himself from the .ob, performance level will be poor, and his behavior in the organi1ation will not be very good. 3hen people speak of employee attitudes they invariably relate it with .ob satisfaction. 3.3.2 Gob Involvement _______________________________________________________ Gob involvement refer to the degree with which on individual identifies psychologically with his or her .ob and perceives his or her performance level important to self worth. $mployee who have a high level of .ob involvement very strongly identify with the .ob and really care about the kind of work they do. igh degree of involvement .ust like .ob satisfaction will lead to lower employee turnover and absentesism. 3.3.3 "rgani1ational !ommitment ___________________________________________ The last .ob attitude refers to organi1ational commitment . It is understood as ones identification with his organi1ation and felling proud of being its employee. Gob involvements refers to ones attachment to a .ob whereas organi1ational commitment implies an employee identification with a particular organi1ation and its goals. Turnover and absentesism commitment

3.1F %O#!TI"#S "% 'TTITOJ$S_____________________________________________ Rat1 has suggested that attitudes and motives are inter2linked an depending on an individuals motives, attitudes can save four mai functions. They are as under 2 1. LnoJle"9e

"ne of the ma.or functions of attitudes is to provide a basis fo interpretation and classification of new information. 'ttitudes provid a knowledge base and framework within which new informatio can be placed. 2. E>,ressi/e

'ttitudes are a means of e+pression values. They enable individu to indicate to others the valves that they hold and thus to e+pre their self concept and adopt or internali1e the values of a group, manager who believes strongly in work others will tend to voi attitudes towards specific individuals or work practice as a mean reflecting this value. %or e+ample, a manager who wants subordinate to work harder might put it this way. 0)ouve got work harder. That has been the tradition of our company since was founded4.
:89 6

3.

Instr+'ental ence, attitudes in the

eld attitudes ma+imi1e rewards and minimi1e sanctions. e+periences. &. >ehaviour or knowledge which has

towards other people might be held because of past positive or negative resulted satisfactions of needs is thus more likely to result in a favourable attitude. E9o*Defensi/e

'ttitudes may be held in order to protect the ego from an undesirables truth or reality. People often form and maintain certain attitudes to protect their own self images. %or e+ample workers may fell threatened by the employment or advancement of minority or female workers in the iividua l s his or rho have the .ob legree
(

organi1ation. The threatened workers may develop pre.udices against the new workers. They may develop an attitude that such new comers are less *ualified and they might mistreat these workers. This attitude help the workers protect the ego and is known as an ego defensive attitude. The ego defensive attitude is used by the employees in coping with a feeling of threat of guilt. 3.11 $%%$!TS "% $?P(")$$ 'TTITOJ$S ____________________________________ 'ttitudes of employees have direct impact on the performance at .ob. %or

Bnt C It is
m

e+ample, an employee with a positive, attitudes towards his .ob and organi1ation would 2 Try to give his best performance . ,o for the e+tra mile in facing difficult tasks. ?aintain discipline and obey rules.

d felling to

8
ones implies an i

its

>ehave in a friendly and courteous manner with his colleagues. (ike to be present at his work in time $n.oy the e+perience at workplace.

2linked and

?aintain loyalty to the organi1ation. (ike to continue relationship with organi1ation. "n the other hand, an employee with a negative attitude would 2 #ot be at his best of efficiency.

M
main

four

a basis fo/ .udes provic informatioi

>e absent from workplace at slightest prete+t. !onsumer and waste valueable resource. Take pleasure in damaging the reputation of this superiors and organi1ation. (ike to leave the organi1ation at earliest.

ile individu group mean wants 0)ouve

#ot cooperate with superiors and colleagues.

us

to e+pre of a tend who got to von E as a

#ot maintain cordially relations with people at workplace. Jistract customers. &esist any change

mpany since

Personality & Managerial Per or!ance

3.12KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK! ' #,I#, $?P(")$$ 'TTITOJ$S _________________________________________ %rom above paragraphs, the need and the Importance to having positive attitude in employee is well understood. 'n organi1ation can use following methods for developing positive attitude amongst its employees 2 <a= <b= <c= <d= <e= <f= <g= <h= <i= !onduct periodic surveys on .ob satisfaction and employee attitudes. 'rrange 'rrange training training workshop workshops and and orientation orientation programmes programmes for for employee involving outside. employees involving outside e+perts on motivations. "rgani1e open house platform where employees can raise their greievances and obtain *uick redressal. "rgani1e contests, games and interesting group activities to foster team2sprit and provide break from routine activities. Jevelop an environment of openness, trust and fairness in the organi1ation. !ommunicate regularly with employees about company, its policies, further plans, welfare programmes. "rgani1e stress management workshops, including yoga, meditation, spiritual discourses. ?ake organi1ational polices and procedures more transparen and fair, especially with regards to promotions, transfer rewards and punishment. <.= !hallenging work is one of the biggest motivators. Jelegat challenging tasks and e+tend support to develop highe capabilities as well as self confidence. <k= &eward employees with positive attitudes and contributions. <I= ?ake efforts to provide an e+cellent P3( <Puality fo work lif to make working an en.oyable e+perience. <m= Jevelop proper work life balance for your employees. <n= $ncourage employees take up higher education or training. upgrade their skills. <o= !onfront employees with destructive mindset s*uarely to an e+ample for others. <p= Provide good motivational books and literature to employees help develop positivity. 3.12KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKSO??'&)____E . 'n attitude may be defined as the way a person feels about someth2 a person, a place, a commodity, a situation or an idea. It e+pres an individuals positive on negative feelings about some ob. 'ttitude may be regarded varying in direction, degree and inten 2

Personality & Managerial Per or!ance

5NIT*& PERCEPTION

earnin9 OA:e%ti/e 'fter the end of this Onit, you will be able to understand !oncept of perception %eatures of perception Significance of perception Process of Perception !oncept of Perceptual ?echanism 5nit Str+%t+re

9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.; 9.@ 9.A

Introduction ?eaning and Jefinition of Perception #ature of Perception %actors influencing Perception Importance of Perception The Perception Process Perceptual mechanism 9.A.6 Perceptual Selectivity 9.A.7 Perceptual "rgani1ation 9.A.8 Perceptual Interpretation

9.S 9.\

Summary Reywords

9.6M Puestions &.1 INTROD5CTION

Perception is the process by which an individual becomes aware end interprets information received from the environment. 3i we know about the world around us comes from our perceptifl Sensory inputs such as light, sound and pressure must be percei5. and cognitively organi1ed into meaningful patters before they be acted upon. Sensations from the outside world are alteredF previous learning, memories, e+pectations, beliefs, attitudes, vali. and personality beyond the pure stimulus. The integratioi perceptions, memories, e+pectation, beliefs and attitudes anc forth comprise the individual cognitive structure. The concept of perception is very closely related to the person of a person. It is essentially a psychological process whereby pec select, organi1e and interpret sensory stimulations into meanin information about their work environment. Infact, perception at the base of every indivduals behaviour. Systematic understand of the process of perception is important for the manager who w to avoid errors in
38

dealing with his subordinates.

&.2 ?$'#I#,

'#J

J$%I#ITI"#

"%

P$&!$PTI"#

Perception

Perception includes all those processes by which an individual receives information about his environment 2 seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting and smelling. 'll the processes are important but the first three, i.e. seeing, hearing and feeling 2 are the dominant senses. Thus, perception basically refers to the manner in which a person e+periences the world . It is the process by which people organi1e, interpret and e+perience ideas and use stimulus materials in the environment so that they satisfy their needs. Perception is the process through which the information form outside environment is selected, received, organi1ed and interpreted to make :m meaningful to you. This input of meaningful information result decision and actions. few definitions of perception as given by different authors are 2 Perception is the process by which people organi1e, interpret and e+perience ideas and use stimulus materials in the environment, that the satisfy their needs4.
8

2 1oseph Reit+

erception may be defined as a process by which individual organi1e ad interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to leir environment4 2 ,"P" Ro22ins

erception can be defined as the process of receiving, selecting, e4. 2 3dai Pareck

rgani1ing, interpreting, checking, and reacting to sensory stimulator

)3 NAT5RE OF PERCEPTION -eople working in an organi1ation differ in terms of physical laracteristics <such as age, se+, etc=, background characteristics such as training and education=Xand personality traits such as

i aware stroversion or aggressiveness=. "ne of the conse*uences of such

mt. 3h ifferences is that they do not view the same things in the same erceptio ray. There is often differences of opinion and evaluating. People iffer in their reaction due to differences in perception they have E perceivi Jout things. Perception may thus be described as a persons views / they reality. %or e+ample, a factory worker may discount most of what a management says about declining sales, deceased profit margin, altered c. ?ost of such talk is regarded by unions as an attempt by les, vali anagement to e+ploit the workers for its own gain. >ut a gration lareholder may attribute declining sales and profit margin to les and cient utili1ation of resources. personE Ceby pea meanin. option ierstan

the above discussion, we can identify the features of perception lows 2 Perception is the intellectual process through which a person selects data from the environment, organi1es it and obtains meaning from it .

Personality & Managerial Per or!ance

Perception is a basic cognitive or psychological process. The manner in which a person perceives the environment affects I his behaviour. Thus, peoples actions, emotions, thoughts, or. feelings are triggered by the perception of their surroundings. C Perception is a sub.ective process and different people mayl perceive the same environment differently based on whatE particular aspects of the situation they choose to absorb, hoY they organi1e this information and the manner in which the= interpret it to obtain the understanding of the situation. &.& FACTORS INF 5ENCING PERCEPTION The factor that influence perceptual mechanism are of two kinds namely internal and e+ternal. These are discarded below 2 Internal Fa%tors The internal factors are the needs and desires of individuals individual personality and the e+perience of people. 7/i8 Nee" an" Desires 2 Jepending on the needs and desires of a individuals, the perception varies 7/ii8 Personality 2 Individual personality has a profound

influent . on perceived behaviour as for e+ample.

Secure individual tends to perceive others as warm, not cola C Individuals do not e+pose by e+pressing e+treme .udgments others. C Persons who accept themselves and have faith an thi individuality perceive things favourale. C Self2accepting individuals perceive themselves as liked, wantI and accepted by others.

7/iii8 E>,erien%e 2 $+perience and knowledge has great influei on perception. Successful e+perience enhance and boost tl perceptive ability and lead to accuracy in perception of a per/ whereas failure erodes self2confidence. E>ternal Fa%tors The e+ternal factors which influence the perception are si5 intensity, fre*uency status, etc. 7i8 SiGe 2 The bigger the si1e of the perceived stimulus, the hiV

is the probability that it is perceived. Si1e attracts the attentior an individual. It establishes dominance and enhances percept selection. 7ii8 Intensity 2 Intensity attracts to increase the select perception. 7iii8 FreM+en%y 2 &epeated e+ternal stimulus is more attenl. attracting than a single time. 9M

. ts, e

The or

7i/8 Stat+s 2 Perception is also influenced by the status of the perceiver. igh status people can e+ert greater influence on perception of an employee than low status people. 7/8 Contrast 2 Stimuli that contrast with the surrounding environment are more likely to be attention catching than the stimuli that blend in. &.- I?P"&T'#!$ "% P$&!$PTI"# ___________________

Perception

ffects dings, mayl whatU o, hoY h theH

Perception is very important in understanding the human behaviour, because every person perceives the world and approaches the life problems differently. 36 atever we see or feel is not necessarily the

kindsI

same as it really is. It is because what we hear is not what is really said, but what we perceives is being said. 3hen we buy something, it is not because it is the best, but because we take it to be the best. Thus, it is because of perception, we can find out why one

viduals

individual finds a .ob satisfying while another one may not be satisfied with it.

res of

It people behave on the basis of their perception, we can predict /heir behaviour in the changed circumstances by understanding their present perception of the environment. "ne person may be viewing the facts in one way which may be different from the facts as seen by another viewer. 3ith the help of perception, the needs of various people can be determined, because peoples perception is influenced by their needs. (ike the mirrors at an amusement part, :they distort the world in relation to their tensions.

influ enc

not colc :gments

an the

Perception is very important for the manager who wants to avoid taking errors when dealing with people and events in the work [tting. This problem is made more complicated by the fact that ferent people perceive the same situation differently. In order to Eal with the subordinates effectively, the manage must understand ieir perceptions properly.
IOS,

Eed, wany it influe/ boost tl of a per/

for understanding the human behaviour, it is very important

understand their perception, i.e. how they perceive the.- different lation. Peoples behaviour is based on their perceptions of what on are sil eality is, not on reality itself. The world as it is perceived is the .rld that is important for understanding the human behaviour. YC .. THE PERCEPTION PROCESS rception process consists of several elements such as receiving, electing, organi1ing, interpreting and reacting to the stimuli, rough perception, people process information input into decision id actions or behaviours as shown in %ig 9.6. The element of rception process include <i= inputs <ii= ?echanism of perception the select outputs and <iv= behaviour.

(S

, the higl.

e attentior es percept5

lore attent

96

Personality & Managerial Per or!ance

%ig. 9.6 The Perceptual Process

The four elements of perceptual process are briefly discussed below2 Inputs/ Perceived inputs are the ob.ects, events, people, etc. that are perceived by the receiver. Per%e,t+al (e%$anis' / The perceived inputs are processed throu.E the sub2processes of selection, organi1ation and interpretation. O+t,+ts* Through the processing mechanism, the outputs are derived. These outputs may be feelings, actions, attitudes, etc. #e$a/io+r 2 >ehaviour is dependent on the perceived outputs. Th* perceivers behaviour, in turn, generates responses from th* perceived and these responses give rise to a new set of inputs. &.0 PERCEPT5A (ECHANIS( 6

3hen a person revise information, he ties to processed through thi S sub2 processes of <6= selection, <7= organi1ation and <8= Interpretation These are e+plained below 2

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------[
?any things take place in the environment simultaneously owever, one cannot pay e*ual attention to all these things, thu there is the need of perceptual selectivity. Perceptual selectivi refers to the tendency to select certain ob.ects from the environme for attention. The ob.ects which are selected are those which relevant and appropriate for an individual or those which consistent with ones e+isting beliefs, values and needs. The factors affecting perceptual selection may be both interval e+ternal factors as discussed below / Internal Fa%tors The internal factors in perceptual selection include the following

&.0.1 Perceptual Selectivity _________________________________________________

3rmal r]Lersai

Personality & Managerial attention. ' full page advertisement in a newspaper will always catch attention as compared to a few lines in the classified section, i 7a8 Nee"s an" "esires 2 Jepending on the needs and desires of an 7A8 Intensity 2 It attracts to increase the selective perception. A: few individual, the perception varies. e+amples of intensity are yelling or whispering, very brighti colours, very 7A8 Personality 2 Individual personality has a profound influences bright or very dim lights. Intensity will also includeI behavioural intensity. on perceived behaviour as for e+ample2 7%8 FreM+en%y 2 The stimulus which is repeated attracts greaterI C Secure individuals tend to perceive others as warm, not cold. attention as compared to a stimulus that is not repeated. It isl because of C Individuals do not e+pose by e+pressing e+treme .udgments of this that supervisor make it a point to give the necessaryI directions again others. and again to the workers C Persons who accept themselves and have faith in their 7"8 Stat+s 2 things igh status people can e+ert greater influence on theI individuality perceive favourably. perception of the employees than the low people. There wi? always Self2accepting individuals perceive themselves as status liked, wanted be different reactions to the orders given by the foreman] the supervisor or and accepted by others the production manger 7%8 E>,erien%e 2 $+perience and knowledge has great influence C on perception. enhance andcontrasts boost the with 7e8 Successful Contrast e+periences 2 'n ob.ect which the surroundings perceptive ability and lead accuracy in perception a person environment is to more likely to be noticed of than the ob.ects whicl> blends in whereas failure erodes self2confidence. the environment. %or e+ample, the $cIT sings in thd cinema halls which sed below2 etc. that 7"8 have red lettering an a black background arD attention drawing. earnin9 2(earning, a cognitive factor, has considerable

7ii8 Per%t
meaningf Perception orga

iXiour

efficientF2E det

tM7]f U
my I

/nryi"

influence on7f8 perception. It creates e+pectancy in people. People (o/e'ent 2 The principle of motion states that a moving ob.ec] tend to perceive what theyattention want to perceive. number of illustrations receives more than the ' ob.ect which is standing still, moving car have been used by psychologists to would demonstrate theattention impact of among the packed cars catch our fastei learning on perception. %or e+ample in fig. 9.7, one tends to read 798 No/elty an" Fa'iliarity 2 This principle status that new ob.ec] in the the sentence, because of prior learning in the triangle as 0turn off familiar settings or familiar ob.ects in new settings will drs! the attention e engine4. It takes few seconds for the reader to reali1e that of the perceiver. ' familiar face on a crowded railwa. platform will ere is an e+tra 0the4 in the sentence. The illustration shows that immediately catch attention. ing creates e+pectancy in an individual and e+pectancy makes see what he wants to see. "rgani1ation C &.0.2 Perceptual ____________________________________________N The perceived inputs are organi1ed into meaningful pictures to ti perceiver. "rgani1ing the information that is incoming into] meaningful whole is called 0organi1ation4. The process is also labeli(= as 0gestalt process4. ,estalt is a ,erman word meaning 0to organi1f There are different way by which people organi1e the perceivl inputs. "b.ects and events. These are disc cured below 2 7i8 Fi9+re an" Gro+n" 2 The %igure ,round principle is genera

,ed through etation. utputs are. les, etc. utputs. TheU s from tha inputs.

tend

through the

iterpretatio

considered to be the most basic from of perceptual organi1atid This ultaneousl. E things, thi lal selectivit e environmer ase which Dse which eds. : 99 F b( interval principle states that the perceived ob.ect or person on evU stands out distinct from its background and occupies the cognifr space of the individual. %or e+ample as you read this page, you [ white as the background and black as the letters or words tol read. )ou do not try to lal Fa%tors understand what the white spaces ami the black letters could mean. important factors which determine perceptual selection as (ikewise, in the organi1ational sett] some people are more noticed or stand out than others. Thus,] perceiver tends to organi1e only the 2 information The bigger the si1e of the stimulus, the higher is the which standse lity that is perceived. The si1e always attracts the attention significant to the individual. it establishes dominance. The si1e may be the height or of an individual, sign board of a shop, or the space devoted to isement in the newspaper. ' very tall person will always the following out in the crowedE a very short person will always attract :98F

%ig. 9.7 Impact of (earning

Personality & Managerial 7"8 Per or!ance

Contin+ity 2 Stimuli that form a complete or symmetrical figure or

good form, tend to be grouped as parts of a whole. 7ii8 Per%e,t+al Gro+,in9 2 ,rouping is the tendency stimuli into

" meaningful patterns. %or instance, if we perceive ob.ects of people with

similar characteristics, we tend to groi;p them together and this organi1ing mechanism helps us to deal" with information efficiently rather than getting bogged down and confused with so many details. ,rouping is possible depending on <a= Similarity <b= pro+imity <c= closure and <d= continuity
<a=

Perception

Si'ilarly 2 "ther things being e*ual, perceived s belonging

%ig.and 9.@ beard !ontinuity of ob.ects together. %or senstnace, all students with long hair
The above arrangement of circles is usually perceived a he+agonal : my be perceives as revolutionaries. ob.ect "rather " than three rows of two dots each. &.0.3 Perceptual Interpretation ________________________ Interpretation is an integral part of the perception process. 3ithout interpretation, selection and organi1ation of information do not make any sense. 'fter the information has been received and organi1ed the perceiver would interpret or assign meaning to the information Infact, $verybody perceives two sets of s*uares and one set of only after the dat have been perception isfour said to have taken place four circles. Seldominterpreted. people will see two hori1ontal lines, each Several factors contribute towards the interpretation of data. ?ore important among then are perceptual set, attribution, stereotyping, consisting s*uares and circles.
n>)

%ig. 9.8 Similarity of ob.ects

halo being effect, perceptual perceptual defense and pro.ection. It may Pro>i'ity 2 "ther thing e*ual, things conte+t near each other also be that in the process of interpretation, people tend to become tend to be perceived asnoted belonging together. more .udgment They may tend to distort what they see and even ignore thing tha they feel are unpleasant &.2 SO??'&)

Perception is the process by which an individual becomes aware and interprets information received from the environmen- Perception includes all those processes by which an individu receives information about his environment 2 seeing, hearin feeling, testing and smelling.

%ig. 9.9 Pro+imity of ob.ects

The factor that influence perceptual mechanism, are of two kin namely The usual perception is three columns of four dots rather than four internal and e+ternal. Internal factors includes needs derives rows of three dots. personality, e+perience. $+ternal factors include si intensity, Clos+re 2 The principle of closure relates to the tendencies of the fre*uency, status and contrast. people to perceive ob.ects as a whole, even when some parts of the Perception process consists of several elements ob.ects are missing. The persons perceptual process will close the such as receive-

o o o o

oo oo oo oo

selecting, organi1ing, interpreting and reacting to the stim Through gaps that are unfilled from secondary input. %or e+ample, in the perception, people process information input into decisi and actions. following figure, the sections of the figures are not complete, but The elements of perception process include inp mechanism of being familiar with the shapes we tend to close the gaps and perceive perception, outputs and behaviour. the ob.ects as circle. Triangle and s*uare.

&.3 :9@F 1.

LE!BORDS Per%e,tion 2 It is the process by which people organi1e, inte

Fig. %.& Closure principle

[45 j

Personality & Managerial Per or!ance

5NIT*- EARNING = CONCEPT AND ______________T $"&I$S ______________

(eaning "b.ectives 'fter the end of this Onit you will be able to understand 2 C C C C C C C C !oncept of learning Important Imlication of learning Principles of learning Jeterminants of learning Narious theories of leaning. Theory of &einforcement Types of &einforcement Types of &einforcement

C !oncept of >ehviour ?odifications Onit Structure ;.6 ;.7 ;.8 ;.9 ;.; ;.@ Introduction ?eaning and Jefinition #ature of (earning Principle of (earning Jeterminants of (earning Theories of (earning -...1 !lassical !onditioning -...2 "perant !onditioning ;.@.9 Social (earning ;.A &einforcement Theory ;.A.6 Strategies of &einforcement ;.S >ehaviour ?odification ;.S.6 '2>2!s of >ehaviour ?odification ;.S.7 Steps in "> ?"J ;.S.8 Otilities of "> ?"J ;.\ Summary

;.6M Reywords ;.66 Puestions -.1 I#T&"JO!TI"# `

(earning is one of the most important psychological proci determining human behavior. If a manager wants to e+plain predict behavior of his employees, he needs to understand . people learn. (earning is any permanent change in the behavu a person that occurs as a result of e+perience. It is accompanie. ac*uisitions knowledge, skills and
:9SF

e+pertise which are relat.

permanent. Themporary changes may be only refle+ive and fail to represent any learning. If reinforcement does not accompany the practice, the behavior will eventually disappear. -.2 ?$'#I#, '#J J$%I#ITI"# ______________________________________ In a (aymans view, 0(earning is something we did when we went to school4. In reality, each of us is continuously going to school. (earning is occurring all the time. 3ith every new e+perience, new event or new situation we learn something. >ut this concept of (earning is purely theoretrical. 3e cannot observe leaning as we can observe the personality of a person or his attitude. 3e can see the changes taking place but not the leaning itself. %ew Important definition of leaning are 2 -(earning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of e+perience or reinforced -(earning is any permanent change in occurs a a result of e+perience4. practice4 thebehavior 2 /"R" Hilgrad of a person that 2 ,"P" Ro22ins

Learning0 Concept and Theories

-(earning has taken place if an individual behaves, reacts, responds s a result of e+perience in a manner different from the way he .frmerly behaved4. According to the 6ictionary o Psychology, 0(earning means the the process of ac*uiring the of ability to respond ade*uately to a situation which may or may not have been previously encourntered, favourable modification response tendencies conse*uent upon previous e+perience, particularly the building of a new series of comple+ity coordinated motor response, the fi+ation Of items in memory, so that they can be recalled or organi1ed in the process of ac*uainting insight into situation4. fhus, in simple words, learning can be defined as a permanent Ihange in behavior through education and training, practice and feperience. 2 4"M" c5ehee

8 NAT5RE OF

EARNING_________________________________________________

Com the above definitions of learning, we find the following iportant implications in this process 7. C$an9e in #e$a/io+r 2 (earning involves change in behavior, though the change may be good or bad from an organi1ations pont U view. The change in behavior need not be an improvement over
(ogical proce

k previous behavior, although learning usually cannotes improved

[tavior. s to e+plain understand !hange in >ehaviour ?ust be &elatively Permanent 2 'll the n the behavic. l$ge do not reflect learning. To constitute learning, change should s accompanie [relatively permanent. Temporary changes may be only reflection ich are relat [I fail to represent any learning. 'ny temporary change in :9\F

Personality & Managerial behaviour caused due to fatigue or drugs or temporary adaptation I .. i Per or!ance are not covered in learning. 3. !hange must be based on some e+perience practice or training
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2 The behavioural change must be based on some from of practice, 0. : e+perience or training. 'ny change in behavior due to physical recal maturation, any disease or physical damages do no constitute and s leamming. This change may not be evident until a situation arises , recen in which the new behavior can occur. I -.- E &. Reinfor%e'ent 2 The practice or e+perience must be reinforced ***************** in in order for learning to occur. If reinforcement does not accompany the practice or e+perience the behavior will eventually disappears, l, -. (earning is &eflected in >ehaviour 2 ' change in an individuals
a!tl ee

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thought process or attitudes not accompanied by behaviour is not 5 5ng learning. %urther learning needs to result in behavior potentialit= 5 eterm. and not necessarily in behavior itself. %or e+ample, if a person is thinking of using drugs, but has not actually used them and hi finds out that a friend of his has died because of drugs, he wil never get involved with drugs. This e+periences has changed hiF behavior potential. -.& PRINCIP E OF EARNING
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(earning is a very comple+ and wide topic. 3hen we talk aboi learning, it can be referring to any type of learning from sim./ alphabets to designing a computer system. %ollowing are tl principle of learning in formal training situations. 1. Fee"Aa%) 2 (earning can be a more effective process when be

the instructor and trainee give feedback to each other. The instructF needs feedback to know how the trainee is progressing and trainee needs the feedback to know his level of performance. 2. A%ti/e earnin9 2 (earning can be more effective and *uiet

'tten
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the trainee is actively involved in the learning process. 3e alY learn by doing. This applies to all forms of learning. 3. Reinfor%e'ent 2 'ccording to this principle 0(earning which

rewarded is more likely to be retained4. This is how we make children, students and even our pets learn. &. (eanin9 (aterial 2 The material supplied to the trainee sha e can understand arid learn more, if the mat5

ara feam ar Re%o9i

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be meaningful.

supplied is related to his e+isting knowledge. -. (+lti,le sense learnin9 2 The !hinese proverb pictured sts

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this principle. The presentation methods which makes use of or more senses are more effective than using one sense ,enerally, the most important senses for learning are SI, T $'&I#,. ;M

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O/erlearnin9 2 If an individual fre*uently makes attempts to recall

the learned materials, forgetting is reduced and the material is memori1ed in his brain. 0. Pri'ary an" De%en%y 2 This principle states that trainees can recall

Learning0 Concept and Theories

those things the learn first and hold true in all conditions and sometimes they act against one another e.g. when the most recent impressions change or blot our first impressions . -.- DETER(INANTS OF EARNING

The important factors that determine the learning are as follows 2 1. (oti/e 2 ?otives are the drives which prompt people to take action.

?otives are generally sub.ective and represent the mental feelings of human beings. ?otives are dynamic in nature and determine the direction of an individuals behavior. (earning cannot occur without motives. (earning is complete only when motives are fully reali1ed and translated into. 2. Sti'+li 2 Stimuli are the ob.ect that e+ist in the environment in which

person lives. These are those ob.ectes and language which draw the attention of people. $mployee get stimuli from the action of their spurious. Stimuli increase the probability of eliciting a specifice response from a person. 3. Reinfor%e'ent 2 &epeated action is reinforcement. It may be

positive, negative, punishment and e+tinction. It may be defined as anything that tends to increase the strength of response and induces repetition of behaviour, that preceded the reinforcement. $ffective modification of behavior cannot take place without reinforcement. : &. Attention 2 'nother determinant of learning is the degree of ttention of learners. The degree of attention depends upon the iture of stimuli. 'll stimuli are paid attention to. !areer oriented luli are generally levels of individuals influences their desires learn and motives for needy fulfillment. Re%o9nition 2 The stimuli which are generally paid attention by the individuals are recogni1ed as acceptable factors of learning, len employes pay attention to stimuli, they recogni1e it for learning .oses. The level for recognition depends upon the levels of values, sferences, need and desires of the individuals. Retention 2 It means remembrance of learned behavior over le. Permanent retention becomes a habhit which helps continuous iprovement in behavior and performance habits help the velopment of capability and capacity of individuals. abits translate aretical knowledge into practice. Effort 2 $fforts made by individuals are another determinant of ling. $fforts are automatic outcomes of good habits. $fforts =mes the stimuli for learning after development of the stand

P;6Q

Personality & Managerial ands of the employees. Per or!ance 2. ReJar" 2 It is a very important determinant of learning. If after the learning process is over, the individual are offered rewards, the learning process becomes more acceptable. &ewards may be monetary or non monetary. The behavior of the employees decides the level and form of reward. The reward reinforcement makes employees learn more than positive reinforcement behavior. -.. T $"&I$S "% ($'&#I#, _______________________

' theory of learning would be able to e+plain all aspects of learning <how, when and why=, should have universal application and should be able to predict and control learning situations. There are four general approaches to learning. !lassical conditioning, operant conditioning, cognitive learning andU social learning each of these theories is e+plained below 2 -...1 !lassical !onditioning !lassical conditioning is the association of one event with another desired event resulting in a behavior. The well known e+periments on classical conditioning were conducted by Ivam Pavlem, the &ussian psychologist, who won the nobel pri1e for his e+periment on this sub.ect. Pavlov conducted an e+periment on dogs and tried to establish stimulus response <S2&= connection. e tried to relate the dog5 salivation and the ringing of the bell. In his e+periements, he pi some meat in front of dogs. The dogs responded to this stimulus b.

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salivating. This response was instructive or unconditioned. Pavlov Learning/ ne+t began to ring a bell at the same time as the meat was presented. &inging the bell in itself, without the presentation of meat, was connected to any responses. >ut by ringing the bell at the same rune as presentation of meat 'vlov established a relationship between the two stimuli2the bell and the meat 2 in the mind of the dogs. >y continuing this process, the ringing of bell alone was sufficient stimulus to elicit a response of salivating, even when no meat was presented. Thus, the bell became a conditioned stimulus, resulting in conditioned or leaved response. ie figure ;.6 e+plains that the meat was an unconditioned stimulus, caused the dog to react in a certain way i.e. noticeable increase salivation. This reaction is called the unconditioned response, le bell was an artificial stimulus or conditioned stimulus. >ut en the bell was paired with the ne+t <an unconditioned stimulus=, eventually produced a response. 'fter conditioning the dog start livating in response to the ringing of the bell alone. Thus, nditioned stimulus led to conditioned response. an organi1ational setting we can see classical conditioning rating. %or e+ample, at one manufacturing plant, every time the e+ecutive from the head office would make a visit, the plant agement would clean up the administrative offices and was e windows. This went on for years. $ventually employees would n on their best behavior and look prim and proper whenever the dows were cleaned even on those occasions when the cleaning s not paired with the visit from the top brass. People had learnt associate the cleaning of the windows with the visit from the d office. ssical conditioning is a from a learning through association. It olves the manipulation of stimuli to influence behavior. !lassical ditioning associate a previously neutral stimulus, one having no ect on behavior, with another. The former thus becomes a ditioned stimulus which, upon it occurrence, also draws forth now conditioned response. sical conditioning represents only a very small part of total an learning. So has a limited value in the study of organi1ational avior. !lassical conditioning play only a passive role. 3e will in a particular way only if something happens. >ut in reality, beahviour of people in organi1ation is voluntary rather than refle+ive. Their behavior is not elicited in response to a specific, ufiable event but it is generally emitted. The leaving of comple+ vior can be better understood of looking at operant conditioning. "perant !onditioning ___________________________________________________ ant is defined as behavior that produces effect. "perant tioning is based on the work of >.f. Skinner who advocated

Concept and Theories

153

Personality & Managerial that individuals e!it responses that are re9arded and 9ill to e!it Per or!ance ,, ", -, 5rpcnnncpc that arp pithpi2 n nt rpwar prl nr prp nnnishprl "nerant conditioning agrees that beahaviour is a functioin of conse*uences. f >ehaviour is likely to be repeated if the conse*uences are favourable. >ehaviour is not likely to be repeated if the conse*uences are unfavourable. Thus the relationship between behavior and conse*uences is the essence of the operant conditioning. >ased upon this direct relationship between the conse*uences and the behavior, the management can study and identify this relationship and try to modify and control behavior. ence, certain types of conse*uences can be used to increased the occurrence o a desired behavior and other type of conse*uences can be used to decrease the occurrence of undesired behavior. "ne can see e+amples of operant conditioning in the organi1ation. %or instance, working hard and getting the promotion will probablyI cause the person to keep working hard in the future. "n the other. hand, if a boss assures his subordinate that he would be suitably compensated in the ne+t performance appraisal, provided the employee works over time. owever, when the evaluation time comes. the boss does not fulfill hius assurance to his subordinate, ever though the latter heads worked overtime. #e+t time, the subordinatd coolly declined to work overtime when the boss re*uests him to d* so. Thus, it can be concluded that the behavior conse*uence5 decrease the rate of response "perant conditioning techni*ues are e+tensively used in clinics and educational research, control of alcohdism. and control of deviar children in a classroom. -...3 !ognitive (earning _____________________________________________ The pioneer of cognitive learning theory is $dward Tolman, developed and tested this theory through controlled e+perimer Osing rats in his laboratory, he showed that they learnt to ri through a complicated ma1e towards their goal of food. It wd observed that rats developed e+pectations at every choice point the ma1e. Thus, they learnt to e+pect that certain cognitive ci related to the choice point could ultimately lead to food. The learnii took place when the relationship between the cues and e+pects was strengthened because the cues led to e+pected goals. The cognitive theory recogni1es the role of an organism in receivir memori1ing, retrieving and interpreting the stimulus and react to it. The cognitive e+planation of learning differs from classi5 conditioning and operant conditioning. 'ccording to Tolman, !ognit approach could be termed as stimulus approach i.e. are stimi leads onother.

!ognitive learning is achieve by thinking about the percei. ;9

relationships between events and individuals goals and e+pectations. Learning 0 !ognitive theory of learning assumes that the organism leaves the meaning of various ob.ects and events and learned response depend upon the meaning assigned to stimuli. !ognitive theorist argue that the learner forms a cognitive structure in memory, which preserves and organi1ed information about the various events which occur in a learning situation. 3hen a test is conducted to determine how much has been learned, the sub.ect must encode the test stimulus and scan it against his memory to determine an appropriate action. 3hat is done will depend upon the cognitive structure retrieved from memory. Today, the cognitive theory is much alive and relevant. In organi1ational behavior the cognitive approach has been applied mainly to motivation theories. $+pectations, attributions and locus of control and goal setting are all cognitive concepts and represent the purposefulness of organi1ational behavior. ?any researchers are currently concerned about the relationship or connection between cognition and organi1ational behavior. -...& Social (earning ________________________________________________________ Individuals can also learn by observing what happens to other people nd .ust by being told about something, as well as by direct +periences. ?uch what we have learnt comes from observing and
t

Concept and Theories

-`iitating models parents, teachers, peers, superiors, film start etc. is view that we can learn through both observation and direct

+perience has have called social learning theory. This theory ssumes that learning is not a case of environmental determinism /lassical and operant views=,. &ather it is a blending of both. This, C-cial learning theory emphasis the interactive nature of cognitive, /havioural and environmental determinants. le influences of model is central to the social learning view point, our process have been formed to determine the influence that a odel will have on an individual. . Attention Pro%ess 2 People learn from model only when they cogni1e and pay attention to its critical features. 3e tend to be ost influences available. Important to us or similar to use in our timation. Retention Pro%ess 2 ' models influences will depends upon w well the individual remembers has models action after the el is not longer readily available. (otor Re,ro"+%tion Pro%ess 2 'fter a person has seen a new avior by observing the model, the waterlring must be converted doing. This process then demonstrates that the individual can form the modelled activities.
:;;F

Personality & Managerial &. Reinfor%e'ent Pro%ess 2 Individuals will be motivated to e+hibit the rate of a response. ' conceptual model of reinforcement theory Learning0 Concept and Per or!ance& Managerial takes place when an individual learns to escape from or avoid Personality the modeled behavior if positive incentives or rewards are provided. is shown in fig. ;.8. Theories Per or!ance unpleasant conse*uences. ?uch lawful behavior in our society is >ehaviour that are positively reinforced will be given more attention, &einforcement principle laysbased down that behavior depends upon its avoidance learning. %or e+ample, learnedon better and performed more often. people learn to drive conse*uences. In other words, if the conse*uences of behaviour are place, the avoidance learning carefully to avoid accidents. In the work The figure ;.7 illustrates the effect of the learning model on the desired ones, the behavior will be strengthened. If the or conse*uences aresocial usually occurs whe press supervisors critici1e an individuals individuals. otherwise, the behavior will be weakened. It works on the basis of simple behavior. logic that a person tends to repeat behavior that is accompanied by 7iii8 E>tin%tion undesirable conse*uences. \ virtually non2reinforcement, i.e.,are if a response the not &einforcement is the processIt by whichmeans certain types of beahviour reinforced, will eventually disappear. The absence of all forms of strengthened. Thus, a 0reinforce4 is anyit stimulus that causes a certain

isbehave used to in remove are e+tinguish undesirable behavior. behavior to be repeated that reinforcement the employees a manner that is disruptive employee who, for e+ample, picks fights and who is desirable. !onversely, they ' are interested in eliminating undesirable

apparently some punished by the supervisor may continue the disruptions behavior among workers. >y introducing the organi1ation %ig. ;.7 reinforces, $ffect of Social (earning on Individual because of the attention they bring. >y ignoring the disruptive . can maintain or increase the probability of such behaviours as *uality, employee, attention is withand held and possibly performance high level of attendance and punctuality so on. Some also the motivation -.0 REINFORCE(ENT THEOR! for fighting. reinforess work by their application to a situation, while others work by &einforcement theory is based on the use operant conditioning bE the their removal from the situation. Thus, the reinforces work as behavior 7i/8 P+nis$'ent management to motivate the workers. It is *uite often appliei in practice. modifiers. %or instance, reward children for behavior. In education, This strategy parents is applied whentheir an unpleasant orgooi undesirable evenI -.0.1 Strategies of &einforcement Insect teachers invoke the law of effect by makes awarding forless various levels of occurs following some behavior and thegrades behavior likelyI There are four strategies of performance. reinforcement or behavior modification as conditioning to occur in the >y future. understanding %or e+ample, ho5aoperant supervisor might scold works and I and how shown in fig. ;.9. These are 2 we employee each time the employee performs task incorrectly. Thebehave I are caught up in it, we gai/ insight about a how and why people Positive reinforcement #egative reinforcement $+tinction Punishment supervisor feel thatto the scoldingenvironmental will act as punishment foriprobable as they do. might Thus, w learn recogni1e stimuli and poor performance. response thereby improving our ability to predict behavior.

The logic of reinforcement theory is simple. Its advocates point o that -.0.2 Schedules of &einforcement __________________________________________ evidence abounds throughout human history that all adhe to its Schedules of reinforcement could be continuous and we partial. Pleasant or Desirable Unpleasant or Undesirable tenets. 3e do learn from touching a. hot stove, administering and understand electric !ontinuous schedule of reinforcement involves thd Events Events shock rather well often we stick a desired finger in light sacket whether reinforce each and every time the behavior occurs. 3hila or not we with thebe concept of oper conditioning, we cannot avoid it. his agree schedule can very effective in the early stages of learning new types of behavior, it difficulttool to employ in practice ovel "perant conditioning isbecomes a powerful for managing people P1)%$2,E)& periods ofbehaviours time. organi1ations. ?ost in organi1ations are learn controlled and altered by the , i.e., behavio ?anagement can Practical reinforcement involves administering the reinforcer onll -e conse*uences aviour .ecomes less li/el0operant to use the operant conditioning to control and occur again often some occurrence of theprocess desired successf behavior. There are foG influences the behavior of employees by manipula schedule its reward system. If one types of partial reinforcement which differ ii e+pect )E4#&%'E to influence behavior, he must be capable to manipulate terms of whether reinforcement is administered on the basis of thl the
(E%)*O(+E,E)& -e aviour

PO$%&%'E e+tended Event is #pplied

(E%)*O(+E,E)& -e aviour again

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%ig. ;.9 Types of &einforcement reinforcement schedules are more effective in maintaining effectig
Positive &einforcement behavior at high levels over e+tended periods of time. The fod .curs when a desirable event is supplied to a person following reinforcement schedules are discussed as under / e behaviors. The pleasant event <e.g. Praise, heighten pay, time 7a8 Fi>e" Inter/al S%$e"+le Personal factors ->that Past consequences is said to be a positive reinforces if the behavior preceded it rs more fre*uently again #egative &einforcement
f Learning from : ]

Thus, it can be conclu that the behavioural or on the basis ofto the fre*uency of the occurren] .ecomes more li/el0 occur to occur again conse*uences thatagain are rewarding rate of of the desired behavior. They also incre differ the in terms of response, whether tnwhile the aversive deer sparing, conse*uences or timing, of reinforces is fi+ed or variable. The partii other
(Seh avio

behavior during that time. ?ost pay system in which people rece> also known as escape condition or 'voidance (earning4. It Fig. &.3 'einforcement (o el :;@F ;A
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conditional performan -> Organisational factors -> "result of in the future. Onder this, a reinforce is administered after some fi+ed passagee and experiences predisposition to -> rewards, outcomes, condition act or not time, as long as the person continues to engage in the desii> Environmental factors -> punis ments, etc! to act learning)

a salary che*ue once every month can be thought of as fi+ed interval reinforcement schedules.

7A8 4ariaAle Inter/al S%$e"+le

Onder this schedule, the time between reinforces is not fi+ed but varies around some average. ' supervisor who makes a point of seeing each of his employees once a day in order to often them encouragement and praise, but who varies the time day of this visit, is employing available interval reinforcement schedule.

7%8 Fi>e" Ration S%$e"+le

It re*uires administrating of reinforcement following some fi+ed number of occurrences of the behavior. Piece rate pay systems, under which individuals are paid a certain amount for each unit produed, are e+amples of fi+ed ratio schedules.

7"8 4ariaAle Ratio S%$e"+le

In this case, the administration of reinforcement is still based, upon the number of occurrences of the desired behavior, but the precise number varies each time the reinforcement. People know that the machines pay .ackpots after a number of plays of the machine. unknown. -.2 #EHA4IO5R (ODIFICATION 7O# (OD8 "> ?"J is the label used to refer to techni*ues designed to change employee behavior on the .ob using reinforcement theory. It involves the analysis of employee behviour and the development of effective ategies for changing it. "> ?"J leads to application of >.%. kinners reinforcement approach in work setting. The inforcement theory relies on positive reinforcement, shapping and [ogni1ing the impact of different schedules of reinforcement on havior. "> ?"J uses these concepts to provide managers with a rerful means for changing the behavior of employees. the words of Stephen P. &obbins, 0"> ?od is a program where agers identify performance related employee behaviors and then plement an intervention strategy to strengthen desirable - aviours and weaken undesirable beahviours.4. other words, "> ?od can be applied for motivating the employees. 6 '2>2!s of >ehaviour ?odification _________________________________________________________________________ viour modification as has been .ust e+plained, helps the ger in eliminating or modifying undersirable behavior that is compatible. It further helps us to understand how inmental contingencies influences behavior. There can be two gencies of behavior. owever, the precise number of play of the machine re*uired to win the ne+t .ackpot is

Personality & Managerial 7i: T$e Ante%e"ents 2 These are the events preceding the behavior. Per or!ance 7ii8 T$e ConseM+en%es 2 These are the events that follow a particular behaviour. X >oth these variables put together form the '2>2! model. The min aim of this model is to change behaviour by managing its antecedents and conse*uence as shown in fig. ;.;.
-E2#'%O1(

%ig. ;.; '2>2! of >ehaviour ?odification

-.2.2 Steps in "> ?od_______________________________________________________ %red (uthans and &. Rreitner developed and used "> ?od to represent a behavioural approach to the management of human resources for performance improvement. The steps given by them in applying the "> mod are summari1ed in the fig ;.@.

%ig. ;.@ Steps in "> ?od

718 I"entifi%ation
The starting point of the process of "> ?od must be to ident which behaviours should be reinforced. This re*uires tl determination of e+actly which behaviour are the critic determinants of success on any given .ob.

728 (eas+re'ent
This tep re*uires the manager to develop some baseline perform data. The manager records the fre*uency of the critical behavi over time. This allows the manager to determine his succes changing the subordinates behaviour. It my aso provide insight - the circumstance associated with each critical behaviour.

738 Analysis
It is necessary to analyse patterns of continued behaviour that re modification. This re*uires insight and evaluation of indivi

tiavior. [ticular

differences in behaviour. If through this procvess an inventory of positive reinforces can be developed, the ne+t step of intervention is greatly simplified. Since only contingent conse*uences of behaviour have an impact on subse*uent behaviour, functional analyse must make sure that the contingent conse*uences are identified.

Learning0 Concept and Theories

he min cede

7&8 Inter/ention
The ne+t step is to develop an effective intervention strategy. There are several strategies that can be used at this stage. These include positive or negative reinforcement e+tinction or punishment. The use of a particular strategy will depend upon the type of situation faced. 'fter developing and implementing, a particular strategy the fre*uency of resulting behaviour is measured. If a behaviour change has occurred in the right direction, the manager will select a reinforcement schedule that will maintain the desired behaviour.

PP$#S :T $

I"O>

i ?od to f human by them

7-8 E/al+ation
te last stage in "> ?od is the evaluation whether the intervention I strategies are working properly or not. $valuation will reveal whether te undersigned behaviour have been substituted by desirable Ehaviour or not. i.2.3 Otilities of "> ?"d____________________________________________________ => ?od has been applied successfully in many organi1ation, service well a manufacturing, to improve organi1ational effectiveness id understand human behaviour in organi1ations. It is an important rhni*ue of human resource management. The ma.or strength /d utilities of "> ?od are as follows2

Can Ae ,+t to testin9

?od concentrates an a persons e+ternal behaviour and this =ws a manager to realistically absence and deal with outward lifestation of behaviour since it deal with observed behaviour it be put to testing. / to identi *uires tl he criticG

De/elo,'ent of E',loyee
?od presents a set of tools of which people can learn new [iviours and skills and thereby replacing undesirable behaviours, itive reinforcement could be used to encourage desirable aviour by the employee. Social learning theory can be of great in the effective implementation of any training programme for employees. Thus, "> ?od is a great techni*ue of developing the loyees.

performe /al behavic s success e insight ir .r re*u of individi that

Control an" Re9+lation of t$e E',loyees #e$a/io+r

I ?od provides various tools to be manager for effectively controlling influencing the behaviour of employees in the organi1ation, behaviours in the organi1ation are learned, controlled and
@6

Personality & Managerial changed by the conse*uences. The managers can use operant conditioning to control and regulate the behaviour of subordinates by manipulating the rewarded system. The behavioral conse*uences that are rewarding increase the probability of desired behaviour whereas oversi1e conse*uences decrease the probability of desired response.

&.

Easy to 5n"erstan" an" 5se

of "> ?od techni*ues are comparatively easy.

The understanding

?anagers can use these without much problems. "> ?od has received great attention from several organi1ations in the recent years. It is widely applied in large organi1ations in the areas of human resource management e+ecutive development, motivation, introduction of change and organi1ational development.

-.3 S5((AR! (earning is permanent change in behaviour through education, training, practice and e+perience, learning, practice and e+perience. (earning is any permanent change in the behaviour of a person that occurs as a result of e+perience. Principle of learning are feedback, active e listening, reinforcement.U meaning material, multiple sense learning, over learning an primary and necessary. The important factors that determine learning are notive, stimu%

reinforcement, attention, recognition, retention, efforts and reward Theories of learning are classical conditioning, operant conditionin cognitive learning and social learning. &einforcement pays a central role in the learning process, strengthens the response preceding it an induces repetitions of t response. It, thus, refers to the conse*uences of behaviour. The are four types of reinforcement positive, negative e+tinction a` punishment. "> ?od is a techni*ue for modifying the behaviour of tl organi1ational members so that they are engaged in desirab behaviour. It can be used for motivating the employees as well enhancing organi1ational effectiveness. The steps involved in ?od are identification, analysis intervention and evolution. -.1F LE!BORDS

earnin9 2 It is a relatively permanent change in behavio that

occurs as a result of prior e+perience.

(oti/e 2 Jrives which prompt people to take action. Retention 2 The act power of remembering things. #e$a/io+r 2 ?anner of acting or controlling oneself.
:@76

Personality & Managerial Per or!ance

5NIT*. (OTI4ATION = CONCEPT AND _____________T $"&I$S _____________

(earning "b.ective 'fter the end of this Onit, you will be able to understand 2 C C C C C The concept of motivation. The importance of motivation in an organi1ation Narious definition of motivation. The process of motivation Jifference categories of motivation Theories

C er1bergs ?aintenance and motivational factors. Onit Structure @.6 @.7 @.8 @.9 @.; @.@ @.A @.S @.\ Introduction Importance motivation Jefinition of motivation #eeds and ?otives Theories of motivation ?oshlows need ierachy Theory .

ei1bergs Two2%actors Theory ?c,regors cy Theory Summary

@.6M Reywords @.66 Puestions

..1 INTROD5CTION
?otivation is a diving force that propels people to action and continu them to action. It is the process of stimulating people of action accomplish desired goals. It e+plains how and. why the hum behaviour is caused. It is through motivation that managers attem to inspire the employee to work for the organi1ation. The term motivation has been derived from the word motive whi means anything that initiates or sustains activity. It is an in state that energi1es, activates or moves and that directs channeli1e behaviour towards goals. ?otivaitonis a psychologi force within is a psychological force within an individual that s him in motion for the achievement of certain goals or satisfaction certain needs.

..2 I?P"&T'#!$ "% ?"TIN'TI"#________________________________

'ccording to (ilcert, 0?otivation is the core of management4, motivating the workforce, management creates will to work w is necessary for the achievement of organi1ational goals. ?otiva involves getting the members of the group to pull weight effectiY

to give their loyalty to the group, to carry out properly the tasks assignedand to play an effective role in controlling towards the purpose the organi1ation has undertaken. If the members of an organi1ation are properly motivated, the following results may be e+pected / C ?otivated workers will cooperate voluntarily with the management and will contribute their ma+imum towards the goals of the enterprise. C ?otivated workers will tend to be more efficient by improving upon their C skills and knowledge. This would result in increased productivity. ?otivation inspires employees to make best possible use of different factors of production. They work whole heartedly to apply their abilities and potential in minimi1ing waste and cost. The enterprise can make ma+imum use of its physical and financial resources. C / C C igher motivation leads to .ob satisfaction of workers. "pportunities for need satisfaction make employees loyal and committed to the organi1ation. 's a result, the rates of labour absenteeism and turnover would be low. The number of complaints and grievances will come down. There will be good human relations in the organi1ation because of higher productivity and wages. %riction among the workers themselves and between the workers and the management will be the least possible. Thus, it is obvious that motivation is the core of management. It is a basic duty of every manager to motivate his subordinates or create the will to work among the subordinates. It should also be remembered that a worker may be immensely capable of doing some work, but nothing can be achieved if he is not willing to work. !reation of will to work is motivation continueI - action ta ie humai rs attemp in simple but true sense of the term.

Moti%ation0 Concept and Theories

..3 DEFINITION OF (OTI4ATION

0?otivation is something that moves a person to action, and continues him in the course of action already initiated4. It refer to the way a person is enthused at work to intensify his desire and willingness to use his potentialities for the achievement of organi1ational ob.ectives. It is something that moves a person into action and continues him in the course of action enthusiastically. The role of motivation is to develop and intensify the desire in every member of the organi1ation to work effectively and efficiently in his position. 0?otivation refers to the way in which urges, derives, desires, aspiration, strivings or needs direct, control or e+plain the behaviour

/ive whicl , an inne/ iirects o/ chologica I that sets sfaction

ment4. ork whici ?otivati c

Personality & Managerial of human beings4. $ Dalton E. (cFarlan Per or!ance 0?otivation is the comple+ set of forces starting and keeping a person at work in an organi1ation4.

2 RoAert D+Ain

0?otivation represents an unsatisfied need which creates a state of tension or dise*uilibrium, causing the individual to march in a goal directed pattern, towards restoring a state of e*uilibrium by satisfying the need4.

2 Stanley 4an%e

..& #$$JS '#J ?"TIN$S_______________________________________________

#eed is the stating point of motivation. owever, any need in the individual does.not necessarily lead to action. The need has to be activated which is the function of incentive. Incentive is something which incites or tends to incite towards some determination. Thus, incentive is an e+ternal stimulus that activates needs and motive refers to an activated need an active desire or wish. 3hen a motive is present in a person it becomes active when there is some incentive. Thus, any incentive refers to / <i= <ii= The individual and his needs which he is trying to satisfyE and The organi1ation which is providing the individual with opportunity to satisfy his needs in return for his services. The conceptual difference between motivation and incentive is that incentive is the means to motivation. It has been found that incentive has a direct bearing on the degree of motivation. Increase in incentive leads to better performance and decrease in incentive leads to poor performance. It should be noted that motivation does not change the individuals capacity to work. It simply determines the level of effort of an individual and neither raises it nor simply determines the level of effort of an individual and neither raises it nor lowers it. Reith Javis says that motives are e+pression of a persons needsE hence they are personal and internal. Incentives, on the other hand, are e+ternal to the person. They are something he perceives in his environment as helpful towards accomplishing his goal. %or instance, management offers salesman a bonus as an incentive to channel in a productive way their derives for recognition and status. The unsatisfied need of a person is the starting point of motivation process as shown in the figure @.6. The unsatisfied need results in tension within the individual and motivates him to search for the ways to relieve this tension. e develops certain goals for himself. If he is successful in achieving his goals some other needs will change which will lead to setting a new goal. >ut if the goals is not. achieved, the individual will engage himself in either constructive or destructive behaviour. The process never stops. It continues within an individual.

:@@F

ind
son
)eed &ension

$earc -6 -e aviour Performance 7>

incentive or (eward

Moti%ation0 Concept and Theories

bin
tat e n a i by
)eed $atisfaction

%ig. @.6 #eeds and ?otivation

Sometimes, a person is not able to satisfy his needs despite repeated attempts. is failure might lead to frustration. ' frustrated worker may behave in one or more of the following ways 2

the

8
be hing hus, .tive Jtiv e ome

a.

A99ression 2 It is an act or force against someone or something.

'ggression may be directed to the source of frustration <superior= on to third parties <displacement=. 'ggression may be verbal or physical. Physical aggressive means causing damage to e*uipment or personal in.uries. %or e+ample, a student not allowed to copy may kick the invigilator or may damage the furniture. Nerbal aggression an be very emotional. %or e+ample, a worker may growl at his wife after a traumatic day in a factory where a frustrated person is not able to kick his boss, he may kick an inanimate ob.ect, e.g., a door or a during of the boss. In case of internali1ed aggression, the person may find fault with himself.

and with that ntiv e se in ntiv e doe s nine s impl y ses it

A.

Rationalis' 2

ere the individual flames someone else for inability

to achieve the goal. %or e+ample, a student who fails in the e+amination may blame the paper setter for asking stupid *uestions.

%.

Re9ression 2 In this case, the individual gives up constructive

e adopts a childish or immature

behaviour and slides back into more primitive conduct i.e. meaningless and incompatible with the environment. pencil or tear off the *uestion paper. behavior. %or instance, a student failing to solve a *uestion may break the

".

Fi>ation 2 In this type of manifestation an individual tends to resist

change in his behaviour and gets free1e into cold and habitual responses. %or e+ample, child may sulk and persist in the undesirable behaviour which caused the punishement to him.

e.

Resi9nation 2 Onder this way of handling frustration, the individual

leaves the field or withdraws from the sense. %or e+ample, an employee might *uit a .ob that proves to be frustrating. This is also known as flight.

f.
ee "s;

A,at$y 2 'nother methods of withdrawal is showing indifference. %or

e+ample, if an employee does not leave a frustrating .ob physically thinking of anything e+cept the work on hand. @.; T $"&I$S "% ?"TIN'TI"#

han d, in his tanc e, nel

Three categories of theories have evolved over the years which tend

:.0F

Personality & Managerial to complement each other. These are briefly discussed below / Per or!ance

7i8 Content T$eories 2 Such theories of motivation focus on human

need or desires that are internali1ed and give impetus to individual behaivour. Individuals have psychological and physiological needs that prompt behaviour perceived of fulfil those needs. !ontent theoriets therefore study forces within individuals as a way of understanding why patterns of behaviour prevail. Physiological needs, such as hunger, may motivate individuals not only to find a .ob but to do distasteful work and be obedient to oppressive orders. ' psychological need such as desire for self esteem, may motive individuals to do e+tremely e+ceptionally high *uantity work. !ontent theories include the contribution of ?aslow, ?c!lelland. er1berg and

7ii8 Pro%ess T$eories 2 ' process theory e+amine individual behaviour

in terms of .ob satisfaction related to perceived rewards that induce behaviour. 3hite content theories emphasi1e perceived needs, process theories emphasi1e the decision. Individuals are viewed as making conscious and sub conscious evaluations of contemplated action and the conse*uences of those actions. In other words, personal e+pectations of outcome associated with performance are critical for determining how individuals will be motivated to perform. Population process theories are e+pectance theory and e*uity theory.

7iii8
operant

Reinfor%e'ent T$eory 2 It is based on the concept of

conditioning propounded by >.%. Skinner. Onder this, the

individuals having learned form past, develop patterns of behaviour to control future conse*uences, reinforcement theory has at its core the idea that we lean what to do or what not to do either to gain rewards or to avoid unpleasant conse*uences. The learning approach is also called operant conditioning. $.(. Thorndike gave substance to the concept of operant conditioning in 6\66 by postulating the law of effect. This law says that people tend to repeat behaviuor the find has pleasant outcomes while avoiding behaviour they find has unpleasant outcome.

... (OS OBHS NEED * HIERARCH! THEOR!

"ne of the first behavioural scientists to make management aware of the comple+ity of human needs and their effect on motivation was 'braham ?aslow. 3hen formulating his theory of motivation during the 6\9M ?aslow acknowledged that people really have man need. ?aslow felt that mankinds diverse needs could be condense within the following five basis categories 2

1. P$ysiolo9i%al Nee"s
These needs relate to the survival and maintenance of human life. They include such things as foods, clothing, shelter, air, water, t life.
@S

and

other

necessaries

of

2. Se%+rity Nee"s
These needs a+e also important for most of the people. $verybody wants .ob security, protection against dangers, safety of property, etc.

Moti%ation0 Concept and Theories

3. So%ial or Affiliation Nee"s

?an is a social being. sociability, e+change belongingness, etc. e is, therefore, interested is conversation, of feelings, companionship, recognition,

&. Estee' or Stat+s Nee"s

These needs embrace such things as self confidence, independence, achievement, competence, knowledge, initiative and success. These needs are concerned with prestige and respect of the individual.

-. Self A%t+aliGation Nee"s

These are the needs of the highest order. They are generally found in person whose first four needs have already been fulfilled. They are concerned with achieving what a person consider to be his mission of life. %or instance, getting India free from the >ritish regime was the mission of ?ahatma ,andhi. Sense of achievement may be concerned with making new discoveries and dong uni*ue things. ?aslows theory holds that these needs are arranged in a proponent hierarchy, as shown in fig.

@ .7 .

%ig. @.7 ?aslows #eed

ierarchy

e need hierarchy implies that lower level needs re*uire tisfaction and thereby, affect behaviour before higher level needs ve an effect on motivation. That is, according to ?aslow, an vidual will be motivated to satisfy the needs that is preponent, most powerful for him or her, at a specific time. >efore the ne+t el need becomes the most powerful determinant of behaviour, lower2level need must first be satisfied.

Personality & Managerial 03hen the needs that have the greatest potency and priority are

satisfied, the ne+t needs in the hierarchy emerge and press for satisfaction. 3hen these needs are satisfied, another step up the. ladder of motive is taken4. ?aslow suggested that needs at various levels are independen/ and overlapping. $ach higher level need emerge before the lowe level needs have been completely satisfied. $ven though a need is satisfied, it will influence behaviour because of interdependent anc overlapping characteristic of needs as shown in fig. @.8.
$EL* E$&EE, #+&1#1$#&%O)

%ig. @.8 &elationship of Jifferent (evels of #eeds

..0 HERR#ERGHS TBO*FACTORS THEOR!

Juring the late 6\;Ms, %ederich er1berg and his associate developed er1bergE research team asked another need2based model of motivation.

7MM

engineers and accountants, of a largi point company to respond to

the *uestions. 0!an you describe, in details, when you felt e+ceptionally good aboi your .obT4 and 0can you describe, in details, when you felU e+ceptionally bad about your .obT4 er1berg found that the responses could be grouped within tY general categories which he called hygiene factors and motivators These are listed below 2

?aintenance and ?otivational %actors

Maintenance or Hygienic Factors 6. !ompany Policy and 'dministration 7. Technical Supervision. 9. Inter2personal relations with Peers. Moti%ational Factory 6. 'chievement. 7. &ecognition. 9.3ork itself.

8. Inter2personal relations with Supervisor. 8. 'dvancement. ;. Inter2personal relations with Subordinates ;. Possibilities of growth?

@. Salary.
A. Gob Security.

@. &esponsibility

S. Personal (ife.
\. 3orking !onditions. :AMF 6M. Status

Thus hygienic factors include wages, fringe benefits, physical conditions and overall company policies, administration etc. The presence of these factors at a satisfactory level prevents .ob dissatisfaction, but does not provide motivation to the employees. So they are considered as hygiene or len t we r d is maintenance factors. The motivational factors, on the other hand, are essential for increasing the productivity of the employees, they are also known as satisfiers and include such factors such as recognition, feeling of accomplishment and achievement, opportunity of advancement and potential for personal growth, responsibility and sense of .ob and individual importance, new e+perience and challenging work, etc. The hygiene factors are primarily related to the environment in whch work is performed whereas the motivators are primarily related to the nature of the work itself. 'ccording to er1berg, the hygiene factors result in dissatisfaction if they are not present or are inade*uate. It they are ade*uate, they do not induces motivation or give satisfaction. In contrast, if the motivators are absent or inade*uate, they do not result in dissatisfaction. If ade*uate, however, the motivators are the factors responsible for motivating workers and assuming .ob satisfaction.

..2 (CGREGORHS S*! THEOR!

Jouglas ?c,regor set forth at opposite e+tremes 2 two pairs of assumption about human beings which he thought were implied by the action of autocratic and permissive managers. %irst set of assumptions are contained in 0Theory +4 and the second set in Theory )4. It is important to about
1L

note based an any research whatever. They, according to ?c,regor, are intuitive deductions. Theory c

felt

n two

Theory c makes the following assumptions about the subordinates2 The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it, if he can. <7= >ecause of this human characteristics of dislike of work, most people must be directed and threatened with punishment to get them to put forth ade*uate efforts towards. The achievement of organi1ational ob.ectives. U8= The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition and wants security above all. 'ccording to ?c,reger, this is a traditional theory of what workers are like and what management should do to manage them. It dvocates carrot and stick approach to motivation of workers.

-ators. <6=

actors

growth.

Norkers have to be persuaded and pushed into performance, this is he managements task. ?anagement does the thinking, the mployees obey the orders. If the workers obey the order, they will
:A6F

PersoTvc!lity SQ ?c+n.a.gerval

, o-"c(Bi-rvvY.,^B-i

C-pY+5LYe,aGB. a8Y;Y. YkYfe 5ofci. -SNicK

Per or!ance

himself says, 0The conventional approach of theory + is based on mistaken notions of what is cause and what is effect4. The assumptions contained, in theory + do not reveal the true nature of human beings in practice. Theory ) ?c,regor propounded Theory ) which, he said, would better represent the human behaviour. The assumption made under this theory are as under / 6. The e+penditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest. The average human being does not inherently dislike work. 7. $+ternal control and threat of punishment are not the only means for bringing abut efforts towards organi1ational ob.ectives. ?an will e+ercise self direction and self control in the service of ob.ectives to which he is committed. 8. !ommitment to organi1ational ob.ectives is a function of the rewarded association with their achievement, the most significant of such rewards, e.g. the satisfaction of ego and se actuali+ation needs, can be direct products o ob.ective. 9. The average human being learns under conditions not only t accept but also seek responsibility, avoidence of responsibility lack of ambition and emphasis on security are generally th conse*uences of e+perience, not inherent in hum characteristics. ;. The capacity to e+ercise a relatively high degree of imaginatio ingenuity and reactivity in the solution of organi1ation proble is widely, not narrowly, distributed in the population. In support of the assumption embodied in theory ), ?c,regor cit. a few practices wherein the subordinates are given freedom to dire their activities, to assume and responsibility, and importantly satisfy their egoistic needs. These practices include decentrali1ati and delegation, .ob enlargement participation and consultati management and management by ob.ectives. e orts directe: towards organi1ational

@.\ SO??'&)_______________________________________________________
?otivation is a driving force that propels people to action a continues them to action. It is the process of stimulating people action to accomplish derived goals. It e+plains how and why human behaviour is caused. It is through motivation that manage attempt to inspire the employees to work for the organi1ation. #e is the starting point of motivation, the need has to be activat which is the function of incentive. The unsatisfied need of a per/ is the starting point in the motivation process. Sometimes, a peri

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7hS,]

;<;agenal

5NIT*0 CREATI4IT! T INNO4ATION

earnin9 OA:e%ti/e
'fter the end of this Onit, you will be able to understand 2 C C C C C !oncept of creativity Jifference between creativity and Innovation Types of Innovation Stages of creativity >arriers to creative thinking

5nit Str+%t+re
A.6 A.7 A.8 A.9 A.; A.@ A.A A.S A.\ Introduction Jefinition !reativity Innovation and creativity #ature of Innovation Science of !reativity !reative Personality Stages of !reativity >arriers to creativity thinking Techni*ues of creativity

A.6M Summary A.66 Reywords A.67 Puestions 0.1

INTROD5CTION

!reativity is the process of creating something new. "rgani1ations can be creative in their marketing, strategy formulation, targeting advertising, etc. !afe !offee Jay <!!J=, a division of '>!T!!, has used creativity in its business plan. This &s. 8 billion company opened its first outlet in >angalore in 6\\@, and it became immensely popular. It then started cafes in si+ ma.or cities in the ne+t five years. In 7MM;, !!J has around 798 cafes in ;S cities and had plans to open a chain of cafes in overseas markets by the end of the year. !!J is a good e+ample of creative thinking in the Indian business scenario. It has created a cafe culture among Indians. Osing the tag line, much can happen over a coffee for advertising, !!J made coffee consumption popular. !!J has become a huge success because of its ambience, varieties of coffees, and economy in prices. 0.2 J$%I#I#, CREATI4IT!

%or business organi1ations to sustain themselves in the intensely :A9F

competitive business environment, it is beoming necessary to be creative. >usiness managers are working hard to find creative solutions to organi1ational problems. !reative thinking helps them to be alert to changes in the business environment and workplace. It makes them fle+ible so that they can adopt easily to any such changes. !reative organi1ation are better at dealing with crises and I facing competitive markets. !reativity deals with developing uni*ue ideas and original concepts. ' creative manager identifies new ways of performing regular tasks by using previous e+perience and knowledge. 'ccording to 3ebsters Jictionary, creativity is 0the ability to create4 and to create means, 0to cause to come into e+istence, to bring into being, to give rise to, to portray for the first time, 0!reativity is a process which results in something new coming into e+istence. !reativity ability is the ability of an individual to use new Yapproaches to solve a particular problem. It is the discoveryX invention of an original idea. !reativity is being sensitive to problems, fit falls and changes. It is the result of attitude and the thinking ability of an individuals. !reativity can also be defined as the way are approaches a problem or a situation. It depends on what an individual persevere believes and analy1es. %inally, creativity is defined as the interaction between opposing forces, like learning and problem solving etc. !reativity is forming a relationship between unrelated situation to create a new solution that will meet specific re*uirements. The more unrelated a situation, the more creative the solution will be. These definitions emphasi1e the various dimensions of creativity. Some definitions stress the results or outcomes of creative efforts. These definitions view creativity as the discovery of something which is entirely new and productive other definition lay emphasis on the process. It involves the e+ploration of new ideas, searching for alternations, and 1ations irgetin g has opened lensely e+t five nd had i of the cB, imagining solutions. In this process, the outcome may or may not be creative, out the process reveals new dimension of the problem. These dimensions help in defining a clear solution on a new concept.

Creati%ity & 'nno%ation

0.3<NNO4ATION AND CREATI4IT!

?any people use creativity and innovation interchangeably owever, there is a differences between the two. 'n innovation is a creative idea put into practice. It involves transforming a creative idea into something that will enable others to use it. Innovation is a process where the result is defined. 3hile the goal of creativity is to think beyond conventional ideas, the goal of innovation is to put these ideas into action. !reativity is the seed of innovation. There can be creativity without innovation but no innovation without creativity looking for solutions and ides in the e+ternal environmental.

usiness ing the J made

iuccess
tensely

:A;F

Personality & Managerial "n the other hand, the process of innovation involves looking to Per or!ance internal resources for implementing ideas. %or e+ample, a manager solving a problem looks for various creative ideas in the environment and then analy1es the resources available to the organi1ation to act on the ideasE this process produces an innovative solution. Innovation involves a series of activities. It involve discovering new ideas, selecting the most suitable one, mapping out a plan to put the idea into practice, and obtaining feedback on the implementation. !reativity is discovering unusual solutions to a particular problem or situation. 'fter discovering such ides or solutions, the one that seems the most appropriate has to be evaluated. The evolution can be evaluated. The evaluation can be done by relating creativity with value. ' place is then prepared implement the solution. This plan involves analy1ing the available resources and identifying new resources for implementation. "nce a solution has been implemented, feedback has to be obtained. The feedback reviews the effectiveness of the solution and improvements brought about by the implementation.

0.& NAT5RE OF INNO4ATION Innovation is the process of developing a creative idea that can be put into practical use. Innovations can be revolutionary or evolutionary. ' revolutionary innovation is the discovery of a new idea. %or e+ample a telephone was a revolutionary innovation. 'n evolutionary innovation is an improvement upon e+isting ideas. %or e+ample, a cordless phone was an evolutionary to cordless phones to mobiles is remarkable. Too many revolutionary ideas bring chaos in the work environment and too many evolutionary ideas kill creativity. between the two innovations. !reative ideas need not always emerge from within the organi1ationE they can be also taken from outside. ?ost ideas emerge from the environment, market and the industry re*uirements. Suitable ideas are selected and the selected idea are analy1ed and developed. Innovations can be both scientific and managerial. Scientific innovations are innovation in process. %or e+ample, computes are a scientific innovation. ?anagerial innovations are innovations in management styles, missions. Strategies, organi1ational structure %or e+ample, management by ob.ectives is an innovation in management style. ence a balance should be maintained

0.- SCIENCE OF CREATI4IT! 'ccording to psychobiology, the human brain is divided into two parts namely the left brain and the right brain. The left brain is associated with verbal, logical and analytical thinking. It e+cels in naming and categori1ing things, representing, speech, reading A@6

to Ter Ent to

writing and calculating. The right brain, on the other hand, is associated with emotions, intuition, inspiration and imagination. ence, it is believed that in highly creative people, the right brain is more dominant.

Creati%ity & 'nno%ation

e w B u t / h e =
a

0.. !&$'TIN$ P$&S"#'(IT)___________________________________________ ' person with the ability to think from different angles is a creative person. !reative person display sensitivity and curiosity. They are very sensitive to changes in the environment and always look for opportunities. They tend to be adventurous and one willing to take risks. This risk2taking ability nurtures creativity, since creativity is taking risks and dealing with uncertain solutions. !reative person tend to be very independent in .udgment and are patient in their efforts. This enables them to tread unconventional paths and face opposition as well as difficulties in all situations and confidence. !reative persons tends to be imaginative. They are good at visuali1ing things, and this gives them a broader understanding of the situation. owever, some creative people e+hibit =:

or be be red

symptoms of acute an+iety, nervousness and depression. They can be highly unpredictable and comple+. ?ental barriers act as obstructions to creative ideas. These barriers are a result of painful e+periences that affects the subconscious mind. ' mental barriers may fear of failure, fear of criticism, resistance to change, fear of limitation, etc. for e+ample, a manager who has a fear of criticism may not e+press hisXher creative ideas.

. or

be

lew 'n %or mes taos kill two

0.0 ST',$S "% !&$'TINIT)___________________________________________ !reativity managers who view things from a new angle are very keen observer and make unusual observation. They anticipate opportunities, challenges assumptions, and take adventurous decisions. !reativity manager break away from the conventional way of doing, seeing, and

/ionE the deas ped. tifie ire a s n in in ture.

analy1ing thing. They work on areas that interest them. ' creative solution involves coming up with an original and new ideas which is of use to the manager. The process of creative idea development has four stage / 1. E>,lorin9 Phis stages involve identifying possible courses of action for a given problem or a situation. The manager should identify what they have and what they want. In this stage, they collect all available information about the situation including contradicting and challenging information. This information is used to define the problem and identify the area that need focus. The information can be collected by asking unusual *uestions and by lateral thinking. This is the most important stage in the creative process. "rgani1ations should provide a creative environment, which helps in e+ploring new ideas.

i two in is /

6s

:AAF

Personality & Managerial Per or!ance

2. In/entin9 This stage involves searching for a variety of tools, techni*ues and methods that might help in out2of2bo+ thinking. Jifferent people use different techni*ues to stimulate creative ideas. 3. Sele%tin9 This stage involves the analysis of accumulated ideas and information. The managers screen all ideas in this stage. They analy1e the various ideas and discuss them with colleagues. They need to think without predudice, or emotions and arrive at a creative solution. They then bring their ideas into e+istence. The ability of the managers to bring ideas into e+istence depends on their knowledge of the sub.ect, intellectual curiously, independence of mind, and confidence. &. I',le'entin9 The final stage of this process is implementation managers decide how to put an idea, into practice in this stage. 'fter an ideas is implemented feedback must be obtained on the utility of the idea and based on it, the idea should be modified to meet the re*uirements. 0.2 #ARRIERS TO CREATI4E THINLING !reativity does not come easily to everyone. There may be several barriers to creativity in thL form of an individuals inherent fears and characteristics. People should identify and overcome these barriers. Some of the cominon barriers are discussed below 2 N 1. Fear The fear of failure is a barriers to creativity. Thus the fear of the ideas being re.ected and it may result in pro.ects getting delayed. People may fear that they will be humiliated and ridiculed and thus abandon a pro.ect or an idea at its initial stages and sometimes in its final stages. ' fear of e+ploring and stumbling upon new ideas also hinders creativity. 2. 'n+iety This is another barriers to creativity. Some managers prefer things to be clear and organi1ed. 3hen things get disorgani1ed or uncertain they become insecure and avoid these situations. Similarly, some manager are resistant to change and are ore comfortable with a routine. 'ny change in the scenario makes them an+ious. So they prefer to stick to the conventional approach and avoid creativity. 3. Pessimism This can also be a barrier to the ability to think creatively. Thinking pessimistically is obviously self2destructive and it even affects creative thinking. 'n optimist sees an opportunity in every

[781

opportunity. If people believe that they are not creative or imaginative,

Creati%ity & 'nno%ation

;
and eop

then

they

will

never

be

creative.

Peoples

inherent

perception

of

themselves has an effect on their creativity. Jealing with this barriers is a challenge for an individual.. !onfident and optimistic managers will be more creative than pessimistic ones.

and The y The y /ati ve ty

&.

Stress

This is another common barriers to creativity. ,enerally, a creative person works all day to create original ideas. This may result in stress, depression, and an+iety 2 all of which are barriers to creativity. ence, one should take some time to avoid stress. Stress hampers creativity of an individual. Some manager are likely to find an answer to problems when they are not at work and to every thinking about the problem i.e. when they are least stressed. -. En/iron'ental

;ci de as is ide

This includes physical, social, economic, and work environments. $ach person has a work style and an environment in which he Xshe feels comfortable working. ' manager may not be creative in hisX her office cabin and hence may go for a long drive to cultivate creative ideas. 0.3 TECHNIK5ES OF CREATI4IT! 'ccording to Pradip Rhandewala, the techni*ues of creativity can be

Xeral -ears tiese

classified as / C ProAle' "e%o',osition te%$niM+es 2 ' business problem typically has different dimensions, which could be economic, political, social and cultural. These techni*ues are used to identify the various dimensions of a problem and frame a compatible solution that considers all the them. These techni*ues ensure thtt the selected

the ye d. thu s / C

solution is acceptable in a particular situation. Infor'ation Sear%$ Te%$niM+es 2 These techni*ues involve searching for information to solve a problem. %or instance to resolve a conflict in an organi1ation a manager can gather information from the employees about their past. Information about such conflicts in their personal lives can also be obtained since most of the conflicts that arise in organi1ations can be related to conflicts that rise in personaTliyes. C Te%$niM+es for Area)in9 stereoty,es res,onse 2 These techni*ues involve breaking the regular or conventional thinking pattern. In involves *uestioning ones own assumptions. C 5nAlo%)in9 te%$niM+es 2 People have mental blocks that obstruct their thought process. ' fear of failure, fear of social disapproved, and fear of re.ection by friends and relative hamper the creative thought process.

ing s tai n o m e th a th ey

:A\F

Personality & Managerial C Per or!ance

(+t+al

Sti'+lation

te%$niM+es

These

techni*ues

involve

information sharing about unusual ideas among individuals. In these techni*ues, individuals *uestions each others assumptions and share information and idea.

C C

I'a9in9 te%$niM+es 2 These techni*ues involve visuali1ing problems and situations down to the minute details. F+sion te%$niM+es 2 These techni*ues use various combination of ideas, including those from unrelated areas to frame a creative solution.

I"eatin9 te%$niM+es 2 These techni*ues involve generating a large number of ideas. In these techni*ues, the emphasis is laid on *uantity rather than *uality of ideas.

Ite'iGation te%$niM+es 2 These techni*ues involve encouraging employees to suggest creative solution s that are different from the conventional ones for certain unforeseen problems.

De'olition or "iale%ti%al te%$niM+es 2 These techni*ues involve working back on a solution that has been selected for implementation. It involves counter *uestioning the feasibility of the selected solution. This solution helps to identify the various pitfalls and drawbacks in the solution 0.1F S5((AR!

!reativity is the process of creativity something new. "rgani1ation can be creative in their marketing, strategy formulation, targeting, advertising etc. 'ccording to 3ebsters Jictionary creativity is the ability to create4 and to create means,4 to cause to come into e+istence, to bring into being, to give rise to, to portray for the first time. Innovation is the process of developing a creative idea that can be put into practical use. Innovation an be revolutionary or evolutionary. X The process of creativity includes four steps i.e. e+ploring , inventing, sleeting and implementing. >arriers to creative thinking include fear, an+iety, pessimism, stress environment. 0.11KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK R $)3"&JS_______________________________________________________________ 1. 2. 3. &. Creati/ity 2 It is the ability to generate ideas and manifest them thought into reality Inno/ation * It is the process of developing a creative ideas that can put into practical use. An>iety * ' state of uneasiness and apprehension, as about future uncertainties. Stress * It is a physical, manta, or emotional factor that causes bodily or mental tension.

:SMF