Second Grading

Chapter 4:

Polynomial Functions

INTRODUCTION:
Linear functions, square functions and cube functions all belong to the class of functions called polynomial functions. Rational functions, on the other hand, are ratios of polynomial functions. Evaluating these functions and solving their equations lead to the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra. The study of graphs of polynomial functions is considerable importance of scientists, astronomers, chemists and physicists because the properties of these functions affect the behavior and shape of collected data in scientific research. For instance, technology has its foundations in the mathematical concepts of parabolas and the quadratic formula. They have properties that are useful in making satellite dishes, car headlights, radio and reflecting telescopes.

1. The polynomial function f(x) = 5x3 + 2x2 + 6 has 3 terms. The degrees of the terms are 3, 2, 0 respectively. The highest power of its terms is 3. Therefore, the degree of the polynomial function is 3. 2. The polynomial function g(x) = 4x2 + 7x3 + x4 + 3 has 4 terms. The degrees of the terms are 2, 3, 4 and 0 respectively. The highest power of its terms is 4. Therefore, the degree of the polynomial function is 4.

LESSON2: THE REMAINDER THEOREM

Remainder Theorem: If a polynomial P(x) is divided by x-c, where c is a real number, then the remainder is P(c). We all know that the only operation in finding the remainder is division. In dividing polynomials, there are 2 sufficient ways in getting the quotient Q(x). We can get the Q(x) by means of either the two methods: the Long Method Division or the Synthetic Division.

LESSON1: Definition and Degree of Polynomial Functions

A polynomial function of degree n is a function of the form f(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + an-2xn-2 + + a0, where n is a nonnegative integer, and an, an-1, an-2, , a0 are real numbers, and an 0. The degree of a polynomial function is determined by the highest power of its terms.

For Long Method Division: Consider this division:

For convenience, a shortcut method for finding the remainder can be used. It is the synthetic division. Using the same problem: x3 3x2 + x + 4 x2

First: Equate the divisor into 0 then transpose to get the value of x. x2=0;x=2 The quotient here is x2 x 1, and the remainder is 2. This result may also be expressed as x2 x1+ . This means that there is a difference of 2 between the dividend x3 3x2 + x + 4, and the product of the quotient x2 x 1 and the divisor x 2. Division Algorithm for Polynomials: For each polynomial P(x) of positive degree n and any real number c, there exits a unique polynomial Q(x) and a real number R such that P(x) = (x-c) Q(x) + R Where Q(x) is of degree n 1, and R is the remainder. Apply the Remainder Theorem: x3 3x2 + x + 4 x 2 to find the remainder. Solution: P(x) = x3 3x2 + x + 4 Then, x 2 = 0; x = 2. Evaluate. P(x) = 23 3(22) + 2 + 4 P(x) = 8 12 + 2 + 4 P(x) = 2 -- remainder Second: Bring down all the numerical coefficient of the dividend and place the value of x at the left side. 1 -3 1 4 Third: Bring down the first numerical coefficient (which is 1) then multiply it into the divisor. 1 -3 1 4 ____2______ 1 Fourth: If they are in the same sign, add the numbers in the respective column. If they have unlike sign, subtract properly. Then continue until you get the last value. 1 -3 1 4 ____2_-2_-2 1 -1 -1 2 - remainder

Lesson3: finding values of polynomial functions

Synthetic division, hand-inhand with the Remainder Theorem can be used as a convenient way to find values of polynomial functions. The Remainder Theorem states that when the polynomial P(x) is divided by x c, the remainder is P(c). For example, if the polynomial P(x) = 2x3 8x2 + 19x 12 is divided by x 3, the remainder is P(3). Nevertheless, finding the values of polynomial functions is the same as what we have learned in the past lesson. It has the same procedure and instructions. In summary, the remainder R obtained in synthetic division of f(x) by x c, provides these information: 1. The remainder R gives the value of f at x = c, that is R = f(c). 2. If R = 0, then x c is a factor of f(x) 3. If R = 0, then (c, 0) is an x intercept of the graph of f.

Lesson4: the factor theorem

FACTOR THEOREM: Let P(x) be a polynomial. If P(c) = 0, where c is a real number, then x c is a factor of P(x). Conversely, if x c is a factor of P(x), then P(c) = 0. A. Show that x + 1 is a factor of 2x3 + 5x2 3. Solution: Let P(x) = 2x3 + 5x2 3 P(-1) = 2(-1)3 + 5(-1)2 3 = -2 + 5 3 = 0 Therefore, x + 1 is a factor of 2x3 + 5x2 3. If P(c) is not equal to 0, then that is not a factor of P(x).

LESSON5: FINDING ZEROES OF A POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION

With the aid of the theorems just studied the Remainder and the Factor theorems, factoring techniques learned and the process of synthetic division, finding zeros of a polynomial function will be easier. The zero of a polynomial function f(x) is the value of the variable, which makes the polynomial function equal to zero.

A. Solve P(x) = x3 + 8x2 + 19x + 12, given that one zero is -1. Solution: By the factor theorem, x+1 is a factor of x3 + 8x2 + 19x + 12. So use the synthetic division so that you can have the other zeros. Since the highest degree of the polynomial is 3, we can have 3 zeros in P(x). 1 8 19 12 -1 -7 -12 1 7 12 0 Since you have now the Q(x) x2 + 7x + 12, you can simply use the four methods in finding the roots of a quadratic equation. By the Q(x), we can use factoring. The factors are (x+3)(x+4) respectively. Equate it to zero then the zeros are -1, -3 and -4 by the P(x).

Illustrative example: Let P(x) = x3 + 6x2 + 10x + 3. Find the rational zeros of P(x). If possible, find the other zeros. Solution: By the Rational Zero Theorem, if is a zero of P(x) then p must be a factor of 3 and q must be a factor of 1. The possibilities for p are: 1, 3 The possibilities for q are: 1. Dividing each p by q, the resulting possibilities for are: { } or simply: 1, 3. Observe that these are the same as the possibilities for p. Notice that if the coefficient of the leading term is 1 (like that in the example), only the factors of the least coefficient is taken as possibilities of rational zeros. Notice that all coefficients are positive. When any positive number is substituted by P(x), a positive value is obtained and never a zero. Therefore, no positive number can be a rational zero of P(x). The only possible zeros are -1 and -3 but P(x) has a degree of 3 and presumably, must have three zeros. To find other zeros, either use substitution or synthetic division, usually the more convenient one.

Lesson6: rational zero theorem

Rational Zero Theorem: If f(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + + a1x + a0 where a0, a1,, an are integers (an 0 and a0 0) and (in lowest terms) is a rational zero of f(x), then p is an integer factor of the constant term a0 and q is an integer factor of the leading coefficient an.

Lesson7: graphs of polynomial functions

Step1: Find the x-intercepts or zeros of the function.

Recall that you find your xintercept or zero by setting your function equal to 0, f(x) = 0, completely factoring the polynomial and setting each factor equal to 0. Keep in mind that when is a factor of your polynomial and a) if k is even, the graph touches the x-axis at r and turns around. b) if k is odd, the graph crosses the x-axis at r.

Origin symmetry: Recall that your function is symmetric about the origin if it is an odd function. In other words, if f(-x) = -f(x), then your function is symmetric about the origin.

Step 4: Find the number of maximum turning points.

As discussed above, if f is a polynomial function of degree n, then there is at most n - 1 turning points on the graph of f.

Step 5: Find extra points, if needed.

Sometimes you may need to find points that are in between the ones you found in steps 2 and 3 to help you be more accurate on your graph.

Step 2: Find the y-intercept of the function.

Recall that you can find your yintercept by letting x = 0 and find your functional value at x = 0, f(0).

Step 6: Draw the graph.

Plot the points found in steps 2, 3, and 6 and use the information gathered in steps 1, 2, 4, and 5 to draw your graph.

Step 3: Determine if there is any symmetry. y-axis symmetry:

Recall that your function is symmetric about the y-axis if it is an even function. In other words, if f(-x) = f(x), then your function is symmetric about the y-axis.

Source:

http://www.wtamu.edu/academic/anns/mps/math/mathlab/ col_algebra/col_alg_tut35_polyfun.htm

Chapter summary:
1. A polynomial function of degree n is a function of the form f(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + an-2xn-2 + + a0, where n is a nonnegative integer, and an, an-1, an-2, , a0 are real numbers, and an 0. 2. The degree of a polynomial function is determined by the highest power of its terms. 3. Division Algorithm for Polynomials: For each polynomial P(x) of positive degree n and any real number c, there exists a unique polynomial Q(x) and a real number R such that P(x) = (x-c) Q(x) + R where Q(x) is of degree n-1 and R is the remainder. 4. Remainder Theorem: If a polynomial P(x) is divided by x-c, where c is a real number, then the remainder is P(c). 5. The remainder R obtained in synthetic division of f(x) by x-c, provides these information: The remainder R gives the value of f at x = c, that is, R=f(c)
If R = 0, then x c is a factor of f(x). If R = 0, then (c, 0) is an x intercept of the graph of f.

6. The zero of a polynomial function is the value of the variable x, which makes the polynomial function equal to zero. The zero of a polynomial function is also called the root of the corresponding polynomial equation. 7. Factor Theorem: Let P(x) be a polynomial, if P(c) = 0, where c is a real number, then x c is a factor of P(x). Conversely, if x c is a factor of P(x), then P(c) = 0. 8. The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra states that: Every rational polynomial function f(x) = 0 of degree n has exactly n zeros. Also, given any polynomial, if some zeros are given, the remaining zeros can be found. Proven by Karl Friedrich Gauss, this fundamental theorem shows that a polynomial function of degree n has n complex roots. But, it does not provide a method or formula for finding a root of any given polynomial equation unlike that for the quadratic equation. For cubic and fourth-degree equations, there are similar but more complicated formulas. But in 1824, the Norwegian mathematician Niels Henrik Abel (1802 1829 ) showed that no such general formula exists Numerical methods like those described in this chapter are often

used in finding approximate values for the roots of a polynomial equation. 9. The zeros of any polynomial function correspond to the point of intersection of the graph of the polynomial function and the x axis. 10. Rational Zero Theorem: If a polynomial with integral coefficient has the zero , where p and q are relatively prime integers, then p must be a factor of the constant term of the polynomial, and q, a factor of the coefficient of the term of highest degree. 11. If f is a polynomial function, and r is a real number for which f(r) = 0, then r is an x intercept of f. 12. If (x-r)m is a factor if a polynomial function f, and (x-r)m+1 is not a factor of f, then r is zero of multiplicity m of f. 13. If r is a zero of odd multiplicity, the sign of polynomial function f(x) changes from one side of r to the other side, and the graph of f(x) crosses the x axis at r. If r is a zero of even multiplicity, the sign of polynomial function f(x) remains the same from one side of r to the other side, and the graph of f(x) is tangent to the x axis at r. 14. A polynomial function of degree n has n 1 turning points on its graph.

Chapter 5:
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Introduction:
Both exponential and logarithmic functions are nonalgebraic functions. These are called transcendental functions because they cannot be expressed by a finite number of algebraic operations. An exponential function has a constant which is raised to a variable power, like f(x) = 2x, the basic shape of which when drawn, indicates a rapidly increasing function. Mathematically, the tool that allows us to operate with such power is logarithm. Its laws and properties can be used to simplify difficult computations. Although most of its computations have been taken over by the calculator, logarithms continue to be of basic mathematical significance. The study of these functions exponential and logarithmic is important because of their many applications in our contemporary life. Population growth, growth of bacterial colonies, decay of radioactive elements, and compounded interest offered by banks are among them. Such variations can be represented by exponential equations which define exponential functions.

LESSON1: THE FORM OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

Exponential functions are quite different from other algebraic functions, like the linear and the quadratic functions. The exponential function of the form f(x) = 2x should not be confused with the linear function f(x) = 2x, nor with the polynomial function f(x) = x2. As you will observe, the function f(x) = 2x increases rapidly. This is the main feature of many exponential functions. LESSON1.1 RELATIONSHIPS WHICH ARE EXPONENTIAL Remember: A = P(1 + r)t Where P is the principal, r is the interest rate compounded annually, t is the number of years, and A is the amount after t years. Growth Law: N = N0ekt Where N0 is the original population present at time t = 0, N is the population present at time t, k is a constant (rate of growth) of the population, and e is an irrational number used as base of exponential function which is approximately equivalent to 2.71828.

LESSON2: DEFINITION OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION

Recall that the table of values consists of ordered pairs of numbers (x, f(x)) representing a function or describing points in a coordinate plane. Consider the rule f(x) = 2x for the geometric progression 2, 4, 8, 16, . A table of values can be generated like the one below: x 0 f(x) 1 1 2 2 4 3 8 4 16 5 32 6 64

LESSON3.1: EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION OF THE FORM f(x) = AX, where a > 1

From the basic curve, the key features of an exponential function can be produced: 1. The domain the function f(x) = 2x is the set of all real numbers, while the range is the set of all positive real numbers. 2. For x > 0, the graph grows very rapidly. 3. For x < 0, the x axis serves as the asymptote for the graph. An asymptote is a line that a certain part of a graph approaches more and more closely but never reaches. LESSON3.2: EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION OF THE FORM f(x) = ax, where 0 < a < 1 Consider the graph of f(x) = 2-x. It can be simplified as f(x) = ( )x as defined by the negative exponents. Notice that they have the same characteristics as the graph f(x) = ax shown. The only difference is the direction. If the exponent is positive, it is an increasing function. Meanwhile, if it is negative, it is a decreasing function. Meaning to say the graph f(x) = ax to f(x) = 2-x is just a reflection to each other.

As you may see that the sequence of numbers in f(x) grows rapidly unlike the growth of a linear and quadratic function. They have the common ratio in f(x) that generates the sequence of numbers which increases very rapidly. Remember: If a > 0 and a 1, then the exponential function with base a is the function f defined by f(x) = ax, where x is any real number.

LESSON3: THE GRAPH OF AN EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION

By drawing the graphs of f(x) = ax for different values of a, the characteristics of the exponential function can be determined.