Table of Contents

1. INTRODUCTION.. 1 2. CONTRASTIVE LINGUISTICS AND CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS HYPOTHESIS 2.1 H sto!". 3 2.2 Def n t ons an# Te!$ nolo%". & 2.3 D ' s on of Cont!ast 'e St(# es. & 2.& )o!$(lat n% Cont!ast 'e Anal"s s H"*ot+es s. , 2., -o#e!at n% Cont!ast 'e Anal"s s H"*ot+es s. . 3. INTERLANGUAGE THEORY.. 11 3.1 T+e / !t+ of Inte!lan%(a%e. 11 3.2 Sel n0e!1s V e2 of Inte!lan%(a%e. 12 3.3 Ot+e! V e2s of Inte!lan%(a%e an# ts P!o*e!t es. 13 3

3.& T!ansfe!3 Inte!fe!en4e an# C!oss5l n%( st 4 Infl(en4e. 1& 3., Pos t 'e an# Ne%at 'e T!ansfe!. 1, 3.6 /o!!o2 n%. 16 3.7 Co#e S2 t4+ n%. 17 3.. )oss l 8at on. 1. &. ERROR ANALYSIS. 29 &.1 Def n t ons an# Goals. 29 &.2 De'elo*$ent of E!!o! Anal"s s. 21 &.3 T+e I$*o!tan4e of Lea!ne!s1 E!!o!s. 22 &.& T+e C! t 4 s$ of E!!o! Anal"s s. 23 &., L n%( st 4 I%no!an4e an# De' an4e. 2& &.6 Def n n% - sta0e an# E!!o!. 26 &.7 P!o4e#(!es of E!!o! Anal"s s. 2: &.. So(!4es of E!!o!. 31 ,. ERROR TA;ONO-IES. 36 ,.1 E!!o!s /ase# on L n%( st 4 Cate%o!". 37 ,.2 S(!fa4e St!ate%" Ta<ono$". 37

,.3 Co$*a!at 'e Ta<ono$". 3: 6. CONCLUSION.. &2 RE)ERENCES. &3

1. INTRODUCTION En%l s+ +as (n#o(bte#l" be4o$e to#a"1s %lobal l n%(a f!an4a. A*a!t f!o$ t+e 3,95&,9 $ ll on of nat 'e s*ea0e!s of En%l s+ t+e!e a!e also abo(t .99 $ ll on of *eo*le 2+o s*ea0 t as a fo!e %n lan%(a%e =>a$es3 1::.? 2,@. T+ s s(%%ests t+at $ost of t+e nte!a4t on n En%l s+ ta0es *la4e a$on% ts non5nat 'e s*ea0e!s =Se #l+ofe! 299,@. En%l s+ as a l n%(a f!an4a =EL)@ t+e!efo!e se!'es as Aa 4onta4t lan%(a%e bet2een *e!sons 2+o s+a!e ne t+e! a 4o$$on nat 'e ton%(e no! a 4o$$on =nat onal@ 4(lt(!e3 an# fo! 2+o$ En%l s+ s t+e 4+osen fo!e %n lan%(a%e of 4o$$(n 4at onB =) !t+ 1::6? 2&9 4 te# n Se #l+ofe! 299,? 33:@. Ot+e! te!$s (se# fo! t+ s *+eno$enon a!e CEn%l s+ as an nte!nat onal lan%(a%e13 En%l s+ as a %lobal lan%(a%e1 an# CEn%l s+ as a 2o!l# lan%(a%e13 b(t as Se #l+ofe! a!%(es3 t+e *!efe!!e# te!$ 2+en !efe!! n% to *eo*le f!o$ # ffe!ent $ot+e!5ton%(e an# 4(lt(!al ba40%!o(n#s s CEn%l s+ as a l n%(a f!an4a1 =Se #l+ofe! 299,? 33:@. Se #l+ofe! =299,? 33:@ also 4la $s t+at 4(!!ent En%l s+ s be n% s+a*e# b" bot+ ts nat 'e an# non5nat 'e s*ea0e!s3 t+e fa4t 2+ 4+ s D( te *a!a#o< 4al an# 4alls fo! f(!t+e! st(#" of EL). An# t+ s s e<a4tl" 2+at le# $e to t+e #ea of anal"s n% non5nat 'e s*ea0e!s1 En%l s+3 .e. En%l s+ as a l n%(a f!an4a. In $" t+es s I 2 ll *!o' #e a t+eo!et 4al ba40%!o(n# fo! an anal"s s of EL) o! CEn%l s+ as a se4on#Efo!e %n lan%(a%e1 =ESLEE)L@ on t+e le'el of le< s an# %!a$$a!3 2 t+ attent on to lea!ne!s1 e!!o!s nfl(en4e# b" t+e ! $ot+e! ton%(e =-T@. I 2 ll s(**l" so$e of t+e t"*es of e!!o!s 2 t+ e<a$*les f!o$ $" o2n 4olle4te# #ata3 #e$onst!at n% t+at -T t!ansfe! s a f!eD(ent3 b(t not t+e onl" so(!4e of e!!o!s n ESLEE)L. I 2 ll not ta0e nto a44o(nt e<a$*les on t+e le'el of *+onolo%"3 alt+o(%+ I 0no2 t+at t s t+e le'el on 2+ 4+ t+e -T t!ansfe! s $ost a**a!ent. 2. CONTRASTIVE LINGUISTICS AND CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS HYPOTHESIS In t+ s 4+a*te! I 2 ll % 'e a s+o!t o'e!' e2 of +o2 t+e Cont!ast 'e Anal"s s $o'e$ent 2as fo!$e#3 # s4(ss t+e !elate# te!$ nolo%" an# t+en follo2 t+e #e'elo*$ent of t+e Cont!ast 'e Anal"s s

+"*ot+es s t+!o(%+ t+e t+!ee 'e!s ons (nt l t+eo! es. 2.1 H sto!"

t 2as # s*la4e# b" ot+e!

Cont!ast 'e Anal"s s +as been t+e f !st $aFo! t+eo!" #eal n% 2 t+ t+e !elat ons+ * bet2een t+e lan%(a%es a lea!ne! a4D( !es o! $aste!s. L n%( sts +a'e al2a"s been nte!este# n 4o$*a! n% an# 4ont!ast n% # ffe!ent lan%(a%e s"ste$s an# f !st * onee! n% 2o!0s a**ea!e# at t+e en# of t+e n neteent+ 4ent(!" =>a$es 1:.1@. T+e te!$ CCont!ast 'e St(#"1 2as 4o ne# b" G+o!f n 1:&1H befo!e t+at t+ s # s4 *l ne +a# been 4alle# CCo$*a!at 'e L n%( st 4s1 o! CCo$*a!at 'e St(# es1 =) s a0 1:.1@. Afte! t+e Se4on# Go!l# Ga! t+e nte!est n tea4+ n% fo!e %n lan%(a%es n4!ease# n t+e USA an# $an" l n%( sts 2e!e 4on4e!ne# 2 t+ *e#a%o% 4all" o! ente# 4ont!ast 'e st(# es3 es*e4 all" n t!" n% to *!e# 4t lea!n n% # ff 4(lt es on t+e bas s of 4o$*a! n% t+e nat 'e lan%(a%e 2 t+ t+e fo!e %n lan%(a%e be n% lea!nt3 an# also 2 t+ t+e st(#" of b l n%(al s$ an# lan%(a%e 4onta4t *+eno$ena. It 2as bel e'e# t+at *o nt n% to t+e s $ la! t es of t+e t2o lan%(a%es 4o$*a!e# 2 ll $a0e t+e *!o4ess of fo!e %n lan%(a%e lea!n n% eas e! fo! t+e lea!ne!. Robe!t La#o1s fo!$(lat on of t+e CCont!ast 'e Anal"s s H"*ot+es s1 n + s L n%( st 4s a4!oss C(lt(!es =1:,7@ s 4ons #e!e# t+e %!eatest 4ont! b(t on n t+e f el# of 4ont!ast 'e st(# es =) s a0 1:.13 >a$es 1:.1 an# I!8es8o2s0 1::9@. 2.2 Def n t ons an# Te!$ nolo%" ) s a0 #ef nes 4ont!ast 'e l n%( st 4s as Aa s(b# s4 *l ne of l n%( st 4s 4on4e!ne# 2 t+ t+e 4o$*a! son of t2o o! $o!e lan%(a%es o! s(bs"ste$s of lan%(a%es n o!#e! to #ete!$ ne bot+ t+e # ffe!en4es an# s $ la! t es bet2een t+e$B =) s a0 et al. 1:7. 4 te# n ) s a0 1:.1? 1@. As I!8es8o's0 e<*la ns =1::9? 11@3 t+e!e s3 (nfo!t(natel"3 not $(4+ 4ons sten4" n t+e te!$ nolo%" !elate# to 4ont!ast 'e l n%( st 4s. Ho2e'e!3 t+e te!$s C4ont!ast 'e l n%( st 4s1 an# C4ont!ast 'e st(# es1 a!e $ost often (se#. T+e te!$ C4ont!ast 'e l n%( st 4s1 s f el# of 4!oss5lan%(a%e 4o$*a! son3 sl %+tl" fo4(s n% on t+e $et+o#olo%" of 4o$*a! sons. Anot+e! te!$3 C4ont!ast 'e anal"s s13 t+e abo'e $ent one# te!$s3 b(t l n%( sts ten# to (se t to !efe! f nall"3 C4ont!ast 'e %!a$$a!1 !efe!s to At+e *!o#(4t of 4ont!ast 'e + %+l %+t n% t+e # ffe!en4es (s(all" (se# to !efe! to t+e 2+ole nstan4es !elate# to t+e t+eo!" o! 4an be (se# nte!4+an%eabl" 2 t+

to t+e 4o$*a! son *!o*e!. An# st(# es3 as a b l n%(al %!a$$a!

a4!oss lan%(a%esB =I!8es8o2s0

1::9? 11@.

2.3 D ' s on of Cont!ast 'e St(# es ) s a0 =1:.1? 253@ # ' #es 4ont!ast 'e st(# es nto t+eo!et 4al an# a**l e#? AT+eo!et 4al 4ont!ast 'e st(# es % 'e an e<+a(st 'e a44o(nt of t+e # ffe!en4es an# s $ la! t es bet2een t2o o! $o!e lan%(a%es3 *!o' #e an a#eD(ate $o#el fo! t+e 4o$*a! son3 an# #ete!$ ne +o2 an# 2+ 4+ ele$ents a!e 4o$*a!able JB T+e" a!e lan%(a%e n#e*en#ent3 2+ 4+ $eans t+at t+e" #o not n'est %ate +o2 a *a!t 4(la! 4ate%o!" o! te$ *!esent n lan%(a%e A s *!esente# n lan%(a%e /3 b(t At+e" loo0 fo! t+e !eal 8at on of an (n 'e!sal 4ate%o!" ; n bot+ A an# /B =) s a0 1:.1? 2@. A**l e# 4ont!ast 'e st(# es belon% to a**l e# l n%( st 4s. ) s a0 =1:.1? 253@ e<*la ns t+at A#!a2 n% on t+e f n# n%s of t+eo!et 4al 4ont!ast 'e st(# es t+e" *!o' #e a f!a$e2o!0 fo! t+e 4o$*a! son of lan%(a%es3 sele4t n% 2+ate'e! nfo!$at on s ne4essa!" fo! a s*e4 f 4 *(!*ose JB T+e $a n fo4(s of a**l e# 4ont!ast 'e st(# es s At+e *!oble$ of +o2 a (n 'e!sal 4ate%o!" ;3 !eal 8e# n lan%(a%e A as Y3 s !en#e!e# n lan%(a%e /3 an# 2+at $a" be t+e *oss ble 4onseD(en4e on t+ s fo! a f el# of a**l 4at onB =) s a0 1:.1? 253@. T+e" a!e also 4on4e!ne# 2 t+ At+e #ent f 4at on of *!obable a!eas of # ff 4(lt" n anot+e! lan%(a%e 2+e!e3 fo! e<a$*le3 a % 'en 4ate%o!" s not !e*!esente# n t+e s(!fa4e an# nte!fe!en4e s l 0el" to o44(!B =) s a03 1:.1? 3@. So t+e" a!e !at+e! nte!este# n t+e s(!fa4e !e*!esentat on of lan%(a%e. /e n% a *a!t of a**l e# l n%( st 4s3 a**l e# 4ont!ast 'e st(# es #e*en# on se'e!al ot+e! # s4 *l nes3 n4l(# n% t+eo!et 4al3 #es4! *t 'e an# 4o$*a!at 'e l n%( st 4s3 *s"4+ol n%( st 4s3 so4 ol n%( st 4s3 # #a4t 4s an# *s"4+olo%" of lea!n n% an# tea4+ n% =I!8es8o2s0 1::9@. 2.& )o!$(lat n% Cont!ast 'e Anal"s s H"*ot+es s T+e Cont!ast 'e Anal"s s H"*ot+es s =CAH@ 2as 2 #el" a44e*te# n t+e 1:,9s an# 1:69s USA an# ts o! % nal *(!*ose 2as *(!el" *e#a%o% 4al. T+e tea4+ n% $et+o# 2+ 4+ (se# t+e CAH as ts t+eo!" of lea!n n% 2as t+e a(# ol n%(al $et+o#. /ase# on be+a' o! st an# st!(4t(!al st t+eo! es3 t+e bas 4 ass($*t on fo! t+ s +"*ot+es s 2as t+at At+e *! n4 *al ba!! e! to se4on# lan%(a%e a4D( s t on s t+e nte!fe!en4e of t+e f !st lan%(a%e s"ste$ 2 t+ t+e se4on# lan%(a%e s"ste$ JB an# AJ t+at se4on# lan%(a%e lea!n n% bas 4all" n'ol'e# t+e o'e!4o$ n% of t+e # ffe!en4es bet2een t+e t2o l n%( st 4 s"ste$s K t+e nat 'e an# ta!%et

lan%(a%esB =/!o2n 1:.9? 1&.@. T+e te!$ C nte!fe!en4e1 +e!e !efe!s to Aan" nfl(en4e f!o$ t+e L1 2+ 4+ 2o(l# +a'e an effe4t on t+e a4D( s t on of L2B =Po2ell3 1::.? 2@. I 2 ll f(!t+e! # s4(ss t+e te!$ C nte!fe!en4e1 n 4+a*te! 3.&. T+e ass($*t ons abo(t L1 nte!fe!en4e 2e!e s(**o!te# b" t+e e' #en4e f!o$ s*ea0e!s1 *e!fo!$an4e n t+e ! se4on# lan%(a%e. As /!o2n states3 A t s D( te 4o$$on3 fo! e<a$*le3 to #ete4t 4e!ta n fo!e %n a44ents an# to be able to nfe!3 f!o$ t+e s*ee4+ of t+e lea!ne! alone3 2+e!e t+e lea!ne! 4o$es f!o$B =1:.9? 1&:@. La#o1s *!a4t 4al f n# n%s 2e!e base# on + s o2n e<*e! en4e an# fa$ l" ba40%!o(n#. /e n% an $$ %!ant to t+e USA an# a nat 'e s*ea0e! of S*an s+3 +e obse!'e# 2+at # ff 4(lt es + s S*an s+5s*ea0 n% *a!ents +a# 2 t+ lea!n n% En%l s+ an# +o2 nte!fe!en4e 2as e' #ent n t+e ! s*ee4+. In t+e *!efa4e to L n%( st 4s a4!oss C(lt(!es3 Robe!t La#o e<*la ns? T+e *lan of t+ s boo0 !ests on t+e ass($*t on t+at 2e 4an *!e# 4t an# #es4! be t+e *atte!ns t+at 2 ll 4a(se # ff 4(lt" n lea!n n%3 an# t+ose t+at 2 ll not 4a(se # ff 4(lt"3 b" 4o$*a! n% s"ste$at 4all" t+e lan%(a%e an# t+e 4(lt(!e to be lea!ne# 2 t+ t+e nat 'e lan%(a%e an# 4(lt(!e of t+e st(#ent. =La#o 1:,7? ' 4 te# n /!o2n 1:.9? 1&:@ Late! n t+e sa$e boo0 +e 4la $s

t+at t+e st(#ent 2+o 4o$es n 4onta4t 2 t+ a fo!e %n lan%(a%e 2 ll f n# so$e feat(!es of t D( te eas" an# ot+e!s e<t!e$el" # ff 4(lt. T+ose ele$ents t+at a!e s $ la! to + s nat 'e lan%(a%e 2 ll be s $*le fo! + $3 an# t+ose ele$ents t+at a!e # ffe!ent 2 ll be # ff 4(lt. T+e tea4+e! 2+o +as $a#e a 4o$*a! son of a fo!e %n lan%(a%e 2 t+ t+e nat 'e lan%(a%e of t+e st(#ent 2 ll 0no2 bette! 2+at t+e !eal lea!n n% *!oble$s a!e an# 4an bette! *!o' #e fo! tea4+ n% t+e$. =La#o 1:,7? 2 4 te# n ) s a0 1:.1? &@ T+ s fo!$(lat on of t+e Cont!ast 'e Anal"s s H"*ot+es s 2as late! 4alle# b" Ronal# Ga!#+a(%+ Ct+e st!on% 'e!s on1 of t+e Cont!ast 'e Anal"s s H"*ot+es s =/!o2n 1:.9? 1,7@. Anot+e! l n%( st s(**o!t n% t+e st!on% 'e!s on of t+e CAH 2as )! es. In + s o* n on3 At+e $ost effe4t 'e Ltea4+ n%M $ate! als a!e t+ose t+at a!e base# (*on a s4 ent f 4 #es4! *t on of t+e lan%(a%e to be lea!ne#3 4a!ef(ll" 4o$*a!e# 2 t+ *a!allel #es4! *t on of t+e nat 'e lan%(a%e of t+e lea!ne!B =)! es 1:&,? : 4 te# n Po2ell 1::.? 1@.

Alt+o(%+ t+e *!a4t 4al *!o4ess of 4ont!ast n% lan%(a%es s not t+e a $ of t+ s *a*e!3 I a$ %o n% to % 'e a b! ef o(tl ne of t+e *!o4e#(!e (se#3 as Ell s =1::&? 397@ $ent ons t. T+e *!o4e#(!e n'ol'e# fo(! sta%es? 1. #es4! *t on = .e. t+e t2o lan%(a%es 2e!e fo!$all" #es4! be#@ te$s o! a!eas 2e!e sele4te# fo! te$s@

2. sele4t on = .e. 4e!ta n 4o$*a! son@ 3. &. o44(!@

4o$*a! son = .e. f n# n% s $ la! an# # ffe!ent *!e# 4t on = .e.

n 2+ 4+ a!eas t+e e!!o!s 2 ll $ost *!obabl"

Ga!#+a(%+ bel e'e# t+at t+e st!on% 'e!s on 2as A(n!eal st 4 an# $*!a4t 4ableB3 s n4e Aat t+e 'e!" least3 t+ s 'e!s on #e$an#s of l n%( sts t+at t+e" +a'e a'a lable a set of l n%( st 4 (n 'e!sals fo!$(late# 2 t+ n a 4o$*!e+ens 'e l n%( st 4 t+eo!" 2+ 4+ #eals a#eD(atel" 2 t+ s"nta<3 se$ant 4s3 an# *+onolo%"B =Ga!#+a(%+ 1:79? 12, 4 te# n /!o2n 1:.9? 1,7@. 2., -o#e!at n% Cont!ast 'e Anal"s s H"*ot+es s As a !ea4t on to t+e 4! t 4 s$ of t+e st!on% 'e!s on of t+e CAH3 Ga!#+a(%+ offe!e# a C2ea0 'e!s on1. T+e 2ea0 'e!s on #oes not $*l" t+e a *! o! *!e# 4t on of 4e!ta n f ne #e%!ees of # ff 4(lt". It !e4o%n 8es t+e s %n f 4an4e of nte!fe!en4e a4!oss lan%(a%es3 t+e fa4t t+at s(4+ nte!fe!en4e #oes e< st an# 4an e<*la n # ff 4(lt es3 b(t t also !e4o%n 8es t+at l n%( st 4 # ff 4(lt es 4an be $o!e *!of tabl" e<*la ne# a *oste! o! K afte! t+e fa4t =/!o2n 1:.9? 1,7@. T+(s t +as !at+e! e<*lanato!" *o2e!3 +el* n% t+e tea4+e!s of fo!e %n lan%(a%es (n#e!stan# t+e ! st(#ents1 so(!4es of e!!o!s. In t+e 1:79s3 Olle! an# N a+osse n" *!o*ose# a 4o$*!o$ se bet2een t+e t2o 'e!s ons of t+e CAH an# 4alle# t a C$o#e!ate 'e!s on1. T+e ! t+eo!" 2as base# on t+e ! !esea!4+ of s*ell n% e!!o!s n lea!ne!s of En%l s+ as L2 2+ 4+ s+o2e# t+at s*ell n% e!!o!s 2e!e $o!e 4o$$on a$on% t+ose lea!ne!s 2+o (se# a Ro$an s4! *t n t+e ! nat 'e lan%(a%e =e.%. S*an s+ o! )!en4+@ t+an a$on% t+ose 2+o (se# a non5Ro$an s4! *t =e.%. A!ab 4 o! C+ nese@. Ho2e'e!3 t+e st!on% 'e!s on of t+e CAH 2o(l# *!e# 4t t+e 4ont!a!"3 .e. $o!e # ff 4(lt es on t+e *a!t of t+e lea!ne!s 2+o +a# to a4D( !e a ne2 2! t n% s"ste$ =/!o2n 1:.9@.

/!o2n =1:.9? 1,:@ 4on4l(#es t+at nte!fe!en4e s $o!e l 0el" to o44(! 2+en t+e!e s s $ la! t" bet2een t+e te$s to be lea!ne# an# al!ea#" 0no2n te$s t+an n t+e 4ase of lea!n n% te$s 2+ 4+ a!e ent !el" ne2 to t+e lea!ne!. He also *o nts to t+e fa4t t+at $ost of t+e e!!o!s 4o$$ tte# b" L2 lea!ne!s a!e C nt!al n%(al1 e!!o!s3 .e. e!!o!s 2+ 4+ !es(lt f!o$ L2 tself an# not f!o$ L1. G+ t$an an# >a40son 4a!! e# o(t a st(#" n 2+ 4+ *!e# 4t ons $a#e n fo(! se*a!ate 4ont!ast 'e anal"ses b" # ffe!ent l n%( sts 2e!e (se# to #es %n a test of En%l s+ %!a$$a! 2+ 4+ 2as % 'en to 23,99 >a*anese lea!ne!s of En%l s+ as L2. Afte! 4o$*a! n% t+e !es(lts of t+e test to t+e *!e# 4t ons base# on t+e fo(! 4ont!ast 'e anal"ses3 G+ t$an an# >a40son fo(n# o(t t+at t+e" # ffe!e# a lot. T+e" 4a$e to t+e 4on4l(s on t+at A4ont!ast 'e anal"s s3 as !e*!esente# b" t+e fo(! anal"ses teste# n t+ s *!oFe4t3 s na#eD(ate3 t+eo!et 4all" an# *!a4t 4all"3 to *!e# 4t t+e nte!fe!en4e *!oble$s of a lan%(a%e lea!ne!B =G+ t$an an# >a40son 1:72 4 te# n /!o2n 1:.9? 1,.@. /es #es t+e *!oble$ of na**!o*! ate *!e# 4t ons3 To2el an# Ha20 ns =1::&? 1.51:@ state t2o ot+e! *!oble$s. One of t+e$ s t+at Anot all a!eas of s $ la! t" bet2een an L1 an# an L2 lea# to $$e# ate *os t 'e t!ansfe!B =1::&? 1:@. To2el an# Ha20 ns s(**o!t t+ s a!%($ent b" t+e f n# n%s of O#l n1s st(#" n 2+ 4+ L1 S*an s+ lea!ne!s of L2 En%l s+ o$ tte# t+e 4o*(la Cbe1 at t+e ea!l" sta%es of lea!n n% !e%a!#less t+e fa4t t+at S*an s+ also +as a 4o*(la 'e!b a#eD(ate to En%l s+ Cbe1 an# t+(s t+e *os t 'e t!ansfe! 2as *oss ble. Ho2e'e!3 t # #n1t +a**en. T+e ot+e! *!oble$3 t+e" a!%(e3 s t+at onl" a s$all n($be! of e!!o!s 4o$$ tte# b" L2 lea!ne!s 4o(l# be (na$b %(o(sl" att! b(te# to t!ansfe! f!o$ L1. T+(s3 t+e st!on% 'e!s on of t+e CAH +as been *!o'e# na#eD(ate3 e<4e*t fo! t+e *+onolo% 4al 4o$*onent of lan%(a%e3 2+e!e t s D( te s(44essf(l n *!e# 4t n% t+e nte!fe!en4e bet2een t+e L1 an# L2 n *!on(n4 at on n t+e ea!l" sta%es of L2 a4D( s t on. D(la"3 /(!t an# I!as+en s $ la!l" 4on4l(#e t+at AJ *!esent !esea!4+ !es(lts s(%%est t+at t+e $aFo! $*a4t t+e f !st lan%(a%e +as on se4on# lan%(a%e a4D( s t on $a" +a'e to #o 2 t+ a44ent3 not 2 t+ %!a$$a! o! s"nta<B =1:.2? :6@. T+e 2ea0 'e!s on s not sat sfa4to!" be4a(se t s onl" able to offe! an e<*lanat on fo! 4e!ta n e!!o!s. T+e onl" 'e!s on 2+ 4+ !e$a ns a44e*table s t+e $o#e!ate 'e!s on. Ho2e'e!3 ts f n# n%s as *!esente# b" Olle! an# N a+osse n" a!e n 4ont!a# 4t on 2 t+ La#o1s o! % nal #ea. T+ s #oesn1t $ean t+at t+e !eFe4te#3 b(t t+e CAH s #ea of L1 nte!fe!en4e 2as 4o$*letel"

a**l 4able n *!a4t 4e onl" as a *a!t of E!!o! Anal"s s3 2+ 4+ 2 ll be # s4(sse# late!. 3. INTERLANGUAGE THEORY T+ s 4+a*te! s #e# 4ate# to Inte!lan%(a%e t+eo!" o! +"*ot+es s3 2+ 4+ a!ose as a !ea4t on to t+e CAH. I 2 ll e<*la n +o2 t+e 4on4e*t of nte!lan%(a%e e$e!%e# an# +o2 t #e'elo*e# an# 2as (n#e!stoo# b" # ffe!ent l n%( sts. T+e fo4(s 2 ll be on +o2 a lea!ne!1s L2 s"ste$ #e'elo*s an# +o2 t!ansfe! an# nte!fe!en4e a!e !elate# to t+ s ss(e. 3.1 T+e / !t+ of Inte!lan%(a%e T+e CAH fo4(se# on t+e nfl(en4e of L1 on t+e e$e!% n% L2 s"ste$ an# st!esse# t+e s $ la! t es an# # ffe!en4es bet2een t+e L1 an# L2. T+e Inte!lan%(a%e t+eo!"3 2+ 4+ s a !ea4t on to t+e CAH3 bas 4all" (n#e!stan#s se4on# lan%(a%e lea!n n% as Aa 4!eat 'e *!o4ess of 4onst!(4t n% a s"ste$ n 2+ 4+ t+e lea!ne! s 4ons4 o(sl" test n% +"*ot+eses abo(t t+e ta!%et lan%(a%e f!o$ a n($be! of *oss ble so(!4es of 0no2le#%e JB =/!o2n 1:.9? 162@H t+ese so(!4es n4l(#e3 a$on% ot+e! fa4to!s3 bot+ L1 an# L2. T+e te!$ C nte!lan%(a%e1 2as f !st (se# b" Sel n0e! n 1:6: n !efe!en4e to At+e nte! $ %!a$$a!s 4onst!(4te# b" se4on#5lan%(a%e lea!ne!s n t+e ! 2a" to t+e ta!%et lan%(a%eB =-4La(%+l n 1:.7? 69@. Ho2e'e!3 t 2as Ne$se! 2+o n t+e 1:69s f !st $ent one# C#e' ant1 lea!ne! lan%(a%e? ALea!ne! s*ee4+ at a % 'en t $e s t+e *atte!ne# *!o#(4t of a l n%( st 4 s"ste$ # st n4t f!o$ LNLM an# LTLM an# nte!nall" st!(4t(!e#B =Ne$se! 1:71? 116 4 te# n Po2ell 1::.? 3@. An#3 f nall"3 t 2as Co!#e! 2+o $a#e t+e 2+ole ss(e $*o!tant. In -4La(%+l n =1:.7? 69@ 2e !ea# t+at t+e te!$ C nte!lan%(a%e1 4an t2o t+ n%s? A=1@ t+e lea!ne!1s s"ste$ at a s n%le *o nt n t $e an# =2@ t+e !an%e of nte!lo40 n% s"ste$s t+at 4+a!a4te! 8es t+e #e'elo*$ent of lea!ne!s o'e! t $eB. T+e!efo!e 2e t+at one1s nte!lan%(a%e s # ffe!ent f!o$ one1s $ot+e! ton%(e an# ta!%et lan%(a%e as 2ell. as >a$es =1::.? 3@ s(%%ests3 a s"ste$ 2+ 4+ +ol#s a +alf52a" *os t on bet2een 0no2 n% not 0no2 n% t+e TL. 3.2 Sel n0e!1s V e2 of Inte!lan%(a%e In Sel n0e!1s ' e23 nte!lan%(a%e s Aa se*a!ate l n%( st 4 s"ste$ !es(lt n% f!o$ lea!ne!1s atte$*te# *!o#(4t on of t+e ta!%et lan%(a%e no!$B =-4La(%+l n 1:.7? 695 61@. -4La(%+l n =1:.7? 61@ also % 'es Sel n0e!1s bel ef t+at nte!lan%(a%e 2as At+e *!o#(4t of f 'e 4ent!al 4o%n t 'e $ean

t+ n0 It an# s3

*!o4esses n'ol'e# n se4on#5lan%(a%e lea!n n%B? =1@ lan%(a%e t!ansfe!3 .e. t!ansfe! f!o$ t+e L1H =2@ t!ansfe! of t!a n n%3 .e. so$e feat(!es t!ansfe!!e# f!o$ t+e t!a n n% *!o4essH =3@ st!ate% es of se4on#5lan%(a%e lea!n n%3 .e. an a**!oa4+ to t+e $ate! al ta(%+tH =&@ st!ate% es of se4on#5lan%(a%e 4o$$(n 4at on3 .e. t+ose 2a"s lea!ne!s (se to 4o$$(n 4ate 2 t+ L2 s*ea0e!sH an# =,@ o'e!%ene!al 8at on of t+e ta!%et lan%(a%e l n%( st 4 $ate! al. Sel n0e! also bel e'e# t+at t+e #e'elo*$ent of nte!lan%(a%e 2as # ffe!ent f!o$ t+e f !st5lan%(a%e #e'elo*$ent be4a(se of At+e l 0e+oo# of foss l 8at on n t+e se4on# lan%(a%eB =-4La(%l n 1:.7? 61@. )oss l 8at on 4an be bas 4all" #ef ne# as t+e state 2+en a lea!ne!1s nte!lan%(a%e #oes not #e'elo* an"$o!e3 no $atte! +o2 lon% t+e lea!ne! s e<*ose# to t+e ta!%et lan%(a%e. /ase# on t+e anal"s s of 4+ l#!en1s s*ee4+3 Sel n0e! fo(n# a A#ef n te s"ste$at 4 t" n t+e nte!lan%(a%eB3 2+ 4+ 2as e' #en4e# b" 4e!ta n 4o%n t 'e st!ate% es? lan%(a%e t!ansfe!3 o'e!%ene!al 8at on of ta!%et lan%(a%e !(les an# s $*l f 4at on. So + s ' e2 of nte!lan%(a%e s Aan nte! $ %!a$$a! t+at s a s n%le s"ste$ 4o$*ose# of !(les t+at +a'e been #e'elo*e# ' a # ffe!ent 4o%n t 'e st!ate% es J an# t+e nte!lan%(a%e %!a$$a! s so$e 4o$b nat on of t+ese t"*es of !(lesB =-4La(%+l n 1:.7? 62563@. 3.3 Ot+e! V e2s of Inte!lan%(a%e an# ts P!o*e!t es

A#Fe$ an st!esse# t+e #"na$ 4 4+a!a4te! of nte!lan%(a%e s"ste$s. In + s o* n on3 nte!lan%(a%e s"ste$s 2e!e Ab" t+e ! nat(!e n4o$*lete an# n t+e state of fl(<B. He sa2 t+e n# ' #(al1s L1 s"ste$ as !elat 'el" stable3 b(t not t+e nte!lan%(a%e. In t+ s 2a"3 At+e st!(4t(!es of t+e nte!lan%(a%e $a" be C n'a#e#1 b" t+e f !st lan%(a%eB =-4La(%+l n3 1:.7? 63@. So A#Fe$ an s+a!es Sel n0e!1s o* n on abo(t t+e nfl(en4e of t+e f !st lan%(a%e on t+e #e'elo* n% nte!lan%(a%e. Ta!one1s ' e2 # ffe!e# f!o$ t+ose of Sel n0e! an# A#Fe$ an be4a(se s+e t+o(%+t t+at nte!lan%(a%e 2as Anot a s n%le s"ste$3 b(t a set of st"les t+at 4an be (se# n # ffe!ent so4 al 4onte<tsB =-4La(%+l n 1:.7? 6&@. So s+e st!esses t+e so4 al fa4to! n'ol'e# n t+e (se of nte!lan%(a%e. Ne$se! a!%(e# t+at nte!lan%(a%e 2as an a(tono$o(s s"ste$ an# s(**o!te# + s a!%($ent b" t+e e' #en4e t+at t+e!e a!e Aele$ents 2+ 4+ #o not +a'e t+e ! o! % n n e t+e! L .e. ne t+e! L1 no! L2M *+one$ 4 s"ste$B =Ne$se! 1:71? 13& 4 te# n Po2ell 1::.? 3@. He (se# t+e te!$ Ca**!o< $at 'e s"ste$13 as +e t+o(%+t t+at a lea!ne! of a L2 (n#e!%oes a *!o4ess of a**!o< $at on of t+e e$e!% n%

s"ste$ to t+e ta!%et lan%(a%e =/!o2n 1:.9? 163@. Co!#e! #ef nes nte!lan%(a%e as Aa s"ste$ t+at +as a st!(4t(!all" nte!$e# ate stat(s bet2een t+e nat 'e an# ta!%et lan%(a%eB. In + s o* n on3 e'e!" L2 lea!ne! 4!eates an nte!lan%(a%e 2+ 4+ s (n D(e to t+ s n# ' #(al an# +e 4alle# t+ s *+eno$enon C # os"n4!at 4 # ale4t1 =/!o2n 1:.9? 163@. He st!esse# t+e $*o!tan4e of e!!o!s as a so(!4e of nfo!$at on an# a!%(e# t+at At+e a**ea!an4e of e!!o! n a lea!ne!1s *!o#(4t on 2as e' #en4e t+at t+e lea!ne! 2as o!%an 8 n% t+e 0no2le#%e a'a lable to t+e$ at a *a!t 4(la! *o nt n t $eB =Po2ell3 1::.? &@. All t+ese nte!*!etat ons st!ess # ffe!ent as*e4ts of nte!lan%(a%e. Ho2e'e!3 all of t+e$ s+a!e t+e bas 4 #ea t+at nte!lan%(a%e s an n#e*en#ent lan%(a%e s"ste$ l" n% so$e2+e!e bet2een -T an# TL. As >a$es *(t t3 t o44(* es a A+alf2a" *os t on J bet2een 0no2 n% an# not 0no2 n% t+e TL =1::.? 3@. 3.& T!ansfe!3 Inte!fe!en4e an# C!oss5l n%( st 4 Infl(en4e I +a'e al!ea#" $ent one# t+e te!$s Ct!ansfe!1 an# C nte!fe!en4e1 n 4+a*te! 2.& s n4e t+e" +a'e t+e ! !oots n t+e be+a' o(! st t+eo! es of L2 lea!n n% an# a!e 4losel" !elate# to CAH. No2 2e 0no2 t+at be+a' o(! s$ #oes not % 'e a sat sfa4to!" e<*lanat on of t+e lea!ne!1s nat 'e lan%(a%e nfl(en4e an# t+at3 a4t(all"3 an" of t+e *!e' o(sl" a4D( !e# lan%(a%es 4an 4a(se nte!fe!en4e. T+e!efo!e S+a!2oo# S$ t+ an# Ielle!$an 4a$e (* 2 t+ t+e te!$ C4!oss5 l n%( st 4 nfl(en4e1 2+ 4+ s t+eo!"5ne(t!al an# 4an be (se# as a s(*e!o!# nate te!$ fo! t+e *+eno$ena of Ct!ansfe!13 C nte!fe!en4e13 Ca'o #an4e13 Cbo!!o2 n%1 et4. T+e te!$s Ct!ansfe!1 an# C nte!fe!en4e1 a!e not s"non"$o(s? T!ansfe! (s(all" !efe!s to t+e nfl(en4e of L1 on L2 n bot+ *os t 'e an# ne%at 'e 2a"3 2+e!eas nte!fe!en4e s (s(all" (se# n ne%at 'e sense3 so t 4o!!es*on#s to ne%at 'e t!ansfe!. Ge n! 4+1s #ef n t on of nte!fe!en4e =1:,3? 1 4 te# n D(la" et al. 1:.2? ::@ s(**o!ts t+ s #ea? Inte!fe!en4e a!e At+ose nstan4es of #e' at on f!o$ t+e no!$s of e t+e! lan%(a%e 2+ 4+ o44(! n t+e s*ee4+ of b l n%(als as a !es(lt of t+e ! fa$ l a! t" 2 t+ $o!e t+an one lan%(a%e3 .e. as a !es(lt of lan%(a%es n 4onta4tB. Ho2e'e!3 I $(st note t+at t+e!e s often n4ons sten4e n (sa%e of t+ese te!$s b" 'a! o(s l n%( sts. T+e!efo!e I 2 ll (se Ct!ansfe!1 as a ne(t!al te!$ n4l(# n% bot+ *os t 'e an# ne%at 'e t!ansfe!3 an# C nte!fe!en4e1 as a s"non"$ of ne%at 'e t!ansfe!. Ielle!$an #ef ne# t!ansfe! as At+ose *!o4esses t+at lea# to n4o!*o!at on of ele$ents f!o$ one lan%(a%e nto anot+e!B =Ielle!$an 1:.7 n Ell s 1::&? 391@. O#l n offe!s a C2o!0 n% #ef n t on1 of

t!ansfe!? AT!ansfe! s t+e nfl(en4e !es(lt n% f!o$ t+e s $ la! t es an# # ffe!en4es bet2een t+e ta!%et lan%(a%e an# an" ot+e! lan%(a%e t+at +as been *!e' o(sl" =an# *e!+a*s $*e!fe4tl"@ a4D( !e#B =O#l n 1:.:? 27 n Ell s 1::&? 391@. A44o!# n% to D(la"3 /(!t an# I!as+en nte!fe!en4e 4an be (n#e!stoo# f!o$ t2o # ffe!ent *e!s*e4t 'es. )!o$ t+e *s"4+olo% 4al o! be+a' o(! st *e!s*e4t 'e t s t+e nfl(en4e f!o$ ol# +ab ts on t+e ne2l" lea!ne# ones. )!o$ t+e so4 ol n%( st 4 *o nt of ' e2 t+e" see t!ansfe! as At+e lan%(a%e nte!a4t ons J t+at o44(! 2+en t2o lan%(a%e 4o$$(n t es a!e n 4onta4tB =D(la" et al. 1:.2? :.5::@. In t+ s *o nt of ' e2 2e a!e tal0 n% abo(t t+e ss(es of bo!!o2 n%3 4o#e s2 t4+ n% an# foss l sat on. 3., Pos t 'e an# Ne%at 'e T!ansfe! G+en tal0 n% abo(t lan%(a%e t!ansfe! n t+e be+a' o(! st nte!*!etat on of t+e te!$3 2e (s(all" # ffe!ent ate bet2een t2o t"*es of t!ansfe!? C*os t 'e t!ansfe!1 an# Cne%at 'e t!ansfe!1. Pos t 'e t!ansfe! o44(!s 2+e!e a lan%(a%e te$ n L1 s also *!esent n L23 so a4D( s t on of t+ s te$ $a0es l ttle o! no # ff 4(lt" fo! t+e lea!ne!. An e<a$*le 4o(l# be t+e (se of *l(!al $a!0e!s C5s1 an# C5es1 n En%l s+ an# S*an s+. A L1 S*an s+ lea!ne! of L2 En%l s+ s+o(l# (se t+e En%l s+ *l(!als 4o!!e4tl" f t+e *os t 'e t!ansfe! s o*e!at n%. Ne%at 'e t!ansfe! 4o$es 2+en t+e!e s no 4on4o!#an4e bet2een L1 an# L2 an# t+(s3 a4D( s t on of t+e ne2 L2 st!(4t(!e 2o(l# be $o!e # ff 4(lt an# e!!o!s !efle4t n% t+e L1 st!(4t(!e 2o(l# be *!o#(4e# =Po2ell 1::.? 2 an# D(la" et al. 1:.2? :7@. In $" o2n !esea!4+ I +a'e fo(n# t+at L1 S*an s+ lea!ne!s of L2 En%l s+ ten# to (se t+e En%l s+ lon%5a#Fe4t 'e s(*e!lat 'es n4o!!e4tl". )o! e<a$*le3 t+e" sa" t+e $o!e bea(t f(l % !l nstea# of t+e $ost bea(t f(l % !l. T+e !eason s *!obabl" a ne%at 'e t!ansfe!3 s n4e n S*an s+ bot+ 4o$*a!at 'e an# s(*e!lat 'e (ses t+e sa$e 2o!# $Os3 F(st t+e s(*e!lat 'e (ses t to%et+e! 2 t+ a #ef n te a!t 4le? CelEla $Os P a#Fe4t 'e1. 3.6 /o!!o2 n% L n%( st 4 bo!!o2 n% s a so4 ol n%( st 4 *+eno$enon an# a fo!$ of lan%(a%e nte!fe!en4e 2+ 4+ a**ea!s a$on% b l n%(al s*ea0e!s. It s 'e!" 4o$$on n $(lt l n%(al so4 et es all o'e! t+e 2o!l# =D(la" et al. 1:.2? 113@. Po2ell #ef nes bo!!o2 n% as At+e n4o!*o!at on of l n%( st 4 $ate! al f!o$ one lan%(a%e nto anot+e!B =1::.? .@.

-ost 4o$$onl" bo!!o2e# te$s a!e3 D(la" et al. =1:.2? 113@ e<*la n3 Ale< 4al te$s t+at e<*!ess e t+e! 4(lt(!al 4on4e*ts t+at a!e ne2 to t+e bo!!o2 n% %!o(*3 o! not ons t+at a!e *a!t 4(la!l" $*o!tant n a % 'en 4onta4t s t(at onB. )o! e<a$*le3 afte! # s4o'e! n% t+e A$e! 4an 4ont nent3 En%l s+ an# ot+e! ol# E(!o*ean lan%(a%es bo!!o2e# 2o!#s f!o$ t+e nat 'e A$e! 4an lan%(a%es3 s(4+ as $a 8e3 to$ato3 %loo3 et4. Go!#s t+at a!e bo!!o2e# nto a lan%(a%e (s(all" *!ese!'e t+e ! %ene!al so(n# *atte!n3 b(t t+e" also $o# f" t a44o!# n% to t+e *+onet 4 an# *+onolo% 4al s"ste$ of t+e bo!!o2 n% lan%(a%e. Afte! t+at3 t+e 2o!#s a!e n4o!*o!ate# nto t+e %!a$$a! of t+e bo!!o2 n% lan%(a%e3 .e. t+e" a!e % 'en a!t 4les3 nfle4t ons3 et4 =D(la" et al. 1:.2? 11&@. CInte%!ate# bo!!o2 n%1 !efe!s to a 2o!# 2+ 4+ 2as bo!!o2e# nto a lan%(a%e an# s*ea0e!s of t+at lan%(a%e lea!n t+ s 2o!# f!o$ ea4+ ot+e! 2 t+o(t (n#e!stan# n% ts o! % nal $ean n% n t+e lan%(a%e of o! % n. On t+e ot+e! +an#3 C4!eat 'e bo!!o2 n%1 s 4+a!a4te! 8e# b" s*ea0e!s (s n% a 2o!# f!o$ anot+e! lan%(a%e to e<*!ess a 4on4e*t 4losel" !elate# to t+e 4(lt(!e of t+at lan%(a%e =D(la" et al. 1:.2? 11&@. 3.7 Co#e S2 t4+ n% T+e te!$ C4o#e5s2 t4+ n%1 !efe!s to Aan a4t 'e3 4!eat 'e *!o4ess of n4o!*o!at n% $ate! al f!o$ bot+ of a b l n%(al1s lan%(a%es nto 4o$$(n 4at 'e a4tsB =D(la" et al. 1:.2? 11,@. Ra* # s2 t4+es f!o$ one lan%(a%e nto t+e ot+e! a!e 'e!" 4+a!a4te! st 4 fo! 4o#e5s2 t4+ n%. T+e!e s a 2 #es*!ea# o* n on t+at 4o#e5s2 t4+ n% s an e' #en4e of a la40 of *!of 4 en4"3 fl(en4" o! 4ont!ol o'e! t+e lan%(a%e s"ste$s on t+e *a!t of t+e s*ea0e!. Ho2e'e!3 t+ s s not t!(e. On t+e 4ont!a!"3 4o#e5s2 t4+ n% s $ost f!eD(ent a$on% t+e $ost *!of 4 ent b l n%(als an# s %o'e!ne# b" st! 4t st!(4t(!al an# %!a$$at 4al !(les of bot+ t+e lan%(a%es n'ol'e#. It +as a st!on% so4 ol n%( st 4 f(n4t on? $ost $*o!tantl"3 t 2o!0s as an et+n 4 $a!0e! =D(la" et al.3 1:.2? 11,@. Co#e5s2 t4+ n% 4an ta0e fo!$ of =a@ nse!t n% *+!ases f!o$ one lan%(a%e nto s n%le senten4es n anot+e! lan%(a%e o! =b@ alte! n% n te!$s of ent !e *+!ases o! 4la(ses. T+e follo2 n% e<a$*les +a'e been ta0en f!o$ a a#(ltsQ s*ee4+ n S*an s+5En%l s+ b l n%(al 4o$$(n t" b" A(!el o Es* nosa = 1:.2? 11,@? =a@ Va$os a ! al football %a$e " #es*(Rs ... 2o!#s o! s+o!t t+e lan%(a%es st(#" of n D(la" et al.

Ge1!e %o n% to %o to t+e football %a$e3 an# t+en ... Co$ e!on t(!0e" *a1 C+! st$asS D # "o( eat t(!0e" fo! C+! st$asS =b@ a f!e%a!. He s #o n% t+e best +e 4an *a1 no D(e#a!se at!Os3 *e!o lo 'an n o!#e! not to be 0e*t ba403 b(t

He s #o n% t+e best +e 4an t+e"1!e %o n% to $ess + $ (*. 3.. )oss l 8at on

)oss l 8at on s #ef ne# n /!o2n =1:.9? 1.1@ as A!elat 'el" *e!$anent n4o!*o!at on of n4o!!e4t l n%( st 4 fo!$s nto a *e!sonQs se4on# lan%(a%e 4o$*eten4eB. T+at $eans t+at t+e L2 lea!ne! 4ont n(es 4o$$ tt n% 4e!ta n e!!o!s3 no $atte! +o2 $(4+ n*(t +e o! s+e !e4e 'es3 an# + s o! +e! nte!lan%(a%e #oesn1t #e'elo* an"$o!e 5 t +as foss l 8e#. Sel n0e! n + s *a*e! t tle# CInte!lan%(a%e1 =*(bl s+e# R 4+a!#s 1:7&? 36@ a!%(es t+at foss l 8at on s a !at+e! a *s"4+olo% 4al *+eno$enon s n4e n

$an" of t+ese Lfoss l 8e#M *+eno$ena !ea**ea! n IL *e!fo!$an4e 2+en t+e lea!ne!Qs attent on s fo4(se# (*on ne2 an# # ff 4(lt ntelle4t(al s(bFe4t $atte! o! 2+en +e s n a state of an< et" o! ot+e! e<4 te$ent3 an# st!an%el" eno(%+3 so$et $es 2+en +e s n a state of e<t!e$e !ela<at on =Sel n0e! *(bl. n R 4+a!#s 1:7&? 36@.

T+e $a n *!o*e!t" 2+ 4+ $a0es t+e Inte!lan%(a%e t+eo!" # ffe!ent f!o$ t+e CA an# also E!!o! Anal"s s s t+at t s 2+oll" #es4! *t 'e an# a'o #s 4o$*a! son =>a$es 1::.? 6@. T+ s fa4t 4a(se# a !e'ol(t on n L2 !esea!4+ an# tea4+ n% be4a(se t 2as fo! t+e f !st t $e 2+en a lea!ne!1s $*e!fe4t L2 s"ste$ 2as (n#e!stoo# as an a(tono$o(s s"ste$. &. ERROR ANALYSIS E!!o! Anal"s s =EA@3 t+ !# of t+e $aFo! t+eo! es #eal n% 2 t+ e!!o!s n L2 a4D( s t on3 2 ll be t+e fo4(s of t+ s 4+a*te!. ) !st I 2 ll #ef ne E!!o! Anal"s s3 s($$a! 8e ts %oals an# 4o$*a!e t to t+e CAH an# Inte!lan%(a%e t+eo!". T+ s 2 ll be follo2e# b" ts b! ef + sto!" an# # s4(ss on on t+e $*o!tan4e of lea!ne!s1 e!!o!s an# 4on4e*ts of %no!an4e an# #e' an4e. T+e $a n

fo4(s 2 ll be on 'a! o(s l n%( sts1 nte!*!etat ons of t+e e!!o!5$ sta0e # ffe!en4e3 *!o4e#(!es of t+e EA tself an# f nall"3 t+e *oss ble so(!4es of e!!o!s. &.1 Def n t ons an# Goals E!!o! Anal"s s s a t+eo!" !e*la4 n% t+e Cont!ast 'e Anal"s s3 2+ 4+ 2as aban#one# b" l n%( sts an# tea4+e!s #(e to ts neffe4t ' t" an# (n!el ab l t". EA also belon%s to a**l e# l n%( st 4s b(t t +as no nte!est n e<*la n n% t+e *!o4ess of L2 a4D( s t on. It s !at+e! Aa $et+o#olo%" fo! #eal n% 2 t+ #ataT A=Coo0 1::3? 2 4 te# n >a$es 1::.? 7@. At t+e 'e!" be% nn n% of + s E!!o!s n Lan%(a%e Lea!n n% an# Use3 Ca!l >a$es #ef nes E!!o! Anal"s s as At+e *!o4ess of #ete!$ n n% t+e n4 #en4e3 nat(!e3 4a(ses an# 4onseD(en4es of (ns(44essf(l lan%(a%eB =>a$es 1::.? 1@. Late! +e %oes on e<*la n n% t+at EA A n'ol'es f !st n#e*en#entl" o! CobFe4t 'el"1 #es4! b n% t+e lea!ne!s1 IL ... an# t+e TL tself3 follo2e# b" a 4o$*a! son of t+e t2o3 so as to lo4ate $ s$at4+esB =1::.? ,@. T+e!e s one # ffe!en4e 2+ 4+ # st n%( s+es EA f!o$ t+e CA an# t+ s s t+e $*o!tan4e of t+e $ot+e! ton%(e? 2+en #o n% EA t+e $ot+e! ton%(e #oes not ente! t+e * 4t(!e at all an# t+e!efo!e +as no $*o!tan4e. In t+e CA3 as I +a'e e<*la ne# ea!l e!3 t+e $ot+e! ton%(e s of ' tal $*o!tan4e. Ho2e'e!3 t+ s #oes not $ean t+at EA s not 4o$*a!at 'e. It s3 be4a(se t #es4! bes e!!o!s on t+e bas s of 4o$*a! n% of t+e lea!ne!s1 nte!lan%(a%e 2 t+ t+e ta!%et lan%(a%e. It a4t(all" b( l#s on t+e Inte!lan%(a%e t+eo!"3 b(t t+e # st n4t on bet2een t+e$ s t+at t+e IL t+eo!" !e$a ns 2+oll" #es4! *t 'e an# a'o #s 4o$*a! son =>a$es 1::.? 6@. At t+e sa$e t $e EA a40no2le#%es L1 t!ansfe! as one of t+e so(!4es of e!!o!s3 2+ 4+ $a0es t !elate# to t+e CAH. >a$es =1::.? 62563@ also !efe!s to E!!o! Anal"s s as t+e st(#" of l n%( st 4 %no!an4e 2+ 4+ n'est %ates A2+at *eo*le #o not 0no2 an# +o2 t+e" atte$*t to 4o*e 2 t+ t+e ! %no!an4eB. T+e fa4t t+at lea!ne!s f n# 2a"s +o2 to 4o*e 2 t+ t+e ! %no!an4e $a0es a 4onne4t on bet2een EA an# lea!ne! st!ate% es3 2+ 4+ 2e # ' #e nto lea!n n% st!ate% es an# 4o$$(n 4at on st!ate% es. Co!#e! s(%%ests t+at E!!o! Anal"s s 4an be # st n%( s+e# f!o$ C*e!fo!$an4e anal"s s1 n t+at sense t+at A*e!fo!$an4e anal"s s s t+e st(#" of t+e 2+ole *e!fo!$an4e #ata f!o$ n# ' #(al lea!ne!s3 2+e!eas t+e te!$ EA s !ese!'e# fo! t+e st(#" of e!!oneo(s (tte!an4es *!o#(4e# b" %!o(*s of lea!ne!sB =Co!#e! 1:7,? 297 4 te# n >a$es 1::.? 3@.

&.2 De'elo*$ent of E!!o! Anal"s s Ea!l" 2o!0s n EA #eal n% 2 t+ L2 #ata 2e!e ta<ono$ 43 .e. t+e" fo4(se# on 4olle4t n% an# 4lass f" n% e!!o!s. On t+e ot+e! +an#3 ea!l" anal"ses #eal n% 2 t+ nat 'e s*ea0e!s1 #ata 2e!e $a nl" nte!este# n sea!4+ n% fo! t+e 4a(ses of e!!o!s =>a$es 1::.@. In t+e 1:69s EA 2as a40no2le#%e# as an alte!nat 'e to t+e be+a' o(! st CA an# n t+e 1:79s t be4a$e so *o*(la! t+at S4+a4+te! an# Cel4e5-(!4 a 4o(l# 4all t At+e #a!l n% of t+e 79sB =S4+a4+te! an# Cel4e5-(!4 a 1:77? &&2 4 te# n >a$es31::.? 11@. EA an# CA 2e!e 4o$*et n% to establ s+ s(*!e$a4" of one o'e! t+e ot+e!. H. V. Geo!%e =1:72@ an# -. /(!t an# C. I *a!s0" =1:72@ *(bl s+e# t2o of t+e $ost s %n f 4ant ta<ono$ 4 2o!0s. Geo!%e 4on4l(#es t+at t+e $a n 4a(ses of L2 lea!ne!s1 e!!o!s a!e =a@ !e#(n#an4" of t+e 4o#e3 =b@ (ns( table *!esentat on n 4lass3 an# =4@ se'e!al so!ts of nte!fe!en4e. In T+e Goof 4on b" /(!t an# I *a!s0" t+e a(t+o!s a!%(e t+at t+e lea!ne!s1 -T +as no effe4t on t+e e!!o!s t+e" $a0e n t+e L2. T+e" 4ate%o! 8e# e!!o!s nto s < %!o(*s? =a@ 4la(sal3 =b@ a(< l a!"3 =4@ *ass 'e3 =#@ te$*o!al 4onF(n4t ons3 =e@ sentent al 4o$*le$ents an# =f@ *s"4+olo% 4al *!e# 4ates =>a$es 1::.@. In 1:.7 >. /. Heaton an# N. D. T(!ton *(bl s+e# Lon%$an D 4t ona!" of Co$$on E!!o!s 2+ 4+ l sts al*+abet 4all" t+e 13799 $ost 4o$$on e!!o!s n En%l s+ $a#e b" fo!e %n lea!ne!s. T+e" 4olle4te# t+e #ata f!o$ Ca$b! #%e ) !st Ce!t f 4ate n En%l s+ ans2e! *a*e!s =>a$es 1::.@. &.3 T+e I$*o!tan4e of Lea!ne!s1 E!!o!s T+e $ost $*o!tant an# nno'ato!" feat(!e of EA s t+at t s D( te e!!o!5f! en#l"3 $ean n% t+at e!!o!s a!e not seen as so$et+ n% ne%at 'e o! *atolo% 4al an"$o!e3 b(t as Co!#e! 4la $s3 Aa lea!ne!1s e!!o!s J a!e s %n f 4ant n Lt+atM t+e" *!o' #e to t+e !esea!4+e! e' #en4e of +o2 lan%(a%e s lea!ne# o! a4D( !e#3 2+at st!ate% es o! *!o4e#(!es t+e lea!ne! s e$*lo" n% n t+e # s4o'e!" of t+e lan%(a%eB =Co!#e! 1:67? 167 4 te# n /!o2n 1:.9? 16&@. At t+e 'e!" be% nn n% of E!!o!s n Lan%(a%e Lea!n n% an# Use >a$es st!esses t+e (n D(eness of +($an e!!o!s? AE!!o! s l 0e2 se (n D(e to +($ans3 2+o a!e not onl" sa* ens an# loD(ens3 b(t also +o$o e!!ansB =1::.? 1@. He s(**o!ts t+e #ea of t+e $*o!tan4e of lea!ne!sQ e!!o!s b" 4la $ n% t+at At+e lea!ne!s1 e!!o!s a!e a !e% ste! of t+e ! 4(!!ent *e!s*e4t 'e on t+e TLB =1::.? 7@.

>a$es =1::.? 12@ % 'es Co!#e!Qs f 'e 4!(4 al *o nts3 o! % nall" *(bl s+e# n Co!#e!1s se$ na! *a*e! t tle# CT+e s %n f 4an4e of lea!ne!s1 e!!o!s1? 1. L1 a4D( s t on an# L2 lea!n n% a!e *a!allel *!o4esses3 t+e" a!e !(le# b" t+e sa$e $e4+an s$s3 *!o4e#(!es an# st!ate% es. Lea!n n% a L2 s *!obabl" fa4 l tate# b" t+e 0no2le#%e of t+e L1. 2. E!!o!s !efle4t t+e lea!ne!s1 nb( lt s"llab(s o! 2+at t+e" +a'e ta0en n3 b(t not 2+at t+e tea4+e!s +a'e *(t nto t+e$. So t+e!e s a # ffe!en4e bet2een C n*(t1 an# C nta0e1. 3. E!!o!s s+o2 t+at bot+ lea!ne!s of L1 an# L2 #e'elo* an lan%(a%e s"ste$ 5 a Ct!ans t onal 4o$*eten4e1. &. T+e te!$s Ce!!o!1 an# C$ sta0e1 s+o(l#nQt be (se# n#e*en#ent

nte!4+an%eabl".

,. E!!o!s a!e $*o!tant s+e s+o(l# tea4+3 =b@ a!e so(!4e of nfo!$at on fo! an# =4@ allo2 t+e lea!ne!s to test t+e ! L2

be4a(se t+e" =a@ tell t+e tea4+e! 2+at +e o! a t+e !esea!4+e! abo(t +o2 t+e lea!n n% *!o4ee#s3 +"*ot+eses.

&.& T+e C! t 4 s$ of E!!o! Anal"s s >a$es *a!a*+!ases Co!#e!Qs a!%($ent t+at A t s not #ee$e# le% t $ate ... to 4o$*a!e t+e 4+ l#1s o! t+e )L lea!ne!Qs ID L # os"n4!at 4 # ale4tM to t+e # ale4t of a#(lts o! of nat 'e s*ea0e!s !es*e4t 'el"B =>a$es3 1::.? 16@. T+e !eason s t+at At+e 4+ l# o! t+e )L lea!ne! a!e ne t+e! #el be!atel" no! *at+olo% 4all" #e' ant n t+e ! lan%(a%e3 so t 2o(l# be 2!on% to !efe! to t+e ! !e*e!to !es as e!!oneo(sB >a$es =1::.? 16@. /ell also 4! t 4 8es EA b" 4all n% t Aa !e4ent *se(#o*!o4e#(!e n a**l e# l n%( st 4sB =/ell 1:7&? 3, 4 te# n >a$es 1::.? 17@. In + s o* n on3 t+e EA #ata a!e of onl" *oo! stat st 4al nfe!en4e3 e!!o!s a!e (s(all" nte!*!ete# s(bFe4t 'el" an# t la40s *!e# 4at 'e *o2e! =>a$es 1::.? 17@. S4+a4+te! 4! t 4 8es t+at EA #oes not ta0e nto 4ons #e!at on t+e st!ate%" of a'o #an4e3 .e. t+at lea!ne!s ten# to a'o # 4e!ta n lan%(a%e te$s 2+ 4+ t+e" a!e not s(!e abo(t3 an# so t+e" #on1t $a0e e!!o!s n t+e a!eas 2+e!e t+e" 2o(l# be e<*e4te# to $a0e t+e$ =>a$es 1::.? 1.@. -o!e 4! t 4 s$ 4o$es f!o$ D(la" et al. =1:.2? 1&151&3@ 2+o *o nt to t+e fa4t t+at EA 4onf(ses e<*lanato!" an# #es4! *t 'e as*e4ts3 n ot+e! 2o!#s t+e *!o4ess an# t+e *!o#(4tH an# also t+at e!!o! 4ate%o! es la40 *!e4 s on an# s*e4 f 4 t".

Ho2e'e!3 #es* te all t+e 4! t 4 s$ EA !e$a ns t+e $ost 2 #e5 s*!ea# *!a4t 4e3 be4a(se t +as *!o'en to be t+e $ost effe4t 'e a**!oa4+ to L2 lea!ne!s1 e!!o!s. &., L n%( st 4 I%no!an4e an# De' an4e I +a'e al!ea#" nt!o#(4e# >a$es1s ' e2 of EA as a st(#" of l n%( st 4 %no!an4e. In + s o* n on3 t+e!e a!e t2o 2a"s n 2+ 4+ t+e %no!an4e s (s(all" $an feste#? s len4e an# s(bst t(t 'e lan%(a%e. S len4e $eans t+at t+e lea!ne! $a0es no !es*onse an# 2e 4an # st n%( s+ bet2een 4(lt(!al s len4e3 !efe!! n% to t+e fa4t t+at so$e 4(lt(!es a!e f!o$ t+e nat(!e $o!e s lent t+an ot+e!s3 an# s len4e as a 4onseD(en4e of %no!an4e 2+ 4+ s labele# Ca'o #an4e1. Ho2e'e!3 t+e fo4(s of EA s t+e ot+e! 4ate%o!" 5 s(bst t(t 'e lan%(a%e3 2+ 4+ s3 n fa4t3 a lea!ne!1s nte!lan%(a%e =>a$es 1::.? 62563@. Anot+e! ss(e !elate# to EA s In4o$*leteness 2+ 4+ >a$es #ef nes as t+e Afa l(!e to atta n f(ll NS5l 0e 0no2le#%e of t+e TLB o!3 s $ la!l" Aan o'e!all ns(ff 4 en4" =4o$*a!e# 2 t+ NS 4o$*eten4e@ a4!oss all a!eas of t+e TLB =1::.? 63@. It s # ffe!ent f!o$ %no!an4e n t+at sense t+at a lea!ne! 4an be %no!ant of a *a!t 4(la! st!(4t(!e3 !!es*e4t 'e of + s o! +e! *!of 4 en4" n t+e TL. T+e!e a!e fo(! 4ate%o! es of lea!ne!sQ %no!an4e of TL? =1@ %!a$$at 4al t"3 =2@ a44e*tab l t"3 =3@ 4o!!e4tness an# =&@ st!an%eness an# nfel 4 t" =>a$es 1::.? 6&56,@. =1@ G+en an (tte!an4e s %!a$$at 4al t $eans t+at t s 2ell5fo!$e# n te!$s of a *a!t 4(la! %!a$$a!. So a * e4e of lan%(a%e s (n%!a$$at 4al f t+e!e a!e no 4 !4($stan4es (n#e! 2+ 4+ t 4o(l# be (se# n t+ s 2a". Ge F(#%e %!a$$at 4al t" of a senten4e o(t of 4onte<t an# !e%a!#less of t. =2@ A44o!# n% to L"ons =1:6.? 137 4 te# n >a$es 1::.? 67@ Aan a44e*table (tte!an4e s one t+at +as been3 o! $ %+t be3 *!o#(4e# b" a nat 'e s*ea0e! n so$e a**!o*! ate 4onte<t an# s3 o! 2o(l# be3 a44e*te# b" ot+e! nat 'e s*ea0e!s as belon% n% to t+e sa$e lan%(a%e n D(est onB. T+e 2o!# C4onte<t1 s t+e 0e" 2o!# n t+ s #ef n t on3 s n4e 2e +a'e to 4onte<t(al 8e t+e (tte!an4e so t+at 2e 4o(l# F(#%e ts a44e*tab l t". On t+e bas s of %!a$$at 4al t" an# a44e*tab l t"3 Co!#e! =1:73? 272 4 te# n >a$es 1::.? 6.@ # ' #e# e!!o!s nto 4o'e!t an# o'e!t e!!o!s. A 4o'e!tl" e!!oneo(s (tte!an4e s s(*e!f 4 all" 2ell5fo!$e# an# 4an be !e'eale# onl" 2+en !efe!! n% to t+e 4onte<t. T+ s (tte!an4e s

%!a$$at 4al3 b(t (na44e*table. On t+e ot+e! +an#3 an o'e!tl" e!!oneo(s (tte!an4e s (n%!a$$at 4al3 so t 4annot be (se# n an" 4onte<t. EA s *! n4 *all" 4on4e!ne# 2 t+ (tte!an4es 2+ 4+ a!e bot+ (n%!a$$at 4al an# (na44e*table =>a$es 1::.? 6.56:@. =3@ An (tte!an4e s 4o!!e4t 2+en t s n 4on4o!#an4e 2 t+ *!es4! *t 'e no!$at 'e stan#a!#s of t+e lan%(a%e n D(est on. Utte!an4es t+at a!e a44e*table b(t n4o!!e4t at t+e sa$e t $e a!e 4o$$on =>a$es 1::.? 7&@. =&@ Alle!ton =1::9 4 te# n >a$es 1::.? 7,@ nt!o#(4e# fo(! 4ate%o! es of Al n%( st 4all" st!an%e 2o!# 4o$b nat onsB? =a@ n+e!entl" st!an%e 4o$b nat ons3 =b@ se$ant 4all" # s+a!$on o(s 4o$b nat on3 =4@ 4o$b nat ons t+at a!e s $*l" (n%!a$$at 4al an# =#@ nstan4es of lo4(t onal #e' an4e 2+ 4+ a!e 4o$$on n fo!e %ne!s1 En%l s+ s n4e t+e" !es(lt f!o$ ' olat n% 4oo44(!en4e !est! 4t ons of En%l s+ =>a$es 1::.? 7,@. Infel 4 t es !efe! to e!!o!s on *!a%$at 4 le'el =A(st n 1:62 n >a$es 1::.? 76@. A(st n # ffe!ent ates bet2een fo(! 0 n#s of nfel 4 t"? =a@ a %a* a**ea!s f t+e L2 s*ea0e! la40s At+e l n%( st 4 $eans fo! *e!fo!$ n% t+e #es !e# s*ee4+ a4tB =>a$es 1::.? 76@H =b@ 2e +a'e a $ sa**l 4at on 2+en a s*ee4+ a4t s *e!fo!$e# 4o!!e4tl" b(t t+e s*ea0e!3 t+e a##!essee o! t+e 4 !4($stan4es a!e na**!o*! ate fo! t+ s s*ee4+ a4tH =4@ a fla2 a**ea!s 2+en t+e l n%( st 4 e<e4(t on of t+e s*ee4+ a4t s $*e!fe4tH an# =#@ a + t4+ $eans t+at At+e e<e4(t on of t+e s*ee4+ a4t s 4(t s+o!tB =>a$es 1::.? 76@. &.6 Def n n% - sta0e an# E!!o! /!o2n =1:.9? 16,@ ns sts t+at A t s 4!(4 al to $a0e a # st n4t on bet2een $ sta0es an# e!!o!sB be4a(se t+e" a!e Ate4+n 4all" t2o 'e!" # ffe!ent *+eno$enaB. T+e 4on4e*t of ntent onal t" *la"s an essent al !ole 2+en #ef n n% an e!!o! s n4e Aan e!!o! a! ses onl" 2+en t+e!e 2as no ntent on to 4o$$ t oneB =>a$es3 1::.? 77@. So an e!!oneo(s (tte!an4e s t+at 2+ 4+ 2as $a#e (n ntent onall"3 2+e!eas 2+en t+e!e s an ntent on to *!o#(4e a #e' ant (tte!an4e3 2e s $*l" 4all t #e' an4e. A %oo# e<a$*le of a lan%(a%e #e' an4e s an a#'e!t s n% F n%le =>a$es 1::.? 77@. T+e bas 4 # st n4t on bet2een a $ sta0e an# an e!!o! s also base# on t+e 4on4e*t of 4o!! % b l t". If t+e lea!ne! s able to self54o!!e4t afte! (s n% an n4o!!e4t e<*!ess on o! (tte!an4e3 2e a!e tal0 n% abo(t a $ sta0e. On t+e ot+e! +an#3 2+en t+e lea!ne! *!o#(4es an (n ntent onall" #e' ant (tte!an4e an# s not able to self54o!!e4t3 +e o! s+e 4o$$ tte# an e!!o! =>a$es 1::.? 7.@.

Co!#e! =1:67 1:71 n >a$es3 1::.? 7.@ asso4 ates t+e e!!o! 's. $ sta0e # st n4t on to t+e ss(e of 4o$*eten4e 's. *e!fo!$an4e. In t+ s 2a"3 e!!o!s a!e seen as fa l(!es of 4o$*eten4e an# $ sta0es as fa l(!es of *e!fo!$an4e. Co!#e! a!%(es t+at U$ sta0es a!e of no s %n f 4an4e to t+e *!o4ess of lan%(a%e lea!n n% s n4e t+e" #o not !efle4t a #efe4t n o(! 0no2le#%eB an# At+e" 4an o44(! n L1 as 2ell as L2B =Co!#e! 1:67? 1665167 4 te# n >a$es 1::.? 7.57:@. On t+e ot+e! +an#3 e!!o!s Aa!e of s %n f 4an4eH t+e" #o !efle4t 0no2le#%eH t+e" a!e not self54o!!e4tableH an# onl" lea!ne!s of an L2 $a0e t+e$B =>a$es 1::.? 7:@. E#%e =1:.: n >a$es 1::.? .95.1@ (ses t+e te!$ $ sta0e as a 4o'e! te!$ fo! all t+e 2!on% nstan4es 2+ 4+ fo!e %n lan%(a%e lea!ne!s *!o#(4e an# +e # ' #es $ sta0es nto t+!ee 4ate%o! es? V Sl *s o44(!3 a44o!# n% to E#%e3 as a 4onseD(en4e of *!o4ess n% *!oble$s o! 4a!elessness. T+e lea!ne! s (s(all" able to self54o!!e4t f +e o! s+e +as a 4+an4e to #o so. V E!!o!s !efe!3 n E#%eQs o* n on3 to A2!on% fo!$s t+at t+e *(* l 4o(l# not 4o!!e4t e'en f t+e ! 2!on%ness 2e!e to be *o nte# o(tB b(t t s st ll e' #ent 2+at t+e lea!ne! 2ante# to sa" =>a$es 1::.? .9@. V Atte$*ts3 E#%e1s last 4ate%o!"3 a!e Aal$ost n4o$*!e+ens ble3 an# t+e lea!ne! ob' o(sl" +as no #ea +o2 to (se t+e ! %+t fo!$B =>a$es 1::.? .1@. In t+ s s t(at on lea!ne!s (s(all" e$*lo" t+e ! 4o$*ensato!" 4o$$(n 4at on st!ate% es. T+e ne<t 4lass f 4at on I 2o(l# l 0e to # s4(ss s t+at of Ha$$e!l" =1::1 n >a$es 1::.@. )o! + $3 At+e stat(s of lea!ne! #e' an4e $(st be #ete!$ ne# n te!$s of t+e 4lass!oo$B =>a$es 1::.? .1@. Ha$$e!l" # ' #es #e' an4es 2+ 4+ lea!ne!s $a0e n t+e 4lass!oo$ 4onte<t nto # sto!t ons an# fa(lts. D sto!t ons a!e3 n + s o* n on3 A(na'o #able an# ne4essa!"3 o44(! e'en 2 t+ 0no2n TL fo!$s3 an# s+o(l# be %no!e# b" t+e tea4+e!B =>a$es 1::.? .1@. He f(!t+e! # st n%( s+es bet2een lea!ne! # sto!t ons an# $ s$ana%e$ent # sto!t ons an# t+ s # st n4t on s base# on t+e fa4t 2+et+e! o! not t+e te$ +as been ta(%+t n t+e 4lass. Lea!ne! # sto!t ons a**ea! 2+en t+e te$ +as been Aa#eD(atel" ta(%+t ... 4lea!l" (n#e!stoo# an# s(ff 4 entl" *!a4t 4e#B =Ha$$e!l" 1::1? ., 4 te# n >a$es 1::.? .1@3 2+e!eas $ s$ana%e$ent # sto!t ons a!e 4onseD(en4es of na#eD(ate tea4+ n% an# *!a4t 4e of t+e te$ n D(est on.

Ha$$e!l"1s se4on# 4ate%o!"3 fa(lts3 a**ea! 2+en t+e lea!ne!s Aatte$*t to e<*!ess f!eel" #eas t+at !eD( !e t+e (se of st!(4t(!es t+e" +a'en1t "et lea!ntB =Ha$$e!l" 1::1? 72 4 te# n >a$es 1::.? .2@. He a%a n # st n%( s+es bet2een lea!ne! fa(lts an# $ s$ana%e$ent fa(lts3 t+e fo!$e! be n% 4onseD(en4es of lea!ne!s1 o'e!e<tens on 2 t+o(t be n% en4o(!a%e# b" t+e tea4+e!3 an# t+e latte! a**ea! 2+en t+e tea4+e! 4onn 'es 2 t+ t+e st(#ents1 o'e!e<tens on. As 2e 4an see3 Ha$$e!l"1s ' e2 s D( te e<t!e$e an# +e +as been 4! t 4 8e# fo! + s 4onstant sea!4+ fo! so$eone to bla$e3 e t+e! t+e lea!ne!s o! t+e tea4+e!. On t+e ot+e! +an#3 E#%e1s #eolo%" s 4o$*letel" # ffe!ent be4a(se +e Aa**la(#s lea!ne!s 2+o ... 0ee* t!" n% an# ta0 n% ! s0 !at+e! t+an *la" n% safe o! a'o # n% e!!o!B =>a$es 1::.? .2@. T+e $ost !e4ent 4lass f 4at on of #e' an4es =1::.? .35.&@? s t+at of >a$es

V Sl *s !efe! to la*ses of t+e ton%(e o! *en an# t+e a(t+o! s able to s*ot an# 4o!!e4t t+e$. T+e # s4 *l ne 2+ 4+ s en%a%e# n st(#" n% t+e$ s 4alle# la*solo%". V - sta0es 4an be 4o!!e4te# b" t+e ! a(t+o! onl" A f t+e ! #e' an4e *o nte# o(t to + $ o! +e!B =>a$es 1::.? .3@. >a$es f(!t+e! # ' #es t+e$ nto f !st5o!#e! $ sta0es3 2+en s $*le n# 4at on of t+e #e' an4e s eno(%+ to enable self54o!!e4t on3 an# se4on#5o!#e! $ sta0es3 2+en $o!e nfo!$at on abo(t t+e nat(!e of t+e #e' an4e s nee#e# to enable self5 4o!!e4t on. V E!!o!s o44(! 2+en t+e lea!ne! s (nable to self54o!!e4t (nt l f(!t+e! !ele'ant n*(t s *!o' #e#3 .e. so$e $o!e lea!n n% +as to ta0e *la4e. V Sole4 s$s a!e #ef ne# b" >a$es as Ab!ea4+es of t+e !(les of 4o!!e4tness as la # #o2n b" *(! sts an# (s(all" ta(%+t n s4+oolsB =1::.? .3@. A %oo# e<a$*le s*l t nf n t 'es. &.7 P!o4e#(!es of E!!o! Anal"s s E!!o! anal"s s n'ol'es fo(! sta%es =>a$es 1::.@? s

T+e f !st sta%e s 2+en e!!o!s a!e #ent f e# o! #ete4te# an# t+e!efo!e >a$es =1::.? :1@ te!$s t e!!o! #ete4t on. It s3 a4t(all"3 s*ott n% of t+e e!!o! tself. ) !st 2e 4olle4t a set of (tte!an4es *!o#(4e# b" a L2 lea!ne!. A senten4e s (s(all" ta0en as a bas 4 (n t of anal"s s an# t+an t+e nfo!$ant3 a nat 'e s*ea0e! o! t+e anal"st + $self3 *o nts o(t t+e s(s* 4 o(s o! *otent all" e!!oneo(s (tte!an4es an# #e4 #e f t+e (tte!an4e n D(est on s !eall" e!!oneo(s o! not. Ho2e'e!3 t+ s $a" not be so eas" s n4e t+e!e a!e $an" fa4to!s n'ol'e#. It s eas e!3 fo!

nstan4e3 to s*ot so$eone elseQs e!!o! t+an oneQs o2n3 o! to f n# t+e e!!o! n 2! tten lan%(a%e t+an n s*o0en =>a$es 1::.? :15199@. T+e follo2 n% sta%e s 4alle# e!!o! lo4at on an# t s 2+en t+e nfo!$ant lo4ates t+e e!!o!. >a$es a!%(es t+at so$e e!!o!s a!e # ff 4(lt to lo4ate be4a(se t+e" 4an be # ff(se# t+!o(%+o(t t+e senten4e o! t+e 2+ole te<t an# a**ea! onl" afte! t+e 2+ole te<t s 4a!f(ll" e<a$ ne# =1::.? :25:3@. /(!t an# I *a!s0" 4all s(4+ #e' an4es %lobal e!!o!s =o**os te to lo4al e!!o!s@? At+e senten4e #oes not s $*l" 4onta n an e!!o!? t s e!!oneo(s o! fla2e# as a senten4eB =>a$es 1::.? :3@. T+e t+ !# sta%e s e!!o! #es4! *t on. It s ob' o(s t+at a lea!ne!1s lan%(a%e +as to be #es4! be# n te!$s of so$e lan%(a%e s"ste$. T+e Inte!lan%(a%e +"*ot+es s 2o(l# s(%%est t+at t+e Alea!ne! lan%(a%e s a lan%(a%e n ts o2n ! %+t an# s+o(l# t+e!efo!e be #es4! be# s( %ene! s !at+e! t+en n te!$s of t+e ta!%etB =>a$es 1::.? :&@. If 2e ta0e Co!#e!1s #ea of # os"n4!at 4 # ale4t3 2+ 4+ s t+e lea!ne!Qs 'e!s on of t+e ta!%et lan%(a%e3 2e 4an 4o$*a!e t to t+e nat 'e s*ea0e!Qs 4o#e s n4e bot+ t+e 4o#es a!e 4ons #e!e# # ale4ts of t+e sa$e lan%(a%e an# t+e!efo!e As+o(l# be #es4! bable n te!$s of t+e sa$e %!a$$a!B =>a$es 1::.? :&@. Anot+e! !eason 2+" a lea!ne!Qs lan%(a%e s+o(l# be #es4! be# n te!$s of t+e TL s be4a(se EA s3 b" ts nat(!e3 TL5o! ente# =>a$es 1::.? :,@. >a$es =1::.? :,5:6@ also a!%(es t+at t+e %!a$$a! (se# fo! t+e #es4! *t on $(st be 4o$*!e+ens 'e3 s $*le3 self5e<*lanato!"3 eas l" lea!nable an# (se!5 f! en#l". )o! t+ese !easons3 +e !eFe4ts s4 ent f 4 an# *e#a%o% 4 %!a$$a!s an# !e4o$$en#s #es4! *t 'e %!a$$a!s3 *a!t 4(la!l" C!"stalQs =1:.2@ G!a$$a! Assess$ent Re$e# at on an# Sa$*l n% P!o4e#(!e =also 0no2n as GRARSP@. T+e!e a!e3 n >a$es1s o* n on t+!ee $a n *(!*oses of t+e #es4! *t on sta%e? =1@ to $a0e t+e e!!o!s e<*l 4 t3 =2@ t s n# s*ensable fo! 4o(nt n% e!!o!s3 an# =3@ t s a bas s fo! 4!eat n% 4ate%o! es s n4e t !e'eals 2+ 4+ e!!o!s a!e # ffe!ent o! t+e sa$e =>a$es 1::.? :65:7@. An# f nall"3 t+e last ste* n EA s e!!o! 4lass f 4at on o! 4ate%o! 8at on =>a$es 1::.? :7@. Ge 4an 4ate%o! 8e e!!o!s nto # 4t ona! es o! ta<ono$ es. S n4e t+e 2+ole 4+a*te! , 2 ll #eal 2 t+ 'a! o(s e!!o! ta<ono$ es3 n t+ s se4t on I 2 ll 4on4ent!ate on # 4t ona! es onl". D 4t ona! es of e!!o!s a!e o!%an 8e# al*+abet 4all" an# 4onta n bot+ le< 4al an# %!a$$at 4al nfo!$at on. A %oo# e<a$*le of (*5to5#ate # 4t ona! es of e!!o!s T(!ton1s =1::,@ A/C of Co$$on s

G!a$$at 4al E!!o!s3 2+ 4+ n4l(#es not onl" %!a$$at 4al e!!o!s3 b(t le< 4al as 2ell. Anot+e! one s t+at of Ale<an#e! =1::&@3 base# on + s o2n #atabase of o'e! ,3999 te$s 4olle4te# #(! n% + s ELT 4a!ee!. Inte!est n%l"3 one of t+e 4ate%o! es n Ale<an#e!Qs # 4t ona!" s t+at of e!!o!s 4a(se# b" L1 nte!fe!en4e 2 t+ L2 En%l s+ =>a$es 1::.? :75191@. D 4t ona! es of Cfalse f! en#s1 !e*!esent anot+e! 0 n# of # 4t ona! es. T+e" a!e3 a44o!# n% to >a$es =1::.? 191@3 A!ele'ant to lea!ne!s of a s*e4 f 4 L2 2+o s*ea0 a *a!t 4(la! $ot+e! ton%(eB. )o! C8e4+ lea!ne!s of L2 En%l s+ t+e!e s S*a!l n%1s En%l s+ o! C8en%l s+ =1::1@ 2+ 4+ 4onta ns t+e $ost 4o$$on false f! en#s an# ot+e! te$s t+at (s(all" 4a(se t!o(bles fo! L1 C8e4+ lea!ne!s. &.. So(!4es of E!!o! I#ent f" n% so(!4es of e!!o!s 4an be3 n fa4t3 4ons #e!e# a *a!t of e!!o! 4lass f 4at on. E!!o! Anal"s s s nno'ato!" n !es*e4t to t+e CAH n t+e sense t+at t e<a$ nes e!!o!s att! b(table to all *oss ble so(!4es3 not F(st ne%at 'e L1 t!ansfe! =/!o2n3 1:.9? 166@. A$on% t+e $ost f!eD(ent so(!4es of e!!o!s /!o2n 4o(nts =1@ nte!l n%(al t!ansfe!3 =2@ nt!al n%(al t!ansfe!3 =3@ 4onte<t of lea!n n%3 an# =&@ 'a! o(s 4o$$(n 4at on st!ate% es t+e lea!ne!s (se. >a$es =1::.? 17.517:@ s $ la!l" 4lass f es e!!o!s a44o!# n% to t+e ! so(!4e nto fo(! # a%nos s5base# 4ate%o! es 2 t+ t+e # ffe!en4e t+at +e te!$s 4ate%o!" =3@ n#(4e# e!!o!s. =1@ Inte!l n%(al t!ansfe!3 .e. $ot+e!5ton%(e nfl(en4e3 4a(ses nte!l n%(al e!!o!s. T+e" a!e 'e!" f!eD(ent at t+e n t al sta%es of L2 lea!n n% s n4e t+e L1 s t+e onl" lan%(a%e s"ste$ t+e lea!ne! 0no2s an# 4an #!a2 on an# t+e!efo!e ne%at 'e t!ansfe! ta0es *la4e =/!o2n 1:.9? 173@. /!o2n also a!%(es t+at 2+en one s lea!n n% L33 L& et4.3 t!ansfe! ta0es *la4e f!o$ all t+e *!e' o(sl" lea!nt lan%(a%es b(t t+e #e%!ee of t!ansfe! s 'a! able =1:.9? 173@. =2@ Int!al n%(al ne%at 'e t!ansfe! o! nte!fe!en4e s t+e so(!4e of nt!al n%(al e!!o!s =/!o2n 1:.9? 173517&@. /!o2n % 'es onl" o'e!%ene!al 8at on as a !e*!esentat on of ne%at 'e nte!l n%(al t!ansfe!3 b(t >a$es =1:.9? 1.,51.7@ %oes nto $o!e #eta ls. He !efe!s to nt!al n%(al e!!o!s as lea!n n%5st!ate%" base# e!!o!s an# l sts 7 t"*es of t+e$? V )alse analo%" a! ses 2+en t+e lea!ne! n4o!!e4tl" t+ n0s t+at a ne2 te$ be+a'es l 0e anot+e! te$ al!ea#" 0no2n to + $ o! +e!. )o! e<a$*le t+e lea!ne! al!ea#" 0no2s t+at

#o%s s *l(!al f!o$ #o%3 so +e o! s+e t+ n0s t+at Ws+ee*s s+ee*.

s *l(!al f!o$

V - sanal"s s $eans t+at t+e lea!ne! +as fo!$e# an (nfo(n#e# +"*ot+es s n t+e L2 an# s *(tt n% t n *!a4t 4e. >a$es =1:.9? 1.,@ % 'es as an e<a$*le t+e s t(at on 2+en t+e lea!ne! ass($es t+at W ts 4an be (se# as a *l(!al 8e# fo!$ of t. V In4o$*lete !(le a**l 4at on +a**ens 2+en t+e lea!ne! #oesnQt a**l" all t+e !(les ne4essa!" to a**l" n a *a!t 4(la! s t(at on. In fa4t3 t s t+e 4on'e!se of o'e!%ene!al 8at on. V E<*lo t n% !e#(n#an4" a**ea!s be4a(se t+e!e s a lot of !e#(n#an4" n e'e!" lan%(a%e3 e.%. (nne4essa!" $o!*+olo%"3 an# ntell %ent lea!ne!s t!" to a'o # t+ose te$s 2+ 4+ t+e" f n# !e#(n#ant to $a0e t+e ! lea!n n% an# 4o$$(n 4at on eas e!. T+e o**os te of e<*lo t n% !e#(n#an4" s o'e!labo!at on 2+ 4+ s (s(all" obse!'able n $o!e a#'an4e# lea!ne!s. V O'e!loo0 n% 4oo4(!!en4e !est! 4t ons $eans t+at t+e lea!ne! #oesnQt 0no2 t+at 4e!ta n 2o!#s %o to%et+e! 2 t+ 4e!ta n 4o$*le$ents3 *!e*os t ons et4. An e<a$*le % 'en b" >a$es =1::.? 1.6@ s 2+en t+e lea!ne! %no!es t+at t+e 'e!b to enFo" s follo2e# b" %e!(n# an# not ba!e nf n t 'e. V H"*e!4o!!e4t on3 as >a$es a!%(es =1::.? 1.6@3 A!es(lts f!o$ t+e lea!ne!s o'e!5$on to! n% t+e ! L2 o(t*(tB. V O'e!%ene!al 8at on $eans t+at t+e lea!ne! (ses one $e$be! of a set of fo!$s also n s t(at ons 2+en t+e ot+e! $e$be!s $(st be (se#. T+ s (s(all" lea#s to o'e!(se of one fo!$ an# (n#e!(se of t+e ot+e!s. Gell 0no2n 4an# #ates fo! o'e!%ene!al 8at on a!e *a !s as ot+e!Eanot+e!3 $(4+E$an"3 so$eEan" et4. =>a$es 1::.? 1.7@ 5 t+e lea!ne! (ses one of t+e$ nstea# of # st n%( s+ n% bet2een t+e$ an# (s n% ea4+ n t+e a**!o*! ate s t(at on. O'e!%ene!al 8at on of lan%(a%e !(les s also 4o$$on3 e.%. WDoes s+e 4an #an4eS !efle4ts t+at t+e lea!ne! o'e!%ene!al 8es t+e (se of a(< l a!" 'e!bs n D(est ons. =3@ Conte<t of lea!n n% !efe!s to t+e sett n% 2+e!e a lan%(a%e s lea!nt3 e.%. a 4lass!oo$ o! a so4 al s t(at on3 an# also to t+e tea4+e! an# $ate! als (se# n t+e lessons. All t+ese fa4to!s 4an 4a(se n#(4e# e!!o!s =/!o2n 1:.9? 17&@. As /!o2n e<*la ns3 Ast(#ents often $a0e e!!o!s be4a(se a $ slea# n% e<*lanat on f!o$ t+e tea4+e!3 fa(lt" *!esentat on of a st!(4t(!e o! 2o!# n a te<tboo03 o! e'en be4a(se of a *atent t+at 2as !otel" $e$o! 8e# n a #! ll b(t not

*!o*e!l" 4onte<t(al 8e#B. >a$es =1::.? 1:15299@ # ' #es nto t+e follo2 n% s(b4ate%o! es? V V V V V $ate! als5 n#(4e# e!!o!s tea4+e!5tal0 e<e!4 se5base# e!!o!s n#(4e# e!!o!s n#(4e# e!!o!s

n#(4e# e!!o!s

n#(4e# b" *e#a%o% 4al *! o! t es

loo05(* e!!o!s

I #on1t t+ n0 t s ne4essa!" to # s4(ss t+e$ f(!t+e! be4a(se t+e nat(!e of t+ese e!!o!s s e' #ent f!o$ t+e ! na$es. Ho2e'e!3 I 2 ll s(**l" an e<a$*le Last t $e 2+en I W+a'e been t+e!e ... =SI s*ea0e!@ n 2+ 4+ t+e n4o!!e4t a**l 4at on of *!esent *e!fe4t *!obabl" !efle4ts #ef 4 ent e<*lanat on of t+e (se of *!esent *e!fe4t on t+e *a!t of t+e tea4+e!. =&@ Co$$(n 4at on st!ate% es a!e 4ons4 o(sl" (se# b" t+e lea!ne!s to %et a $essa%e a4!oss to t+e +ea!e!. T+e" 4an n'ol'e bot+ 'e!bal an# non5'e!bal 4o$$(n 4at on $e4+an s$s =/!o2n 1:.9? 17.@. Ge # st n%( s+ a$on% t+e follo2 n% 4o$$(n 4at on st!ate% es? V A'o #an4e a! ses 2+en a lea!ne! 4ons4 o(sl" a'o #s 4e!ta n lan%(a%e te$ be4a(se +e feels (n4e!ta n abo(t t an# *!efe!s a'o # n% to 4o$ tt n% an# e!!o!. T+e!e a!e se'e!al 0 n#s of a'o #an4e3 e.%. s"nta4t 43 le< 4al3 *+onolo% 4al o! to* 4 a'o #an4e =/!o2n 1:.9? 17.517:@. V P!efab! 4ate# *atte!ns a!e $e$o! 8e# *+!ases o! senten4es3 as n Cto(! st s(!' 'al1 lan%(a%e o! a *o40et b l n%(al *+!aseboo03 an# t+e lea!ne! 2+o $e$o! 8e# t+e$ (s(all" #oesnQt (n#e!stan# t+e 4o$*onents of t+e *+!ase =/!o2n 1:.9? 1.9@. Ho2e'e!3 t+e ! a#'anta%e s3 as Ha0(ta =1:76? 333 4 te# n /!o2n 1:.9? 17:@ notes3 t+at t+e" Aenable lea!ne!s to e<*!ess f(n4t ons 2+ 4+ t+e" a!e "et (nable to 4onst!(4t f!o$ t+e ! l n%( st 4 s"ste$3 s $*l" sto! n% t+e$ n a sense l 0e la!%e le< 4al te$sB. V Co%n t 'e an# *e!sonal t" st"les 4an also 4a(se e!!o!s. )o! nstan4e3 /!o2n =1:.9? 1.9@ s(%%ests t+at Aa *e!son 2 t+ + %+ self5estee$ $a" be 2 ll n% to ! s0 $o!e e!!o!s3 n t+e nte!est of 4o$$(n 4at on3 s n4e +e #oes not feel as t+!eatene# b" 4o$$ tt n% e!!o!s as a *e!son 2 t+ lo2 self5estee$B. V A**eal to a(t+o! t" s a st!ate%" 2+en t+e lea!ne!3 be4a(se of + s (n4e!ta nt" abo(t so$e st!(4t(!e3 # !e4tl" as0s a nat 'e s*ea0e!3 a tea4+e! o! loo0s (* t+e st!(4t(!e n a b l n%(al # 4t ona!" =/!o2n 1:.9? 1.9@.

V Lan%(a%e s2 t4+ s a**l e# b" t+e lea!ne! 2+en all t+e ot+e! st!ate% es +a'e fa le# to +el* + $ o! +e!. So t+e lea!ne! (ses + s o! +e! nat 'e lan%(a%e to %et t+e $essa%e a4!oss3 !e%a!#less of t+e fa4t t+at t+e +ea!e! $a" not 0no2 t+e nat 'e lan%(a%e =/!o2n 1:.9? 1.1@ ,. ERROR TA;ONO-IES Alt+o(%+ e!!o! ta<ono$ es a!e *a!t of t+e EA3 I #e4 #e# to #e# 4ate a 2+ole 4+a*te! to t+e$3 s n4e t+e" a!e a +(%e to* 4. A44o!# n% to D(la" et al.=1:.2@3 t+e $ost 4o$$onl" (se# ta<ono$ es a!e base# on =1@ l n%( st 4 4ate%o!"3 =2@ s(!fa4e st!ate%"3 =3@ 4o$*a!at 'e anal"s s3 an# =&@ 4o$$(n 4at 'e effe4t. >a$es =1::.? 192@ #!e2 on t+e Ne2 S+o!te! O<fo!# En%l s+ D 4t ona!" =1::3@3 2+ 4+ #ef nes Cta<ono$"1 as At+e b!an4+ of s4 en4e 2+ 4+ #eals 2 t+ 4lass f 4at onB. >a$es =1::.? 1925193@ also a!%(es t+at Aa ta<ono$" $(st be o!%an 8e# a44o!# n% to 4e!ta n 4onst t(t 'e 4! te! a. T+ese 4! te! a s+o(l# as fa! as *oss ble !efle4t obse!'able obFe4t 'e fa4ts abo(t t+e ent t es to be 4lass f e#B. Ho2e'e!3 +e notes3 t+e 4! te! a a!e not $(t(all" e<4l(s 'e? 2e 4lass f" e!!o!s s $(ltaneo(sl" a44o!# n% to $o!e 4! te! a at t+e sa$e t $e. D(la" et al. =1:.2? 1&,@ n t+e ! # s4(ss on abo(t ta<ono$ es Afo4(se# on e!!o! ta<ono$ es t+at 4lass f" e!!o!s a44o!# n% to so$e obse!'able s(!fa4e feat(!e of t+e e!!o! tself3 2 t+o(t !efe!en4e to ts (n#e!l" n% 4a(se o! so(!4eB an# t+e" 4all t+ese C#es4! *t 'e ta<ono$ es1. I +a'e s(**l e# t+e $ost 4o$$on 4ate%o! es of e!!o!s 2 t+ e<a$*les f!o$ $" o2n #ata 4olle4t on. T+ s s t+e 4ase3 abo'e all3 n t+e Co$*a!at 'e ta<no$"3 s n4e t+ s ta<ono$" best a44o(nts fo! t+e ss(e of $ot+e!5ton%(e t!ansfe!. T+e #ata 2as 4olle4te# $a nl" a$on% e<4+an%e st(#ents at t+e A! stotle Un 'e!s t" of T+essalon 0 3 G!ee4e3 an# a$on% $" o2n st(#ents n *! 'ate lan%(a%e s4+ools n t+e C8e4+ Re*(bl 4. -" s(bFe4ts1 le'el of En%l s+ 2as f!o$ *!e5 nte!$e# ate to (**e!5 nte!$e# ate3 none of t+e$ 2as a nat 'e s*ea0e! of En%l s+. T+e $ot+e! ton%(e ba40%!o(n# of $" s(bFe4ts 2as C8e4+ESlo'a0 =CNESI@3 S*an s+ =ES@ o! G!ee0 =GR@. ,.1 E!!o!s /ase# on L n%( st 4 Cate%o!" T+ese ta<ono$ es 4lass f" e!!o!s a44o!# n% to t+e lan%(a%e 4o$*onent o! l n%( st 4 4onst t(ent =o! bot+ of t+e$@ 2+ 4+ s affe4te# b" t+e e!!o!. A$on% lan%(a%e 4o$*onents 2e 4o(nt *+onolo%"3 s"nta< an# $o!*+olo%"3 se$ant 4s an# le< 4on3 an# # s4o(!se =D(la" et al. 1:.2? 1&6@. Resea!4+e!s (se t+e l n%( st 4 4ate%o!" ta<ono$" as e t+e! t+e onl" one o! 4o$b ne# 2 t+ so$e ot+e! ta<ono$". T+ s ta<ono$" s also (sef(l fo! o!%an 8 n% t+e 4olle4te# #ata.

D(la" et al. =1:.2? 1&751,&@ % 'e as e<a$*les t2o e!!o! anal"ses t+at (se# t+ s ta<ono$ es fo! *! $a!" 4lass f 4at on of t+e 4olle4te# #ata. T+e f !st one 2as 4a!! e# o(t b" /(!t an# I *a!s0" =1:72@ an# t+e ot+e! b" Pol t8e! an# Ra$ !e8 =1:73@. /ot+ of t+e$ 4lass f e# e!!o!s $a#e b" st(#ents of En%l s+ as L23 F(st t+e ba40%!o(n# of t+e anal"ses 2as # ffe!ent. T+e fo!$e! 4onta ns t+e follo2 n% $a n 4ate%o! es? A. T+e s0eleton of En%l s+ 4la(ses3 4onta n n% $ ss n% *a!ts an# $ so!#e!e# *a!ts /. T+e a(< l a!" s"ste$ C. Pass 'e senten4es D. Te$*o!al 4onF(n4t ons E. Sentent al 4o$*le$ents ). Ps"4+olo% 4al *!e# 4ates ,.2 S(!fa4e St!ate%" Ta<ono$" T+ s ta<ono$" 4on4ent!ates on t+e 2a"s n 2+ 4+ s(!fa4e st!(4t(!es a!e alte!e#. Us n% t+ s ta<ono$"$ D(la" et al. =1:.2? 1,9@ # ' #e e!!o!s nto t+e follo2 n% 4ate%o! es? =1@ o$ ss on3 =2@ a## t ons3 =3@ $ sfo!$at on3 an# =&@ $ so!#e! n%. O$ ss on s t"* 4al fo! t+e ea!l" sta%es of L2 a4D( s t on3 2+e!eas n t+e nte!$e# ate sta%es $ sfo!$at on3 $ so!#e! n%3 o! o'e!(se a!e $(4+ $o!e 4o$$on =D(la" et al. 1:.2? 1,,@ =1@ O$ ss on $eans t+at an te$ 2+ 4+ $(st be *!esent n a 2ell5fo!$e# (tte!an4e s absent. T+e!e s an e' #en4e t+at %!a$$at 4al $o!*+e$es =e.%. no(n an# 'e!b nfle4t ons3 a!t 4les3 *!e*os t ons@ a!e o$ tte# $o!e often t+at 4ontent $o!*+e$es 2+ 4+ 4a!!" t+e $ean n% =D(la" et al. 1:.2? 1,&51,,@. )o! nstan4e3 n t+e senten4e W-" fat+e! *l($be! t+e %!a$$at 4al $o!*+e$es s an# a a!e o$ tte#. =2@ A## t ons a!e t+e se4on# 4ate%o!" of S(!fa4e st!ate%" ta<ono$" an# also t+e o**os te of o$ ss on. T+e *!esen4e of an e<t!a te$ 2+ 4+ $(stnQt be *!esent n a 2ell fo!$e# (tte!an4e s 4+a!a4te! st 4 fo! a## t ons =D(la" et al. 1:.2? 1,6@. D(la" et al. # ' #e t+e$ nto t+!ee 4ate%o! es? =a@ #o(ble $a!0 n%s3 as n WD # "o( 2ent t+e!eS3 =b@ !e%(la! 8at on3 e.%.W s+ee*s3 W4(tte#3 an# =4@ s $*le a## t on3 2+ 4+ 4onta ns t+e !est of a## t ons =1:.2? 1,651,.@. =3@ - sfo!$at on !efe!s to At+e (se of t+e 2!on% fo!$ of t+e $o!*+e$e o! st!(4t(!eB

=D(la" et al. 1:.2? 1,.@. T+e!e a!e t+!ee t"*es as 2ell? =a@ In !e%(la! 8at ons an !!e%(la! $a!0e! s !e*la4e# b" a !e%(la! one3 as n Ws+ee*s fo! s+ee*. =b@ A!4+ 5fo!$s !efe! to t+e (se of one $e$be! of a 4lass of fo!$s nstea# of (s n% all t+e $e$be!s3 e.%. (s n% t+ s n t+e s t(at ons 2+en e t+e! t+ s o! t+ese s+o(l# be (se#. =4@ Alte!nat n% fo!$s a!e !e*!esente# b" Af!ee alte!nat on of 'a! o(s $e$be!s of a 4lass 2 t+ ea4+ ot+e!B3 as n Wt+ose #o% an# t+ s 4at (se# b" t+e sa$e lea!ne! =D(la" et al. =1:.2? 1,7@. T+e follo2 n% e<a$*les of $ sfo!$at on a!e ta0en f!o$ $" o2n #ata 4olle4t on? Do all t+e W4+ l#s %o t+!o(%+ all t+e sta%esS =GR@ !e%(la! 8at on I +a'e Wta0e one *a40et of Wt ss(e. =)R@ a!4+ 5fo!$ an# o$ ss on =&@ Ge tal0 abo(t $ so!#e! n% 2+en 2e 4o$e a4!oss an (tte!an4e 2+e!e a $o!*+e$e o! a %!o(* of t+e$ s n4o!!e4tl" *la4e#3 as n WI %et (* at 6 oQ4lo40 al2a"s3 2+e!e al2a"s s $ so!#e!e# =D(la" et al. 1:.2? 162@. ,.3 Co$*a!at 'e Ta<ono$" T+e Co$*a!at 'e ta<ono$" 4lass f es e!!o!s on t+e bas s of 4o$*a! n% t+e st!(4t(!e of L2 e!!o!s to ot+e! t"*es of 4onst!(4t ons3 $ost 4o$$onl" to e!!o!s $a#e b" 4+ l#!en #(! n% t+e ! L1 a4D( s t on of t+e lan%(a%e n D(est on. In t+ s ta<ono$"3 2e 2o!0 2 t+ t2o $a n e!!o! 4ate%o! es? =1@ #e'elo*$ental e!!o!s3 an# =2@ nte!l n%(al e!!o!s3 an#3 of 4o(!se3 =3@ a$b %(o(s e!!o!s3 an# =&@ t+e C%!ab ba% 4ate%o!"1 of ot+e! e!!o!s =D(la" et al. 1:.2? 163516&@. =1@ De'elo*$ental e!!o!s !efe! to e!!o!s 2+ 4+ a!e s $ la! to t+ose $a#e b" 4+ l#!en 2+o a!e a4D( ! n% t+e ta!%et lan%(a%e n D(est on as t+e ! $ot+e! ton%(e. T+e" a!e t+e o**os te of nte!l n%(al e!!o!s3 .e. t+ose 4a(se# b" L1 nte!fe!en4e. T+e !esea!4+ +as s+o2n t+at $ost of t+e e!!o!s 4o$$ tte# b" L2 lea!ne!s a!e #e'elo*$ental. T+e" a!e 4alle# #e'elo*$ental be4a(se t+e" a!e 4+a!a4te! st 4 fo! bot+ L1 an# L2 #e'elo*$ent =D(la" et al. 1:.2? 16&5 16,@. T+e follo2 n% a!e $" e<a$*les of #e'elo*$ental e!!o!s? I +a'e Wta0e one *a40et of Wt ss(e. =)R@ Let1s W4lose t+e l %+t. =GR@ On t+e Wo**os te 2e +a'e se'e!al st(# es ... =ES@ ... Won t+e 4ent!e of t+e *a%e ... =GR@ =2@ Inte!l n%(al e!!o!s a!e3 as D(la" et al. =1:.2? 171@ a!%(e3 As $ la! n st!(4t(!e

to a se$ant 4all" eD( 'alent *+!ase o! senten4e n t+e lea!ne!1s nat 'e lan%(a%eB3 e.%. Wt+e $an s0 nn" sa # b" a S*an s+ s*ea0e! of En%l s+ !efle4ts t+e 2o!# o!#e! of t+e S*an s+ eD( 'alent *+!ase el +o$b!e fla4o. In $" o2n !esea!4+ I +a'e 4o$e a4!oss t+ese #e' ant senten4es 4onta n n% nte!l n%(al e!!o!s? WA$b(lan4e s t+e *la4e 2+e!e "o( %o 2+en "o( a!e s 40. =CN@ false f! en#s 2 t+ a$b(lan4e I $(st Wtell + $ fo! t+at. =CN@ !efle4ts XY4 I W+a'e b !t+#a". =CN@ na!o8en n" nstea# of It o nZ4o3 nten#e# as0 fo!

s $" b !t+#a"3 !efle4ts $O$

Yeste!#a" 2e # s4(sse# Wabo(t t+ese t+ n%s. =L(40a3 CN@ !efle4ts # s0(to'at o Yo( s+o(l# b(" a t 40et be4a(se t+e" W4ont!ol t+e$ 'e!" often. =CN@ false f! en#s 2 t+ 0ont!olo'at I W%a'e t+ s e<a$ last "ea!. =GR@ 2!on% 4ollo4at on3 !efle4ts [\]^_ \`\abcd e to W% 'e an e<a$ I +a'enQt W% 'en t+e e<a$ "et. =GR@ 2!on% 4ollo4at on3 !efle4ts [\]^_ \`\abcd e to % 'e an e<a$ =3@ A$b %(o(s e!!o!s 4o(l# be 4lass f e# as bot+ #e'elo*$ental an# nte!l n%(al e!!o!s. S(4+ e!!oneo(s (tte!an4es (s(all" !efle4t t+e lea!ne!1s L1 an#3 at t+e sa$e t $e3 a!e s $ la! to e!!o!s *!o#(4e# b" 4+ l#!en #(! n% t+e ! L1 a4D( s t on =D(la" et al. 1:.2? 172@. E.%. I #onQt +a'e Wnot+ n% =SI@3 as 2ell as T+e" a!e s*ea0 n% Wbefo!e to let #oo!s =CN@ 4o(l# be 4ons #e!e# bot+ nte!l n%(al an# #e'elo*$ental e!!o!. =&@ Ot+e! e!!o!s a!e t+ose 2+ 4+ s $*l" #o not f t t+e abo'e $ent one# 4ate%o! es of t+ s ta<ono$" =D(la" et al. 1:.2? 172@. n an" of

,.& Co$$(n 4at 'e Effe4t Ta<ono$" T+ s ta<ono$" fo4(ses on t+e effe4t t+e e!!o!s +a'e on t+e l stene! o! !ea#e!. D(la" et al. =1:.2? 1.:@ a!%(e t+at Ae!!o!s t+at affe4t t+e o'e!all o!%an 8at on of t+e senten4e + n#e! s(44essf(l 4o$$(n 4at on3 2+ le e!!o!s t+at affe4t a s n%le ele$ent of t+e senten4e (s(all" #o not + n#e! 4o$$(n 4at onB. T+e" 4all t+e fo!$e! =1@ %lobal e!!o!s an# t+e latte! =2@ lo4al e!!o!s. =1@ A$on% %lobal e!!o!s t+e" V n4l(#e?

2!on% o!#e! of $aFo! 4onst t(ents

$ ss n%3 2!on%3 o! $ s*la4e# senten4e 4onne4to!s

V $ ss n% 4(es to s %nal obl %ato!" e<4e*t ons to *e!'as 'e s"nta4t 4 !(les V e<4e*t ons !e%(la! 8at on of *e!'as 'e s"nta4t 4 !(les to

V 2!on% *s"4+olo% 4al *!e# 4ate 4onst!(4t ons = .e. *!e# 4ates #es4! b n% +o2 a *e!son feels@ V s(bo!# nate 4la(ses@ $*!o*e! sele4t on of 4o$*le$ent t"*es = .e.

=2@ Lo4al e!!o!s n4l(#e3 a44o!# n% to D(la" et al. =1:.2? 1:151:2@3 e!!o!s n no(n an# 'e!b nfle4t ons3 a!t 4les3 a(< l a! es3 fo!$at on of D(ant f e!s3 et4. 6. CONCLUSION In t+ s *a*e! I +a'e 4o$*a!e# t+!ee $a n t+eo! es 4on4e!n n% t+e e$e!%en4e3 e<*lanat on an# 4lass f 4at on of nte!l n%(al an# nt!al n%(al e!!o!s n lea!ne!s of L2 En%l s+? t+e Cont!ast 'e Anal"s s H"*ot+es s3 t+e Inte!lan%(a%e t+eo!" an# E!!o! Anal"s s. E!!o! Anal"s s +as *!o'en to be t+e $ost a**!o*! ate an# s(44essf(l n e<*la n n% lea!ne!s1 e!!o!s s n4e t a40no2le#%es $o!e *oss ble so(!4es of e!!o!s t+an t+e CAH an# Inte!lan%(a%e t+eo!" #o. E!!o! Anal"s s s also s(44essf(l n #ent f" n% t+e so(!4e of t+ose e!!o!s 2+ 4+ t+e CAH lea'es (n4lass f e#. T+e e<a$*les f!o$ $" o2n #ata test f" t+e al!ea#" 0no2n fa4t t+at bot+ nte!l n%(al an# nt!al n%(al ne%at 'e t!ansfe! a44o(nt fo! t+e so(!4es of e!!o!s n L2 s*ea0e!s of En%l s+. RE)ERENCES /!o2n3 H. Do(%las =1:.9@ P! n4 *les of Lan%(a%e Lea!n n% an# Tea4+ n%. En%le2oo# Cl ffs? P!ent 4e5Hall Re%ents. D(la"3 He # C.3 /(!t3 -a! na I.3 an# I!as+en3 Ste*+en D. =1:.2@ Lan%(a%e T2o. Ne2 Yo!0? O<fo!# Un 'e!s t" P!ess. Ell s3 Ro# =1::&@ T+e St(#" of Se4on# Lan%(a%e A4D( s t on. O<fo!#? O<fo!# Un 'e!s t" P!ess. ) s a03 >a4e0 =1:.1@ Cont!ast 'e L n%( st 4s an# t+e Lan%(a%e Tea4+e!. Ne2 Yo!0? Pe!%a$on. G!8e%a3 >oa4+ $ =299,@ CRefle4t ons on Con4e*ts of En%l s+ In? >o(!nal fo! E(!ol n%( st 4s 23 &&562. >a$es3 Ca!l =1:.1@ Cont!ast 'e Anal"s s. Ha!lo2? Lon%$an. n E(!o*e1.

555 =1::.@ E!!o!s

n Lan%(a%e Lea!n n% an# Use. Lon#on? Lon%$an.

I!8es8o2s0 3 To$as8 P. =1::9@ Cont!ast n% Lan%(a%es? t+e S4o*e of Cont!ast 'e L n%( st 4s. /e!l n? -o(ton #e G!("te!. -4La(%+l n3 /a!!" =1:.7@ T+eo! es of Se4on# Lan%(a%e Lea!n n%. Lon#on? E#2a!# A!nol# P(bl s+e!s Lt#. Po2ell3 Ge!a nt =1::.@ CG+at s t+e Role of T!ansfe! n Inte!lan%(a%e1. De*a!t$ent of L n%( st 4s an# -o#e!n En%l s+ Lan%(a%e3 Lan4aste! Un 'e!s t". 26 De4. 2997. f+tt*?EE222.l n%.lan4s.a4.(0E%!o(*sE4! leE2o!0 n%*a*e!s.+t$g R 4+a!#s3 >a40 =1:7&@ E!!o! Anal"s s. Ha!lo2? Lon%$an. Se #l+ofe!3 /a!ba!a =299,@ CEn%l s+ as a L n%(a )!an4a1. In? ELT >o(!nal ,:E& =on5l ne@. 6 >(n. 299.. f+tt*?EEeltF.o<fo!#Fo(!nals.o!%E4% E!e*! ntE,:E&E33:.*#fg To2ell3 R 4+a!#3 an# Ha20 ns3 Ro%e! =1::&@ A**!oa4+es to Se4on# Lan%(a%e A4D( s t on. Cle'e#on? -(lt l n%(al -atte!s.