bacteria Characteristics Bacteria are grouped in a number of different ways.

Most bacteria are of one of three typical shapesrod-shaped (bacillus), round (coccus, e.g., streptococcus), and spiral (spirillum). An additional group, ibrios, appear as incomplete spirals. !he cytoplasm and plasma membrane of most bacterial cells are surrounded by a cell wall" further classification of bacteria is based on cell wall characteristics (see#ram$s stain). !hey can also be characteri%ed by their patterns of growth, such as the chains formed by streptococci. Many bacteria, chiefly the bacillus and spirillum forms, are motile, swimming about by whipli&e mo ements of flagella" other bacteria ha e rigid rodli&e protuberances called pili that ser e as tethers. 'ome bacteria (those &nown as aerobic forms) can function metabolically only in the presence of free or atmospheric o(ygen" others (anaerobic bacteria) cannot grow in the presence of free o(ygen but obtain o(ygen from compounds. )acultati e anaerobes can grow with or without free o(ygen" obligate anaerobes are poisoned by o(ygen. Bacteria$s menu 'tructures of cells *. Cell wall +. Cytoplasmic membrane ,. Chromosome -. .lasmid /. 0ibosome 1. )lagella 2. 3nclusion body 4. .ili 5. 6ndospore 0elati e functions *. .rotect cells against osmotic shoc& (most important) and physical damage +. 0egulation of substance transport into and out of cells. ,. Contain genome. -. Contain supplemental genetic information such as resistance to antibiotics, production of to(ins and tolerance to to(ic en ironment. /. !a&e part in protein synthesis. 1. Mo ement of cells. 2. Mineral storage of cells. 4. Attachment to host, bacterial mating. 5. !ough, heat resistance structure that help bacteria sur i e in ad erse conditions.

A..73CA!389' 8) BAC!603A 39 39:;'!0< A9: B38!6C=9878#< Bacteria are used in industry in a number of ways that generally e(ploit their natural metabolic capabilities. !hey are used in manufacture of foods and production of antibiotics, probiotics, drugs, accines, starter cultures, insecticides, en%ymes, fuels and sol ents. 3n addition, with genetic engineering technology, bacteria can be programmed to ma&e arious substances used in food science, agriculture and medicine. !he genetic systems of bacteria are the foundation of the biotechnology industry discussed below. <6A'! <east are unicellular fungi. !he precise classification is a field that uses the characteristics of the cell, ascospore and colony. .hysiological characteristics are also used to identify species. 8ne of the more well &nown characteristics is the ability to ferment sugars for the production of ethanol. Budding yeasts are true fungi of the phylum Ascomycetes, class 'accharomycetes (also called =emiascomycetes). !he true yeasts are separated into one main order 'accharomycetales. 'tructures and functions of yeast !he &inetochore is a &ey cell di ision organelle that enables highfidelity transmission of genetic information by coupling chromosomes to spindle microtubules during mitosis and meiosis. :espite its cytological description more than a century ago, remar&ably little information is a ailable on &inetochore function at a molecular le el. 0ecently, important ad ances elucidating the o erall organi%ation of &inetochores, as well as information about the structures and molecular mechanisms of &inetochore function, ha e been achie ed through a detailed analysis of the &inetochores of the budding yeast 'accharomyces cere isiae. =ere we re iew the current understanding of &inetochore function in budding yeast and draw comparisons to recent findings in other organisms. ;se 8f <east in Biotech <east belongs to traditional biotechnology. !his microorganism often ma&es people thin& of the world of ba&ing. =owe er, it is not only used in this field. BAC!6038.=A#6

Bacteriophage (phage) are obligate intracellular parasites that multiply inside bacteria by ma&ing use of some or all of the host biosynthetic machinery 'tructure Bacteriophage come in many different si%es and shapes. !he basic structural features of bacteriophages are illustrated in )igure *, which depicts the phage called !-. *. 'i%e - !- is among the largest phages" it is appro(imately +>> nm long and 4>-*>> nm wide. 8ther phages are smaller. Most phages range in si%e from +--+>> nm in length. +. =ead or Capsid - All phages contain a head structure which can ary in si%e and shape. 'ome are icosahedral (+> sides) others are filamentous. !he head or capsid is composed of many copies of one or more different proteins. 3nside the head is found the nucleic acid. !he head acts as the protecti e co ering for the nucleic acid. ,. !ail - Many but not all phages ha e tails attached to the phage head. !he tail is a hollow tube through which the nucleic acid passes during infection. !he si%e of the tail can ary and some phages do not e en ha e a tail structure. 3n the more comple( phages li&e !- the tail is surrounded by a contractile sheath which contracts during infection of the bacterium. At the end of the tail the more comple( phages li&e !- ha e a base plate and one or more tail fibers attached to it. !he base plate and tail fibers are in ol ed in the binding of the phage to the bacterial cell. 9ot all phages ha e base plates and tail fibers. 3n these instances other structures are in ol ed in binding of the phage particle to the bacterium. ;se of bacteriophage in biotech !hey ha e tail fibers which attach to the receptors on cell membranes and walls. !hey then ?in@ect? their :9A into the cell. !his :9A then integrates into the :9A of the host cell. 3t then either undergoes the lytic cycle, where it ma&es the cell produce copies of the phage and then e(plode, releasing more" or it does the lysogenic cycle, where the :9A integrates, and then goes dormant, not to be acti ated for phage replication until the cell is stressed a certain way. !his is great for genetic engineering because you can alter the phage to include what :9A you want integrated into the host cell. !he phage will then perform the transformation of :9A for you. !his process is called transduction.