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11/10/2013

1
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Constitutive Relationship for Viscous Fluids
For Newtonian fluids, such as water, the
constitutive relationship between the stress
tensor and the strain-rate tensor is simple:

Where is a constant called the coefficient of
viscosity.
This constitutive relationship preserves the
defining property of a fluid; that is, that any
small shear stress will produce strain.
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ij ij
c t 2 =
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Stress Tensor for Viscous Fluids
Now the stress tensor in terms of strains, and
then in terms of the velocity gradients is:

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|

\
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c
c
|
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|

\
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c
c
+
c
c
|
.
|

\
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c
c
+
c
c
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
=
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
z
v
y
v
z
v
x
v
z
v
y
v
z
v
y
v
x
v
y
v
x
v
z
v
x
v
y
v
x
v
z z
y
z x
z
y y y
x
z x
y
x x
zz zy zx
yz yy yx
xz xy xx
ij
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 2
c c c
c c c
c c c
t



|
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.
|

\
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c
c
|
|
.
|

\
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c
c
+
c
c
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
=
z
v
y
v
z
v
x
v
z
v
y
v
z
v
y
v
x
v
y
v
x
v
z
v
x
v
y
v
x
v
z z
y
z x
z
y y y
x
z x
y
x x




2
2
2
11/10/2013
2
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Newtons 2
nd
law for Viscous Fluids
We can now substitute this expression for the
stress tensor, into the expression for Newtons
2
nd
Law (the viscous forces term):

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\
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c
c
|
|
.
|

\
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c
c
+
c
c
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
V + V =
V + V =
z
v
y
v
z
v
x
v
z
v
y
v
z
v
y
v
x
v
y
v
x
v
z
v
x
v
y
v
x
v
P k g
P k g
Dt
v D
z z
y
z x
z
y y y
x
z x
y
x x
ij

t
2
2
2

Computational Fluid Dynamics


Newtons 2
nd
law for Viscous Fluids
By carrying out the divergence operator on the
stress tensor we get:
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\
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c
c
|
|
.
|

\
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c
c
+
c
c
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
- V
z
v
y
v
z
v
x
v
z
v
y
v
z
v
y
v
x
v
y
v
x
v
z
v
x
v
y
v
x
v
z z
y
z x
z
y y y
x
z x
y
x x




2
2
2
|
|
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|
.
|

\
|
(

c
c
c
c
+
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
(

|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
(

c
c
c
c
+
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
(

|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
(

c
c
c
c
=
z
v
z y
v
z
v
y x
v
z
v
x
y
v
z
v
z y
v
y x
v
y
v
x
x
v
z
v
z x
v
y
v
y x
v
x
z z
y
z x
z
y y y
x
z x
y
x x



2
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11/10/2013
3
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Newtons 2
nd
Law for Viscous Fluids
This can be expanded to produce second
derivatives and cross-derivatives:

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.
|

\
|
c c
c
+
c c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
c c
c
+
c c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
c c
c
+
c c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z y
v
z x
v
y
v
x
v
z
v
z y
v
y x
v
z
v
x
v
y
v
z x
v
y x
v
z
v
y
v
x
v
y
x z z z
z x
y y y
z
y
x x x
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2



Computational Fluid Dynamics
Newtons 2
nd
Law for Viscous Fluids
Finally, we separate the first term in each row
and rearrange as follows:

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\
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c
c
+
c c
c
+
c c
c
+ +
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
c c
c
+
c
c
+
c c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
c c
c
+
c c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
z
v
z y
v
z x
v
z
v
y
v
x
v
z y
v
y
v
y x
v
z
v
y
v
x
v
z x
v
y x
v
x
v
z
v
y
v
x
v
z
y
x z z z
z
y
x
y y y
z
y
x x x x



11/10/2013
4
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Newtons 2
nd
Law for Viscous Fluids
The last three terms in each row can now be
expressed as the partial derivative of a sum:





The sum in brackets is the divergence of the velocity:
It is zero for incompressible flow.


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\
|
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
v
y
v
x
v
z z
v
y
v
x
v
z
v
y
v
x
v
y z
v
y
v
x
v
z
v
y
v
x
v
x z
v
y
v
x
v
z
y
x z z z
z
y
x
y y y
z
y
x x x x



2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
z
v
y
v
x
v
v
z
y
x
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V

Computational Fluid Dynamics
Newtons 2
nd
Law for Viscous Fluids
Therefore the last three terms in each row drop
out and we end up with the three components
of the viscous force vector:
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.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
z
v
y
v
x
v
z
v
y
v
x
v
z
v
y
v
x
v
z
v
y
v
x
v
z
v
y
v
x
v
z
v
y
v
x
v
z z z
y y y
x x x
z z z
y y y
x x x




11/10/2013
5
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Newtons 2
nd
Law for Viscous Fluids
For example, the viscous force per unit volume
in the x-direction is:


The term in the parentheses is often
expressed via another vector operator called
the Laplacian defined as:


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\
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c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
2
2
z
v
y
v
x
v
x x x

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
z
f
y
f
x
f
f
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Newtons 2
nd
Law for Viscous Fluids
We now have the last piece to the Navier-Stokes
equations.
Substituting the expression for the divergence of the
stress tensor we arrive at the final expression showing
the balance of forces as per Newtons 2
nd
law:



These three equations (one for each direction) are
known as the Navier-Stokes equations.
They apply to incompressible Newtonian fluids that
follow the constitutive relationship:

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v P k g
Dt
v D

2
V + V =
ij ij
c t 2 =
11/10/2013
6
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Newtons 2
nd
Law for Viscous Fluids
Again, this equation is deceptively concise; it
can be written out as:

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(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
(
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
z
v
y
v
x
v
z
P
k g
z
v
v
y
v
v
x
v
v
t
v
z
v
y
v
x
v
y
P
z
v
v
y
v
v
x
v
v
t
v
z
v
y
v
x
v
x
P
z
v
v
y
v
v
x
v
v
t
v
z z z z
z
z
y
z
x
z
y y y y
z
y
y
y
x
y
x x x x
z
x
y
x
x
x


Computational Fluid Dynamics


Example
Couette Flow
Set up the equations and boundary conditions
to solve for the following problem at steady
state and fully developed:

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11/10/2013
7
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Solution
Only 2D Steady Navier Stokes:






First eliminate all the t and y components.
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(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
(
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
z
v
y
v
x
v
z
P
k g
z
v
v
y
v
v
x
v
v
t
v
z
v
y
v
x
v
y
P
z
v
v
y
v
v
x
v
v
t
v
z
v
y
v
x
v
x
P
z
v
v
y
v
v
x
v
v
t
v
z z z z
z
z
y
z
x
z
y y y y
z
y
y
y
x
y
x x x x
z
x
y
x
x
x


Computational Fluid Dynamics


Next eliminate all the Vz terms due to
impermeability of walls.
Fluid can not pass through walls so there is no
flow in the z direction.

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(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
(

c
c
+
c
c
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
(

c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
z
v
x
v
z
P
k g
z
v
v
x
v
v
z
v
x
v
x
P
z
v
v
x
v
v
z z z
z
z
x
x x x
z
x
x

11/10/2013
8
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Solution
If the flow is fully developed the velocity in the
flow direction doesnt change.
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z
P
k g
z
v
x
v
x
P
x
v
v
x x x
x
c
c
=
(

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
(

c
c


0
2
2
2
2
z
P
k g
z
v
x
P
x
c
c
=
(

c
c
=
c
c

2
2
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Example
The velocity profile for fully developed laminar
flow between two parallel plates separated by
distance 2b is given by
u
max
is at y = 0.
Determine the shear force per unit volume on a
fluid element in the x-direction.
Find the maximum value of this quantity for this
flow, when b =1 m, u
max
=2 m/s and =10
-1
N s/m
2

(SAE-10W).
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|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
max
b
y
1 u u
u
max

x
y
11/10/2013
9
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Solution
Given:
1. Velocity Profile u(y)
At y = 0, u = u
max

At y = b, u = 0
Find:
1. Shear Force,

2. The maximum value of the result of the above.

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55
z y
zx
yx
c
t c
+
c
t c
u
max

Computational Fluid Dynamics
Solution
Governing equation: Naviers equations x-
component, with


Shear force per unit volume along the x-
direction is given by
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56
y
u
y
u
x
v
yx
c
c
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
= t 0
z
u
x
w
zx
=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
= t
0
0
0



( )
2
2
0
y
u
z y
u
y z y
zx yx
c
c
=
c
c
+ |
.
|

\
|
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c

t t
|
.
|

\
|
=
c
c
2 max
2
b
y
u
y
u
2
max
2
2
2
b
u
y
u
=
c
c
constant 2
2
max
= =
c
c
+
c
c
b
u
z y
zx
yx

t
t
11/10/2013
10
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Solution
Maximum value =
N/m
3

This value is fixed everywhere in the channel.

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4 .
) 1 (
) 2 (
) 10 ( 2
1
=

Computational Fluid Dynamics
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
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Computational Fluid Dynamics 59
Conservation of energy
First law of thermodynamics:
rate of change of energy of a fluid particle is equal
to the rate of heat addition plus the rate of work
done.
Rate of increase of energy is DE/Dt.
Energy, E = i + (u
2
+v
2
+w
2
)/2.
Here, i is the internal (thermal energy).
(u
2
+v
2
+w
2
)/2 is the kinetic energy.


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Computational Fluid Dynamics 60
Conservation of energy
Potential energy (gravitation) is usually treated
separately and included as a source term.
We will derive the energy equation by setting
the total derivative equal to the change in
energy as a result of work done by viscous
stresses and the net heat conduction.
Next we will subtract the kinetic energy
equation to arrive at a conservation equation
for the internal energy.
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11/10/2013
12
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Work done by surface stresses in x-direction:













Conservation of energy
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0
-
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61
x
z
y
( )
z y x
x
up
up o o o |
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
2
1
.
( )
z y x
x
up
up o o o |
.
|

\
|
c
c

2
1
.
( )
z y z
z
u
u
zx
zx
o o o
t
t |
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
2
1
.
( )
y x z
z
u
u
zx
zx
o o o
t
t |
.
|

\
|
c
c

2
1
.
( )
z x y
y
u
u
yx
yx
o o o
t
t
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c

2
1
.
( )
z x y
y
u
u
yx
yx
o o o
t
t
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
2
1
.
( )
z y x
x
u
u
xx
xx
o o o
t
t |
.
|

\
|
c
c

2
1
.
( )
z y x
x
u
u
xx
xx
o o o
t
t |
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
2
1
.
Computational Fluid Dynamics 62
Conservation of energy
The total rate of work done by surface stresses
is calculated as follows:
For work done by x-components of stresses add all
terms in the previous slide.
Do the same for the y- and z-components.
Divide by oxoyoz to get the work done per unit
volume by the surface stresses:

z
w
y
w
x
w
z
v
y
v
x
v
z
u
y
u
x
u
p div
zz
yz
xz
zy yy
xy
zx
yx
xx
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
) (
) (
) (
) ( ) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
t
t
t
t t
t
t
t
t
u
1
0
-
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11/10/2013
13
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Energy flux due to heat conduction












Conservation of energy
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63
x
z
y
y x z
z
q
q
z
z
o o o )
2
1
. (
c
c
+
y x z
z
q
q
z
z
o o o )
2
1
. (
c
c

z y x
x
q
q
x
x
o o o )
2
1
. (
c
c
+
z y x
x
q
q
x
x
o o o )
2
1
. (
c
c

z x y
y
q
q
y
y
o o o )
2
1
. (
c
c
+
z x y
y
q
q
y
y
o o o )
2
1
. (
c
c

Computational Fluid Dynamics 64


Conservation of energy
Add all terms and divide by oxoyoz gives the net rate of heat transfer to
the fluid particle per unit volume:



Fouriers law of heat conduction relates the heat flux to the local
temperature gradient:



In vector form:
Thus, energy flux due to conduction:


This is the final form used in the energy equation.
q div
z
q
y
q
x
q
z
y
x
=
c
c

c
c

c
c

z
T
k q
y
T
k q
x
T
k q
z y x
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
=
T grad k = q
) ( T grad k div div = q
1
0
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11/10/2013
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Computational Fluid Dynamics 65
Conservation of energy
Setting the total derivative for the energy in a fluid
particle equal to the previously derived work and
energy flux terms, results in the following energy
equation:






Note that we also added a source term S
E
that includes
sources (potential energy, sources due to heat
production from chemical reactions, etc.).
E
zz
yz
xz
zy yy
xy
zx
yx
xx
S T grad k div
z
u
y
w
x
w
z
v
y
v
x
v
z
u
y
u
x
u
p div
Dt
DE
+ +
(

(
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+ =
) (
) (
) (
) (
) ( ) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) (
t
t
t
t t
t
t
t
t
u
1
0
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Computational Fluid Dynamics 67
Conservation of energy
To derive a conservation equation for the kinetic
energy of the fluid multiply
the u-momentum equation by u,
the v-momentum equation by v, and
the w-momentum equation by w.
Then add the results together to obtain the
following equation for the kinetic energy:
M
zz
yz
xz
zy yy xy
zx
yx
xx
z y x
w
z y x
v
z y x
u p grad
Dt
w v u D
S u
u
.
.
)] ( [
2 2 2
2
1
+ |
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+ |
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+ =
+ +
t
t
t
t t t
t
t
t

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11/10/2013
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Computational Fluid Dynamics 68
Conservation of energy
Internal energy equation
Subtract the kinetic energy equation from the energy
equation.
Define a new source term for the internal energy
S
i
= S
E
- u.S
M
. This results in:
i
zz yz xz zy yy
xy zx yx xx
S T grad k div
z
u
y
w
x
w
z
v
y
v
x
v
z
u
y
u
x
u
div p
Dt
Di
+ +
(

(
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+ =
) (
t t t t t
t t t t u
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Computational Fluid Dynamics 69
Conservation of energy
Enthalpy equation
An often used alternative form of the energy equation
is the total enthalpy equation.
Specific enthalpy h = i + p/.
Total enthalpy h
0
= h + (u
2
+v
2
+w
2
) = E + p/.



0
0
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
yx xy
xx zx
yy zy yz
xz zz
h
h
div h div k grad T
t
u v
u u
x y z x
v v w
w u
y z x y z
S


t t
t t
t t t
t t
c
+ =
c
c c c c
+ + + +

c c c c

c c c ( c c
+ + + + +
(
c c c c c

+
u
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11/10/2013
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Computational Fluid Dynamics 70
Equations of state
Fluid motion is described by five partial differential equations for mass,
momentum, and energy.
Amongst the unknowns are four thermodynamic variables: , p, i, and
T.
We will assume thermodynamic equilibrium, i.e. that the time it takes
for a fluid particle to adjust to new conditions is short relative to the
timescale of the flow.
We add two equations of state using the two state variables and T:
p=p(,T) and i=i(,T).
For a perfect gas, these become: p= RT and i=C
v
T.
At low speeds (e.g. Ma < 0.3), the fluids can be considered
incompressible. There is no linkage between the energy equation, and
the mass and momentum equation. We then only need to solve for
energy if the problem involves heat transfer.

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Computational Fluid Dynamics 71
Viscous stresses
A model for the viscous stresses t
ij
is required.
We will express the viscous stresses as functions of the
local deformation rate (strain rate) tensor.
There are two types of deformation:
Linear deformation rates due to velocity gradients.
Elongating stress components (stretching).
Shearing stress components.
Volumetric deformation rates due to expansion or compression.
All gases and most fluids are isotropic: viscosity is a scalar.
Some fluids have anisotropic viscous stress properties,
such as certain polymers and dough. We will not discuss
those here.
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11/10/2013
17
Computational Fluid Dynamics 74
Viscous dissipation
Substituting the stresses in the internal energy equation
and rearranging results as follows:



Here u is the viscous dissipation term. This term is
always positive and describes the conversion of
mechanical energy to heat.
i
S T grad k div div p i div
t
i
energy Internal + u + + = +
c
c
) ( ) (
) (
: u u

2
2
2
2
2
2
2
) (
3
2
2
u div
y
w
z
v
x
w
z
u
x
v
y
u
z
w
y
v
x
u

|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+

(
(

|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+ |
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
= u
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Computational Fluid Dynamics
SUMMARY
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75
11/10/2013
18
Computational Fluid Dynamics 76
Equations in conservation form
0 ) ( : = +
c
c
u

div
t
Mass
Mx
S u grad div
x
p
u div
t
u
momentum x + +
c
c
= +
c
c
) ( ) (
) (
:

u
My
S v grad div
y
p
v div
t
v
momentum y + +
c
c
= +
c
c
) ( ) (
) (
:

u
Mz
S w grad div
z
p
w div
t
w
momentum z + +
c
c
= +
c
c
) ( ) (
) (
:

u
i
S T grad k div div p i div
t
i
energy Internal + u + + = +
c
c
) ( ) (
) (
: u u

T C i and RT p gas perfect for g e


T i i and T p p state of Equations
v
= =
= =


: . .
) , ( ) , ( :
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Computational Fluid Dynamics 77
The system of equations is now closed, with seven equations for seven
variables: pressure, three velocity components, enthalpy, temperature, and
density.
There are significant commonalities between the various equations. Using a
general variable |, the conservative form of all fluid flow equations can usefully
be written in the following form:




Or, in words:



General transport equations
( )
( ) ( )
|
| |
|
S grad div div
t
+ I = +
c
c
u
Rate of increase
of | of fluid
element
Net rate of flow
of | out of
fluid element
(convection)
Rate of increase
of | due to
diffusion
Rate of increase
of | due to
sources
= + +
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11/10/2013
19
Computational Fluid Dynamics 78
Integral form
The key step of the finite volume method is to integrate the differential equation
shown in the previous slide, and then to apply Gauss divergence theorem,
which for a vector a states:


This then leads to the following general conservation equation in integral form:





This is the actual form of the conservation equations solved by finite volume
based CFD programs to calculate the flow pattern and associated scalar fields.
} }
=
A CV
dA dV div a n a
dV S dA grad dA dV
t CV A A CV
} } } }
+ I = +
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
|
| | | ) ( ) ( n u n
Rate of
increase
of |
Net rate of
decrease of | due
to convection
across boundaries
Net rate of
increase of | due
to diffusion
across boundaries
Net rate of
creation
of |
= + +
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