CONVECTION

INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapters during the discussion of conduction problems
convection was applied as
a boundar condition onl! The basic mechanism of convection was not
discussed so far! In this
chapter it is attempted to e"plain the basic mechanism of convection! In
industrial processes
involving heat transfer# convection plas a ver important role! $hen heat is to
be transferred
from one fluid to another through a barrier convection is involved on both sides
of the barrier! In
most cases the main resistance to heat flow is b convection!
The process of heat transfer between a surface and a fluid flowing in
contact with it is called convection!
%enerall the convection is classified in two wa &'! Natural convection ('!
)orced convection
Natural convection*+ If the flow is caused b the buoant forces generated b
heating or cooling of the fluid the process is called as natural or free convection.
Forced Convection:- If the flow is caused b an e"ternal device li,e a pump or
blower# it is termed as forced convection!
In the previous chapters the heat flu" b convection was determined using
e-uation!

( )
x s
q hA t t

...................&!
)or the analsis of convection we can applied the law of conservation of mass#
)irst law of thermodnamics and Newton/s laws of motion are applied to the
sstem!
0eat transfer coefficient depends upon the number of fluid properties li,e
densit
( )
viscosit
( )
specific heat
( ) 1
and thermal conductivit of the
surface
( )
!ii'! The flow velocit and the shape of the surface !This leads to the
situation that analticall derived e-uations are applicable onl to a limited
e"tent! 2ractical correlations obtained through e"periments are discussed in the
ne"t chapters! 2ropert table for various fluids available in handboo,s is
necessar for obtaining numerical value for convective heat transfer coefficient!
3EC04NI53 O) CONVECTION
In conduction there is onl energ flow in the direction of heat
flu" but the mass in the direction of heat flow remains same!
6ut in case of convection both mass and energ transfer ta,es
place and the heat transfer coefficient and heat flu" ver with
point to point in the direction of motion! 4s the mass transfer
ta,es place so the rate of heat energ transfer as compared to
the conduction is also higher!
The velocit variation and the temperature variation at a point
in the flow of a fluid over a surface are shown in )ig!&!

)ig!&! Velocit and temperature variation of a point in a fluid
flowing over a surface# laminar flow# plate hotter!
$hen the fluid is flowing over the surface the heat receive b
conduction! This is transferred b diffusion and mass
movement to the fluid in free stream!
Considering the conduction between the surface laer the heat
flu" is given b the e-uation!
t
q k
y

|
0 y
3

..........!! (
$here 7 is the thermal conductivit of the fluid! Comparing the
e-uation & and ( we get the convection heat transfer
coefficient
h
is given b

( )
0 y
s
t
k
y
t t
h

.........!8
4s the values of thermal conductivit of the fluid and the
temperatures of the surface and the fluid
s
t and t

#are ,nown the

value of convection coefficient can be determined if the
temperature gradient at the surface is ,nown! The model
postulated is used to solve for temperature as a function of so
that the temperature gradient can be calculated! The gradient
is influenced b the fluid stream and the surface! 6oundar
laer theor is applied for the determination of the gradient!
THE CONCEPT OF E!OC"T# $O%N&'(# !'#E(
)rom the above e-uation when we will calculate the heat
transfer coefficient the ,e for the determination of the
temperature gradient in the fluid at the solid+fluid interface! It
can be solve b using the boundar laer concept
( )
'
u = f(y), t= f y
!The simplest situation is the flow over a flat
plate! The fluid enters with a uniform velocit of
u

as shown in
the fig!!(! $hen fluid particles touch the surface of the plate
the velocit of these particles is reduced to 9ero due to viscous
forces! These particles in turn retard the velocit in the ne"t
laer# but as these two are fluid laers# the velocit is not
reduced to 9ero in the ne"t laer! This retardation process
continues along the laers until at some distance the scale of
retardation becomes negligible and the velocit of the fluid is
ver nearl the same as free stream velocit
u

at this level!
The value of
y
where velocit
0.99 u u

is called the
hdrodnamic boundar laer thic,ness and is denoted b
smbol

! The velocit profile in the boundar laer depicts the

variation of u with # through the boundar laer! This is shown
in )ig!(!
)ig (! Velocit boundar laer on a flat
plate!
The model characterises the flow as consisting of two distinct
regions :i' a thin boundar laer in which the velocit gradients
and shear stresses are large and :ii' the remaining region
outside of the boundar laer where the velocit gradients and
shear stresses are negligibl small! This is also called potential
flow! The boundar laer thic,ness increases along the
direction of flow over a flat plate as effects of viscous drag is
felt farther into the free stream! This is called the velocit
boundar laer model as this describes the variation of velocit
in the boundar laer! The direct application of velocit
boundar laer is in fluid mechanics for the determination of
the wall shear stress and then the dimensionless drag
coefficient!
THE()'! $O%N&'(# !'#E(
Velocit boundar laer automaticall forms when a real fluid
flows over a surface# but thermal boundar laer will develop
onl when the fluid temperature is different from the surface
temperature! Considering the flow over a flat plate with fluid
temperature of T
;
and surface temperature T
s
the temperature
of the fluid is T
;
all over the flow till the fluid reaches the
leading edge of the surface! The fluid particles coming in
contact with the surface is slowed down to 9ero velocit and
the fluid laer reaches e-uilibrium with the surface and reaches
temperature Ts! These particles in turn heat up the ne"t laer
and a temperature gradient develops! 4t a distance # the
temperature gradient becomes negligibl small! The distance
at which the ratio <:T
s
= T'>:T
s
= T
;
'? @ A!BB is defined as
thermal boundar laer thic,ness Ct! The flow can now be
considered to consist of two regions! 4 thin laer of thic,ness Ct
in which the temperature gradient is large and the remaining
flow where the temperature gradient is negligible! 4s the
distance from the leading edge increases the effect of heat
penetration increases and the thermal boundar laer
thic,ness increases! The heat flow from the surface to the fluid
can be calculated using the temperature gradient at the
surface!

Thermal boundar laer on a flat plate!
!')"N'( 'N& T%($%!ENT F!O*
The formation of the boundar laer starts at the leading edge!
In the starting region the flow is well ordered! The streamlines
along which particles move is regular! The velocit at an point
remains stead! This tpe of flow is defined as laminar flow!
There is no macroscopic mi"ing between laers! The
momentum or heat transfer is mainl at the molecular diffusion
level! 4fter some distance in the flow# macroscopic mi"ing is
found to occur! Darge particles of fluid are found to move from
one laer to another! The motion of particles becomes irregular!
The velocit at an location varies with respect to a mean
value! The flow is said to be turbulent! Due to the mi"ing the
boundar laer thic,ness is larger! The energ flow rate is also
higher! The velocit and temperature profiles are flatter# but
the gradient at the surface is steeper due to the same reason!
This variation is shown in )ig!
$uilding up of boundar+ la+er over a flat plate,!a-inar,Turbulent
FO(CE& 'N& F(EE CONECT"ON
$hen heat transfer occurs between a fluid and a surface# if the flow is caused b
a fan# blower or pump or a forcing Eet# the process is called forced convection!
The boundar laer development is similar to the descriptions in the previous
section! $hen the temperature of a surface immersed in a stagnant fluid is
higher than that of the fluid# the laers near the surface get heated and the
densit decreases in these laers! The surrounding denser fluid e"erts buoant
forces causing fluid to flow upwards near the surface! This process is called free
convection flow and heating is limited to a laer# as shown in )ig!! The heat
transfer rate will be lower as the velocities and temperature gradients are lower!
If the surface temperature is lower# the flow will be in the downward direction
Free convection boundar+ la+er near a vertical surface.
)ETHO&. %.E& "N CONECT"ON .T%&"E.
The important methods of analsis used in convection studies are
&! 4naltical method which can again be subdivied as :i' )ormulating and solving
the differential e-uation# also ,nown as e"act method :ii' )ormulating and
solving integral e-uations using assumed profiles for velocit and temperature=
:appro"imate analsis' :iii' Numerical finite element method
(! Dimensional analsis
8! 4nalogical methods which appl solutions from one transport phenomenon to
another
F! Empirical correlations developed from e"perimental results guided b the
results of analtical methods and dimensional analsis!
'nal+tical -ethod: )ormulation of differential e-uations * $e have seen that to
solve for the shear stress and friction coefficient the velocit gradient at the
surface has to be determined! 5imilarl to solve for the convection coefficient the
temperature gradient at the surface has to be determined! This can be done b
considering control volume element in the boundar laer and appling the law
of conservation of mass# Newtons second law and first law of thermodnamics!
The resulting differential e-uations are solved for the given boundar to obtain u
@ f:' and T @ f&:'! The gradients can be obtained b differentiation of these
functions! 4s the temperature and velocit gradients are negligible beond the
respective boundar laers# it is found sufficient to restrict the solution to the
boundar laer! This also provides a boundar condition re-uired for the solution!
The control volume in the boundar laer considered and the various -uantities
flowing in and out of the element are shown in fig!
Control volu-e considered for derivation of continuit+
e/uation.
)irst the law of conservation of mass is applied to the volume of section d"# d
and depth unit! The application of the law leads to the statement below* The
net mass flow through the bounding surfaces of the volume @ mass stored in the
volume! Considering a time interval of dG#
)low through face 46 @ Hu d ! & ! dG
)low through face CD @ H u!d!&!d G I :J>J"' :H u d!&' d" dG
)low through face 4D @ Hv d"!&! d G
)low through face 6C @ Hv d"!&! dG I:J>J' :H K d!&' d dG
Ta,ing the difference# Net mass flow @ J>J" :H u' d" d dG IJ>J :H K' d" d dG
3ass stored in the volume @ d"!d!&!dH
simplifing# we get
( ) ( ) u v
x y

+


)or stead flow# no storage is possible#
( ) ( )
0
u v
x y

+


)or incompressible flow or constant densit conditions H @ constant
( ) ( )
0
u v
x y

+

This e-uation is ,nown as continuit e-uation
3omentum e-uation* Newtons second law of motion is applied to the control
volume! The statement resulting from the application is " directional forces @
rate of change of " directional momentum! In boundar laer analsis we are
interested in the " directional faces! The resulting e-uation is ,nown as
momentum e-uation :for " direction' The flow -uantities and forces are shown in
)ig
"+directional momentum flow through the control volume!
4gain an element of unit depth is considered! The pressure and bod forces are
neglected as these do not contribute significantl for the boundar laer flow
discussed!
Considering unit depth# the " directional momentum flow through various faces
is listed below! :Constant densit conditions'
face 46* u :H u d!&'
face CD*
. . .1
u u
u u dy
x x

_ _
+ +


, ,

face 4D* u :H v d"!&'
face 6C*
. . .1
v v
v v dx
y y

_ _
+ +


, ,

Neglecting higher order terms# the net momentum flow is given b

u u u v
u dxdy u dxdy v dxdy u dxdy
x x y y


+ + +


6 rearrange them we get
u u u v
u dxdy v dxdy u dxdy
x y x y

_
+ + +


,
4s
( ) ( )
0
u v
x y

+

as per the continuit e-uation# the net momentum flow is
e-ual to
u u
u dxdy v dxdy
x y


+


The net surface shear forces in the " direction is e-ual to
u
dydx
y y

_


,

Rearranging#
2
2
u u u
u v v
x y y

+


$here K is the ,inematic viscosit e-ual to L>H! This is also called momentum
diffusivit! These two e-uations can be written in the dimensionless form b
defining the following terms!

, , ,
x y u v
x y u v
L L u u




Then the dimensionless forms are
( ) ( )
0
u
v
x y

+


2
2
1
Re
L
u u v
u v
x y y




+


This also indicates that Renolds number ReD plas an important role in boundar
laer flow! E-uation :M!N' for coefficient of friction# Cf similarl can be e"pressed
as
0
2
Re
fx
L
y
u
C
y

,

The continuit e-uation and momentum e-uation have to be solved
simultaneousl to obtain the velocit profile in the boundar laer! This leads to
the determination of boundar laer thic,ness and coefficient of friction# through
velocit gradient!
These e-uations are solved b first defining a stream function O :"# ' that
automaticall satisfies the continuit e-uation

u and v
y x



Introducing a new variable
u
y
vx

$e can let
( ) vxu f

1
]

where f:P' denotes a dimensionless stream function

( ) ( )
.
d f
u u
y y d

( ) ( )
( )
1
.
2
d f
vu
v f
x x d

1
]

E"pressing the partial differentials in terms of P and substituting in the e-uation
a nonlinear ordinar differential e-uation is obtained

( )
( ) ( )
2 3
2 3
. 2 0
d f d f
f
d d

1 1
] ]
+

The boundar conditions to be applied are
f:P' @ A and
( ) ( )
0
d f
d

when
( ) ( )
1,
d f
d

The e-uation was numericall solved b 6lasius in &BAQ! The results show that
when
u
u

is plotted against
( )
Re
x
u
x
a single curve results for the velocit profile!
Two significant conclusions are arrived at from the 6lasius solution!
The ratio
u
u

reaches a value of A!BB at

( )
Re 5
x
y
x


4s per the definition of boundar laer thic,ness @ C at this condition! This
leads to the ver important relation
5
Re
x
x
x


The other result is that the slope at @ A for the velocit profile was calculated
as A!88(!
$hen applied to the graph!
The coefficient of friction is not directl involved in heat transfer! Dater this
-uantit is related to Nusselt number using analog between heat transfer and
momentum transfer! This -uantit is more convenientl measurable b
e"perimental methods# compared to heat flow measurement! 0ence coefficient
proves ver useful in heat transfer studies! 3ood diagram is a source for the
values coefficient of friction!
ENERGY EQUATION

This e-uation is obtained b appling the first law of thermodnamics to the
element in the boundar laer as shown in )ig! The specific heat is denoted b c!
Energy flow through the elemental control volume.


Considering unit depth and neglecting viscous wor,# the application of the first
law leads to the + under stead conditions# the heat flow in @ heat flow out! The
energ flow with the mass flow through various faces is*
face AB*
. . .1 u cTdy

)ace CD*
.1
u T
u u dx T dy
x x

_ _
+ +


, ,
face DA*
. . . .1 c v T dx

)ace 6C*
2
2
1
Re
T T T
u v
x y Pr y




+


. .1
v T
c v dy T dy dx
y y

_ _
+ +


, ,
The net energ flow with the mass is given b :neglecting higher order terms
T u T v
cu dxdy cT dxdy cv dxdy cT dxdy
x x y y


+ + +

( )
T T u v
cu dxdy cv dxdy cT dxdy
x y x y


+ + +

The third term is 9ero as the -uantit within the brac,et is 9ero!
The energ conducted into the volume along the " direction is negligible!
5umming the heat conducted through face 4D and 6C# the net heat flow b
conduction is

2
2
. .1
T
k dx dy
y

5umming up we get e-uation ,nown as energ e-uation

2
2
T T T
u v
x y y

+

The non dimensional form of the e-uation is obtained b defining

S
S
T T
T
T T

2
2
1
Re
T T T
u v
x y Pr y




+

This e-uation indicates that 2randtl number influences the heat transfer situation
in
addition to Renolds number! The similarit between the momentum and energ
e-uations is
obvious!
If R @ v# then we can sa that the velocit profile calculated will directl appl
for the
temperature profile R @ v means 2r @ &!
6ut this is not the case as 2randtl number have higher values for li-uids! The
solutions for temperature profiles in laminar flow obtained b 2ohlhausen is
shown plotted in )ig
Dimensionless temperature distributions in a fluid flowing over a heated plate for
various 2randtl numbers!
&i-ensionless te-perature distribution for la-inar flow over a heated
plate at unifor- te-perature
&")EN."ON'! 'N'!#.".
$hen more than three parameters influence a problem it becomes ver difficult
to analse the effect of each on the problem! It is found desirable to group these
parameters into dimensionless parameters so that the number of variables can
be reduced to three! In this attempt to formulate dimensionless groups the S=
theorem proposed b 6uc,ingham is useful! The theorem states that if there are
m phsical -uantities involved in a problem re-uiring n primar dimensions to
e"press them# then the number of independent dimensionless groups that can
be formed is e-ual to :m=n'! In case there are seven -uantities and four
dimensions# it is possible to group these a sS& @ f:S(# S8' where S&# S( and S8
are dimensionless groups! The dimensional analsis aids in the identification of
the groups! This approach provides a method to represent or correlate
e"perimental results! This method does not lead to e"act functional relationship
and it also does not ensure that all the variables are correctl chosen! )luid
mechanics and 0eat transfer studies involve a large number of dimensionless
parameters li,e Renolds number# Nusselt number etc which have been first
identified using this method! 4lmost all empirical correlations are based on these
parameters so identified.
CONECT"E HE'T T('N.FE( Practical Correlations - Flow Over
.urfaces
"NT(O&%CT"ON
In the previous chapter the basics of convection was discussed and the methods
of analsis were enumerated# correlations were obtained for laminar flow over
flat plate at uniform temperature# starting from basic principles and using the
concept of boundar laer! The application of these correlations are limited!
0owever these e-uations provide a method of correlation of e"perimental results
and e"tension of these e-uations to practical situations of more comple" nature!
Though the basic dimensionless numbers used remain the same# the constants
and power indices are found to var with ranges of these parameters and
geometries! In this chapter it is proposed to list the various tpes of boundaries#
ranges of parameters and the e"perimental correlations found suitable to deal
with these situations# as far as flow over surfaces li,e flat plates# clinders#
spheres and tube ban0s are concerned.
F!O* OE( F!'T P!'TE.
In this chapter additional practical correlations are introduced! Though several
tpes of boundar conditions ma e"ist# these can be appro"imated to three
basic tpes! These are :i' constant wall temperature# :as ma be obtained in
evaporation# condensation etc!# phase change at a specified pressure' :ii'
constant heat flu"# as ma be obtained b electrical strip tpe of heating and :iii'
flow with neither of these -uantities remaining constant# as when two fluids ma
be flowing on either side of the plate! Distinct correlations are available for
constant wall temperature and constant heat flu"! 6ut for the third case it ma
be necessar to appro"imate to one of the above two cases!
!&!&! !a-inar flow* The condition is that the Renolds number should be less
than T U &AT or as ma be stated otherwise! )or the condition that the plate
temperature is constant the following e-uations are valid with fluid propert
values ta,en at the film temperature
0drodnamic boundar laer thic,ness