Section 5 JOHN SYMONDS. Fellw Enginer (Retr), Ovante Dvion, Westinghouse Electric Caporation, J.P. MIDOSIC Regent Prafssr Emvrits of Mecanial Engineering, Georgia lstute of Thal HAROLD V. HAWKINS Late Manager, Pract Standards and Sevies, Calumus MKinnwa (Caparation, Tonawanda, NY. DONALD D. DODGE Supervisor (Retired), Product Quallty and neton Tena Manufacturing Develpment, Fard Matar Campy 5.1 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS. by John Symonds, Expanded by Stal ‘52 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS yi P Vidosie Cink Se 53 PIPELINE FLEXURE STRESSES by Harold V Hawains 54 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING ‘by Donald D. Dodge Strength of Materials5.1. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS by John Symonds, Expanded by Staff NG ll, Temowbeaks “Stent of Mee” pI Van Nowra yk () Pcty and Mom Met Fermi Tecboloy.” Ehevir SSTRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAMS The Stess-Stain Curve The cnginecrng tensile suese-staincuve ‘sclbained by state loding of standard spon, that by appig the load slowly enough dat all pars ofthe specimen ae in equim any isan The curve usually obtained by eonvoling he loading fate inthe tensile machine, ASTM Standards require a loading rate not exceeding 100,000 tbin® (70 kgFmm)nin An atemate mth of fsbuaining the curve isto specify the sta at asthe independent vi bein which ease the loading fates continuously adjusted a maintain the required suai at A stain eate of 0.0 invin(ia) is commonly use. es measured usally by an exteasomctratached tothe gage length ofthe specimen. Figure 5.1 shows several stes-suain curves. Fig. $1.1. Comparative stessstain diagrams (1) Soft bass: (2) low carbon ‘ec (3) ad bone) oli tl (3) media bon sel, antl (6) For most engineering materia, the cuve will have an intl Hines lasti egion (Fig. 5.2) in which defomation is reversible and time- Independent. Th slope in this region is Young's modal . The prope Sona ela ie (PEL) isthe point wha the curve stat to deviate fom sualht line. The eae ii (quently indistingushable fom PEL) is the point on the curve beyond which plastic deformation is present afer eease of the Toa. Ifthe sues i ineoase furor, the Sess-stain cuve departs more and more fom te saight line. Use Toading the specimen at point (Fig. 5.2), the parton UY is linear and is essentially parallel tothe orginal line OX" The horizontal ds tance Oi calle the permanent set coresponding tothe stress at. This the bass for he onstruction ofthe abitary yi temp, To determine the yield strength, a staight ine AX" is dan parallel tothe inal elastic line C2" but displaced fom it by an aybitary value of permanent stun, The permanent stain commonly used is 020 percent forthe original gage length. The interscetion of hs line With the curve ‘stemines te sess valu called the yield stength. In reporting the Yield stength, she amount of permacht set should be specied. The fubivary yield stengh is used especially for thase materials not ex- hiiing a natal yield point suet as nonferrous mots: uti isnot lied o these Plastic behavior i somewhat tine dependent, patcu- iyat igh temperatures. Alsoat high temperatures, a small amount of time-dependent fevers strain may be detectable inicalive of anela fe chavo. £ zoo00}"" 5 . . 24 3 oe os 09 08 OF OF Fig 5.12. General neste dara ‘The abimate este strength (UTS) isthe maximum lad sustained by ‘he specimen divided by the original specimen eross-sctonal a Potceat elongation ffiare ise plastic extension ofthe specinen at Faure expressed a (the change in origina gage length % 100) divided bythe orignal gage length. This extension the sum ofthe wifrm ard seaunform elongitions. The uniform elongation i that which occurs Poet the UTS. It has an unequivocal significance, being associat ‘vith uniaxial sees, whereas the nonuniform elongation which occurs during localized extension (nceking) is associated wih iia tess ‘The nonuniform elongation will depend on geometry, partially the rato of specimen gage length Ly 0 ameter D or square rot oferss- Scetional area 4- ASTM Standass specify tst-specimen geometry Tora ruber of specimen sizes. The ft Lyi maintained at 4.8 for and round-cess-section specimens. The original gage length should allvays be stated inrepocting elongation valu. The specimen percent reduction im area (RA) isthe contaction in cossseetional area atthe facture expressed a a porentage of the figinal area Its obtained by measurement ofthe eto section ofthe broken specimen tthe facture location. The RA along wi the oad st fracture can be used to obain the facture tren that is, neue lad Alvided by crasssctioal area atthe facture. Soe Table 5.1 “The typeof facture in tension gives some indications of the quality ofthe material, bu this is considerably affected the testing tempers tur, speed of testing, the shape and size of the test piece, and other conditions. Contraction i greatest in tough and ductile materials and Teastin bide materials. In gent acute are either ofthe shear oF oF | the separation (oss of cobesion) type Fat enilespocimens of dette tetas often show shear failures i tbe aio of width to thickness is peat than 6:1. A completely shea-type flue may terminate in 2 hist edge, or at specimen, oF pint ptr, for around specimen Separation fares occur in bile materials, such as eran ast tons. Combinations of bath shear and separation falues ae common on round specimens of ductile mot Failure often stars atthe axis in 2 ‘ecko region and produces relatively flat area which grows uni the ‘material shear long a cone-shaped surfice a the ouside of the spi=Table 51.1 Typical Mechanical sen sed’ Ron ome eo Quocind, 1300F ™ See ar 2 Quocted e300 uo Soe ar 0 Pom “a Most, Ns ny > Sen | % STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAMS. 5-2 sngh cong, int men, resting in what is known a the cupand-cone fracture. Double ‘cupand-cone and rosette fractures sometimes occur. Several types Of tema facture are shown in Fig. $13, Annoaled or ht-olled mil tcl geerally exhibit yea poet (sce Fig. SL). Hore, ina constant straints test, large ineomeat of ‘extension occurs under constant loud athe elastic limit rata sess ust Below the elastic ini. Inthe later event theses drops suddenly fom the upper sid paint tothe ower sell paint. Subsequent the drop, the {eld point extension occurs at constant sss, followed by ais tothe UTS. Plastic fw during the yicl-point extension i discontinuous; Fig. 51.8 Typical met cts inten successive zones of plastic deformation, known a Lader's bands of tether trie pear unl the ene specimen gage length has best Uniformly deformed at th end athe ycl-point extension. This boha= for causes banded or stepped appearance onthe metal surface. The exact form ofthe stress curve for this of material i sensitive to test temperature, est stain rat, and the characteris of the tensile ‘achine employed. “The plas behavior in auniaial tensile test canbe represents asthe ma ris based on the instanancous O02 0a 08 0 8 Fig S14, Yielding fant cel5:4 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS ‘ros seetion 4, so that y= loud 4. The instantancous te tment is ~ dildo dLIL prior to necking Total tue stain [-46) a ‘orn (Lit) prior to accking. The uve stres-sin curve or flow curve ‘shane has the typical form shown in Fig. 5.1.5 Inthe ar ofthe fest subsequent to the maximum lod point (UTS), when necking occurs, the estran of tfrest fs that which oceurs in an inftesil length atthe region of minimum exo eto, Teve stain fr this element ean Sul be expressed as In (i), whore teers to the minimum cross Fig 5.1.5. Troestesstnin cave fr 20 scale il ste Table 5.1.2 laste Constants of Metals section. Methods of constncting the wue stress-strain curve are de Seribal in the technical Iteratute. In the range between ‘tial Yielding and the neighborhood ofthe maximum Toad point the relation- Ship between plastic suai and tue stess often approximates hore ithe strength coin and isthe werk -hardening exponent Foramateral which shows yield poin the eationship applies only 10 ‘he sing par ofthe euve beyond the lower yield. Itcan be shown that athe makimum load poiat the slope of the tue suessstrain curve ‘equals the tue sess, fom which ican be dediced that for a material ‘heying the above exponential relationship between gp and ne, = at the maximum load point. The exponent sengly inflences thé spread hesween YS and UTS oa the engineering stress-strain curve Valuss of» td for some materials are shown in Table 5.1.2 A point onthe How ‘eurv indents the tow ten cotesponding oa cman stain, tatis, the suess required to tring about this amount of plastic deformation The concept of tue strain is useful for accurately describing large amounts of plastic deformation, The inca sain definition (L~ Ly) Lg fas to comoct fr the continuously changing gage length, which leads 1p an increasing enor as deformation procoeds During extesion of spocimen under tesion, the change inthe specimen cross-sectional are i reatd othe elongation by Pin's ti hich ithe rai of strain ina tansversedrston to tha inthe longitudinal direction. Values ofp Tor the elas region ate shown in Table $1.3. For plate stain is approximately 0.3. Table 5:12, Room-Temperature Pasic-Flow Constants for a ‘Number of Metals Tigo esa Conon ‘anys Tom Cas Geant 16 2880) 0a “or (om) {nt sieatam —Prcistartecd Sole) le nt staminam Anal 86s) 02 oe wom Ama Bogs) tat Sac Rly nn Ppa a Mea Egg Games me ak ‘lors, dg tghcaon,eateacd «= «GMO MLGTL aw ALO wass-oaa ‘tn ay dows tay olan oano-atat‘The gonoral effet of inrcased stain ate sto increase the esstance| to plastic deformation and this to raise the low curve. Dctesing fst temperature also raises the ow curve. The effet of stain eae is ex posed srsieate semis mis value can be measured in the tension test ifthe strain rae is sudnlyinreased bya small increment tring the plastic extension. The lw tess wil then jump toa higher ‘alu. The svain-ate sensitivity i the ratio of incremental changes of (2). Im which «and gy are the largest and smallest principal stuesses, o- spectively, and fy i the uniaxial tensile yield suength, This i the Simplest theory or predicting yielding under combined stresses. A move ‘courate prediction canbe me by the datorion-energ heey, sco0d- Ingo which the erterion i (0, ~ 097 + los OW? + (on — OP = 25)? Stes-strain curves inthe plastic regio for combined sires long ean be coastucied However, particular stess state docs not determine 2 unigue stain value The ater wil depend onthe stress-sate path which Balled Plane strain sa. condtion where tn confined to two dimensions. ‘There's generally sues inthe third ditetion, Dut Deause of mechani- «al constants, sai inthis dimension is prevented, Plane strain cceurs in certain metalworking operations It can also occur in the neighbor hood ofa ezack tip ina tensile loaded member if the member is su- slenly thick. The material atthe crak tipi then in tril tension ‘whit condition promotes bite fracture. On th ther hand, duct is fekanee and facture i suppressed by triskal compression, ‘Stress Concentration Inastructur or machine pat having notch for any alzup change in cross section, the maximum suess will occur at this location and willbe greater than the stress calculated by elementary formulas based upon simplified assumptions as to the stress disibu- tion. The rato ofthis maximum stress othe nominal stress (aleulated byte elementary formulas) isthe suess-concentation factor k, This is ‘onstant for the particular geometry and is indopendent ofthe mat Fil, provided i is isouopic. The stess-oncentation factor may be ‘etrmined experinemally er, in some cases, theacecally om the ‘mathematical thory of elasticity. The factors shown in Figs. 5.1.6 19 51.13 were detemined fiom both photoelastic tests andthe theory of ‘taste. Suess concentration will euse flue of brite materials if STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAMS. 5-5 Tension o compression $LOR: CLS) ‘ ) fencdng S . ‘Stress concentration factor. K Fig 5:16 wi ici nd ones wit ink Semicele grooves. the ‘Stress concentration factor. K shapnesct goo Fig $17. Fat plate wth grove, in oo,Hal In ductile materials, concentrated ally cause local pls nd rendering them more uniform), On the other hand, ve 98 of tes concentration ae possible sites for nt is cyclically loaded than x 325 RS zt Fig 51.8, Fa pate wit fils nein Soars roo. Stress concentration fcr K sharpness otros Fig $1.8. Fa pate wth gmaven Bins <0 g ine e Bunt 8 Eiets Sharpness of et, share Fig. or bending. se | a PES UT | “pf ee iy _ “CATH T st Sharpness of groove, Fig. 81.92, Grooved shat in rona8 4 TA Fao i bot ‘sheen erect a anc . °C os 10 2 2487 20 a0 spouts 2 Fig 5.95, ld sta intron FRACTURE AT Low STRESSES “Materials under tension sometimes fil by rapid ftacture at suesses ‘much below heir stength level as detemined in tess on carefully Prcpared specimens. These brite, netable oF eataseophic lars i+ ae at preexisting stes-concentating Aaws which may be inherent in 2 materi. perature approach is ofc use to casure facture safe design in stuctura-rade stools. Those materials exhibit a charac- teristic temperature, known asthe doe brite tamiton (DBT) tt perature, blow which thy are uscepble to brie facture. The an- Friontemperstue approach fo ffactue-safe design ensures tha the Fig. 81.14, CVS tansin caves, Dat from WestingoseR FRACTURE AT LOW STRESSES 5-7 transition tmpertue of a material selected fra patcular application fs suitably matched fois intended we Tenperture. The DBT can be detected by ploting certain measurements fom tensile or inpac ests fganst temperature, Usually the uansition to brite Behavior i com plex, being neither fll ductile nor fly bile. The range may extend {ver 20°F (110 K) interval The nitty temperature (NDT dtr mine by the drap weight west (see ASTM Standards) san important Feference point nthe wanton range. When NDT fo a particular ste! js known, temperautestress combinations ean be specifid which de- fin the liniting condone under which tsstrophic facture can occu. Tn the Charpy Vooteh (CVN) impact test #notched-bar specimen (ig. 5.126 ruse which is loaded in bending (sce ASTM Standard). ‘The energy absorbed from a swinging pendulus in facturing he spect men is measured, The pendulum stkes the specimen at 16 to 19 f [488 to 580 ms so thatthe specimen deformation asiociated with fracture ocours ata rapid stan ate. This ensures a conservative mea sue of toughness, sincein some material, toughness seduced by high strain rates. A.CVN impact energy vs. empeatue curve is shown in Fig 1.14 which ako shows the tanstions ax given by percent brite facie and by percet atral expansion. The CVN eneray bas no snalyticlsignifeance, The testi useful mainly asa guide to the face {ure behavior of material for which an empirical corelation has bean «stalishod berwcon impact energy and some igorous facture enteron For a particular grade of scl the CVN curve can be cotelted with NDT. (Soe ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Cade) Fracture Mechanics This analstcal method suse fr ulta-high- strength alloys, transtion-emperatute matevials below the DBT tem poate, and some lowstcngth materials in heavy sein thickness. Fracture mechanics theory deals with eack extension where plastic effects are negligible or confined ox sual epon around the crack tp. ‘The presou discussion is concerned with a though-thickness cack ina tensioa-doaded plat (Fig. 51.18) whichis large enough so thatthe frack-tip sess fed fs aot afacted by the plate edges Fracture me ‘ani theory sates that unstable crack extension occurs when the ‘work required foe an incement of crack extension, namely, surface {enor and encry consumed in local plastic defeemation, i exceeded bby te clasticstrain energy released at the crack ip. The easi-stess5:8 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS fold surrounding one ofthe crack ips in Fig, $1.15 is characterized by ‘estes item Ky, which as units of (15 i) lino (NN) is a function of applied nominal stress, crack al length a anda geone uy Theta 0. ey for the siution of Fig. 5.1.15. Fora paula material itis found that sys incteaed, Vale Kis reached at which unstable crack prope [ ) Fig 5.15. Trough etnen cack omer. tion occurs, depends on plat thickness B, a shown in Fig. 5.1.16 Teataias constant value when is great enough o provide plane-tain ‘conditions atthe ack tip. The lw plateau value of Kis ab important Imaeral property known as th pliestrain crits! sires intensity oF fractor toughness Ky Vals fora number of materials are shown in Table S14 They ate influenced stongly by processing and stall ‘changes i composition, so thatthe valuos shown are not nocessrly typical, can be used inthe eical form of Eq. (5.1.1) (Ky? = Ova, iy to predict flue stress when » maximum fa size ia the material is Known oo dstemnine maxitnum allowable aw size when the tess is set. The predictions will be aecurate so Jong as plate thickness satis os the plane stain eterion:B = 2S(&4y,) They willbe conser tive ifa plane-train condition doesnot exist. big advantage ofthe facture mechanics approach i that tres intensity can beeaeulted by ‘equations analogous 0 (5.1) fora wide variety of geometries, pes oF a a aT Fig 51.16. Dependence of an ncureappearne nem ofprcnase ‘lagirsfnctr) on thc af pte specie, Hal dt or ats Table 514 Room-Temperatire K Vous on High-Strength Tans ane oom Maal ‘aon SUN Tt Nimans see on 06) 6507) Tse Nimarapins el Ho {rs a8) Ise Nimans eel Ios (1340) 709) ‘Timm ly Iso) Bia) Tatum 6 ly 140 (90) os a's) ‘lsrian y APS Fs (sI6) 2600) ‘tain iy 17S eutaan) 300) ‘rac, and ludings (Paris and Si, Stress Analysis of Cracks," STP- S81, ASTM, 1965). Failure oocuts in all eases when K, reaches i. Fracture mechanies also provides aamework fr predicting the occu rence of srecorroion cracking by using Eq (51.2) with Ke epaced by K,_ whichis the material parameter denoting resistance to sese- ‘omosion-rack propagation in particular medium. “Two standard tex specimens for K, determination are specified in ASTM standards, which aso dual specimen preparation and est pro ‘ole, Recent developments in facture mechanies permit eatment of ack propagation in the dctle regime. (See "Elastic-Plastc Frac- ture," ASTM) FATIGUE Fatigue is generally understood a the gradual deterioration of a mate- al which is subject 10 repeated loads In fatigue testing, a specimen is subjected to periodically varying constaneamplitds sreses by means ef mechanical or magheticdevies. The applied stesses may altemate between equal postive and negative values, fem 2401 max imum postive or negative values, or between unequal positive and negative values, The most commen loading is alternate tension and ‘compression of equal numerical values obtained by rotating smooth ‘ylindrcal specimen while under a bending lad A series of fatigue tess aze made on a aumber of specimens of the materia at diferent sures levels. The suess endured Is then pote against the number of ‘yeles sustained. By choosing lower and lower stresses, a value may be found which wil ot produce failure, regardless ofthe number of ap ied eyes. This sens value i called the fatigue nit The diagram i {alle the stes-eyele diagram or $-¥ diagram, lnstead of recording the ‘aia on cartesian coordinates, either tess poted vs. the logarithm of| Thenumber ofeycles(Fig 51 17)orbothstessandeyeles are poted to logarithmic scales. Both diagrams show a elatively sharp bend in the ‘uve near the ftgus limit for ferous metals. The fatigue init may be ‘stublsed fr most tes betwsen 2 and 10 million eyes, Nonferrous neta usualy show ao eearly defined fatigue limit The S-V euves in these cases indicate a cominuous decrease in stress valucs t several hunded milion eyes, and both the sess value andthe number of «yeles sustained shouldbe reported, See Table S15. “The mean sess (he average ofthe maximum and miaimum stress ‘ales fora eyee) has a pronounced influence on the sues ange (the Algobraic difference between the maximum and. minimum stess ‘alues). Several empirical formulas and graphical methods sich asthe “modified Goodman dagram” have been developed to show the inti ‘ence ofthe mean ses onthe ses range for falar. A simple but ‘onserative approach (Sce Soderberg, Working Steses, Jour pp. ‘Mech. 2, Sept 1935) st plot the variable sues 5, (one-half te stess| range) as ordinate vs. the mean tess S, a absisa (Fig 51-18). At 2o10 mean sess, the ordinate i the ftigue lint under completly reversed sues. Yielding will ccur ifthe mean sts exceods the Yield sess S,, and this establishes the exteme right-hand point of the i fam, A'staigh ie is drawn between these two points. The coord aes of any other pia along tis line are alues ofS, and S, which nay produce flue Surface defects, such as roughness or seratches, and notches oFFig 5197. the 5.9 grams om ict (1) 20% steel quenched nd sn st a F (460'C) 2) allay stra steel) SAE 150, genched Sad aun a 120 (69°C) (0) SAE 110, nomad nd seal) oe ‘ry social et 6) Drala: 7) copper snl (8) cnt on vere shoulders all rue the fatigue strength of a art. With a notch of prescribed geometric form and known conceaeaion factor, he reduc- tion in strength is appreciably less than would be called for by the ‘concentration factor ff, but the various meal difer widely in their Suscepubiity to the effect af roughness and conceatations, of etch Fora given material subjected oa presribad stat of ess and type ofloading, notch easitivity can be viewed a the ability ofthat mata toesist the concentration of stress incidental tothe presence ofa notch Airately notch sensitivity canbe taken as a measure ofthe degre to ‘which the geometric stress concentration factor is raced. Anatempt |S made to rationalize notch sensitivity through the equation q = ( — TN(K~ 1 where qi the notch sensitivity, A is the geometric ses ‘concentration factor (fom data similar those Figs 8.1.8 108.113 fad the ike), and Kis defined asthe ato ofthe strength of unotched Inateal othe suedgth of otched material. Ratio Kis obiaied fom laboratory ets, and Kis deduced ether theoretically fom laboratory tests, but both must els the sane sae of sess and typeof leading The value of lies between 0 and I, sothat(1) fq ~ 0, K;= Vand the material is not notc-sensiive (ofl metals suchas copper, aluminum, nad annealed low-stcnsth sel): (2) ify ~ 1, K,— K, the material is filly notch-senstve and the fll value ofthe geomet tess concen tation factors nt diminished (ard, high-strength sel) In practice, ¢ will ie somewhere betwoen O and 1, ul i may be bard to quay FATIGUE 5-9 Accordingly, the pragmatic ppreach to arrive ata solution ta design problem oftn takes a conservative route and ses q = 1. The exact atrial properties at play which are responsible fr notch sensitivity se nt clear Further, noch Seasivity coms t be higher, and oedinary fatigue strength lower in age specimens, necessitating fl-scale test in many eases (See Peterson, tess Cencenuation Phenomena in Fatigue of Fig S198. et of mean ates on he aie tn ea “Mots, rans. ASME, 8, 1933, p. 157, and Buekwaler and Horgr, Investigation of Fatigue Suenath of Axles, Press Fis, Surfice Rolling and Effect of Size, Trans. ASH, 28, Mar. 1937, p. 229). Carrnon sad failing (due 10 rubbing oF mating surfaces) eause great reduction of Fatighe strengths, sometimes amounting to as much as 90 percent ofthe ‘original endurance Init Although any coreding agent will promote Sere comesion fatigue, theres so much difeence Between he effets fof''sea water” or “ap water” rom diferent localities that numeral ‘ales are not quoted here ‘Oversrening sponte above the fatigue imi for periods shorter than necessary to produce flue a that stress reduces the fatigue init ina subsoquea est. Similarly, eedersreing below the fatigue Limit ‘may increase it Shot peeing, nitriding, and cold work wsually improve fatigue propestics 'No very’ good overall correlation exists between fatigue properties and any other mechanical propery of a material. The best cocreltion is between the fatigue limit under completely reversed bending stress and the ordinary tensile sength. For many ferrous meals the fatigue Limit ‘approximately 0.40 to 0.0 tines the tent strength if the ater is below 200,000 thin. Lowlloy high-yield-stength sels often show higher vals than tis. The fatigue limit for nanferous metals is ap- proximately to 0.20 ¢o 0.50 tines the tensile strength. The fitigue limit In reversed shear is approximately 0.37 times thats reversed bendins Tn some very important enginering sitions components ae eye cally sessed into the psi range- Examples are thermal sans resul- ing fom temperature osiltions and nothe regions subjected to see- ondary stesses. Fatigue ie in the plastic or “oweyele fatigue ange hasbeen found wo bea function of plastic stain, and low-cyele fatigue testing i done with strain asthe conolled variable rather han sts Fatigue lie Nand eeleplasti tan e, tnd 10 follow the relaonship © whore Cis constant fora material whon N< 106 (See Coin, A Sty ae Table 5.15 Typical Approximate Falgue Limits for Reversed Bending Mee ico? 10 lia Mes coast SAP 6is0, fesse “oo ‘= Nest luminal 25-70 is5:10 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS ‘of CYclie-Themal Suess in a Ductile Material, Trans. ASME, 16, 19s p. 947.) The typeof physical change occurring inside a material a tis re ploy loaded o failure varies as thee is consumed, and «number ‘of stages in fatigue canbe distinguished on this basis. The erly sages ‘comprise the evens causing nucleation ofa crack or Aa. This i most likely to appear on the surface ofthe material ftigue flues generally ‘orginate ata surface Following meleation ofthe erack, it grows during propagation stage. Eventually the crack becomes large Tor some rapid terminal mode of file to take over such as ‘Sutite upre or bre factre. The rat of eack growth nthe erack- Propagation stage can be accurately quantified by fracture mechanics Methods. Assuming an inal flaw anda loading situation as shown in Fig. 5.15, the rat of erack growth per eycle can generally be ex pressed as ad = C4AK,y 13) whore Cy and are constants fora particular material and AK; isthe Fange of sss intensity er eyee. Kis given by (311) Using (1.3), itis possible to predict the number of eels for the crack o gw to size at which some other mode of flute can takeover. Values ofthe ‘onstnts Co and are determined ftom specimens ofthe same type at Those used for detominaton of Ki, but ae iastrumented for accurate Iessurement of slow cack growth CConstntamplitade fatigue-est data are relevant t many rotary machinery sitions where constant cyclic loads ate encountered ‘There ae important situtions where the component undergoes varie ble loads and where it ay be advisable to Use randomlond toting. In this method, the load spectrum Which the component will expee= fence ia sevice is detemined and is applied to the test spocinen afc. ‘creer Experience has shovin that, fr the design of equipment subjected to sustained loading at elevated temperatures, tite eliance can Be placed ‘on the usual shotsime tensile properties of metals at those tempers- tures. Under the application of const Toad it has boen found that tatrials, bth metalic and nonmetal show a gradual flow or ereqp ‘even fr sresees below the proportional ita elevated temperature. Similar effects are present in Towing metals such as lead at room temperature The deformation which an be permed inthe saisictry ‘operation of mos high-tmperatre equipment is inte. In metals, coop is 8 plastic deformation cased by slip occuring slong estillographie drcetions in the individual crystals, together With some flow ofthe grain-boundary material. fice complete release (flea, a small Faction ofthis plastic deformation is recovered With time, Most ofthe flow is nonrecoverable for mets Since the carly creep experiments, many different types of tess have ‘ome into use. The Thos common ae the lepine rep tent Unde ‘constant tensile load and the sren-raptae test Other special forms are the srexerelmatin fest lth cmsantruevae te “The lompime creep tts conducted by applying a dead weight to one ‘end ofa fever system, the cher end eing atachod to the specimen Surrounded by a furnace and held at constant temperature, The axa ‘eformation read periodically throughout the test and a curve is plot ted ofthe stain ey aba funcuon of time # (Fig 5.1.19). This is epeatod for various loads at the same testing Tempera. The potion of the Fig. 5.2. ‘euve Od in Fig 5.1.19 isthe region of primary creep, 8 the repion ‘of mcondary erecp and BC that of tertiary creep. The tai Tale, ot the slopes of the curve, are decreasing, constant, ad increasing, respoctvely in these tice fegons. Sine the poiod ofthe cieep test is usually much shorter than the duration of the pat in service, ‘arious extapolation procedures are followed (See Gitus, “Creep, Viscootstcity and Creep Fracure in Solids,” Wiley, 1978). Seo Table $1.6 In practical applications the region of constantstin rate secondary ‘ereep is oflen used to estimate the probable deformation thoughout the life ofthe paris thus assumed tha this eae will remain constant ‘during poreds beyond the range ofthe tst-data. The Working sues is ‘shosen otha this otal deformation will not be exesssive. An arbitary ‘rep strength, which i defined asthe sess which ata given tempers: ture will esl in 1 percent deformation in 100,00 h has received 8 ‘eran amount of recognition, bu itis advisable to determine the eopet Suess foreach individual case fom diagrams of sues vs. cxeap te (Fig. 51.20) (ce “Crosp Data,” ASTM and ASME). Fig 5.1.20. Creep ts 6 035% wee Adiona temperatures (*F) and stresses (in 1,000 Is) for stated ‘rep rates (percent per 1,000) for wrought aoaferous metals areas follows 440 Bra: Rate 0. tmp. 350 (400), sess 8 (2) sate 0.01, temp 300 (350) [400 sess 10 (3) [1 Phoyphor bronze: Rate (1, emp 400 (330) [700] [800], suess 15 (6) [4] [Af rate O01, emp 400 (380) [700, sues 8 (4) 2). Nickel» Rate 01, tmp 800 (100), sess 20 (10) 70Cv, 30 NL Rate 01, tmp 600 (750, ses 28 (13-18) rate 0.01, temp 600 (750), sues 14 (8-9). ‘Aluminwe alay 175 (Duralumia: Rate 0.1, emp 300 (500) [600], suess 22 (5) [5 ead pare (commercial) (0.03 percent Ca): At 110°F, for eae 0.1 pent the stress range Ivins 150-180 (60-140) [200-220] foe Fate of 0.01 percent, $090 (16-80) [110-150] ‘Stes, 1,00 Ibi? % 6.894 = ares, MN, = tp + 459.67) Suctral changes may occur during «creep test, thus altering the metallurgical condition ofthe metal. In some eases, premature ruptre fppears ta Tow facture stain in a normally dace metal, ndiating that the material has become embrited. This isa very insidious conde tion and dificult o predict. The srens-euptere tet Well adapted 10 study this effect. Is conducted by applying a constant load to the Specinin inthe same mane as forthe long-time creep test. The Moi= nl stress is then plot sth time for facture at constant temperature ‘on loelonsele (Fg. 3.2,Table 5.1.6 Stresses for Given Creep Rates and Temperatures” REE s-11 ‘West drome sitet were ‘The stress seation is measured inthe comsantatrnnrate txt while the specimen i deformed at constant stain at In the relation et, the decrease of stress with ine is measured while the total sain elastic ‘plsti) is manained constant. Theater tet hs cee pplication 0 the loosening of turbine bolts and to similar problems. Although some ‘orelaton has bos indicated between the raul ofthese various types ‘of test, no genoa concation is yet available, and it has Been found necessary to make tess under each ofthese special conditions t obtain Satisfactory vesuls The intewcltonship between strain vate and temperature inthe oem ofa veloity-modiied temperature (sce MacGregor and Fisher, A Ve lociysmodied Temperature for the Pastic Flow of Metals, Jou ppl ‘Mech, Mar. 1948) simplifies the eeep problem in reducing the number of variable. Superpastcty Supesplasiciy is the property of some metals and alleys which pemits extremely large, uniform deformation at flevsted temperature, in coavastt conventional metals which neck down and subsequently facture afer relatively small ameunts of Plastic deformation. Sopempasic behavior Yegures a metal with Small equiaxed grains, a slow and steady rate oF deformation (stain Fig 2.215:12 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS. rate), and a temperature elevated to somewhat more than taf the melting point’ With such meal, large pase deformation can be ‘ought about with Tower extemal loads; ultimately, that allows the use of lighter fabricating equipment and facilites production of fnished parts to nar-aet shape . 10 ' e058 Lo\ i 5 me we » Fig 61.22. Stew and imine eons aspera alloys. (a) Lag log pte p= Ke (0) rar fan of ta te Sess and sin rates ate related fora metal exhibiting superplas- ticity. A factor in this Behavior stems fom the relationship Between the applied suess and suain fates. This factor m—the stain rate Sensitivity indox is evaluated fom dhe equation yy = Ke, where» 1S the appli stress, K isa constant, and ¢ isthe strain rae. Figure S122 plots a stessstan rate curve for a superplatie allo on log-og cooedinates. The slope ofthe curve defines, which is mas imum at the point of infection. Figue 51-226 shows the variation ‘of m versus In Ordinary metals exhibit low valucs of m—-0.2 of Tess for those behaving supepasicaly, mw — 0.6 w 08. Asm appeoaches I, the behavior of the metal willbe quite similar to that ‘ofa nowronian ‘viscous solid, which elongates plastically without necking down In Fig. 51224, in region I the stess and stan ats re Tow and weep is predominantly a resilt of diffision, In region Tl the sess fn sain rates ae highest and creep is mainly the result of disloca- Ti and slip mechanisms. In region I, where superpasicity is ob- served, excep is governed predominanly by grain boundary siding. HARDNESS Hardness has been variously defined as resistance to local penevaton, to scratching, to machining, to wear or abvasion, and yielding. The rmulupiciy of definitions, and comesponding mulpiity of hainess- measuring instuments,togethcr wit the lack of a fundamental deii- tion, indats hat hardaes may’ not be a Tudamental property of @ material but ather a composite one inching yield strength, Work hard- ‘ning, wus tensile suength, meduls of elasticity, and eters Serteh hardness measured by Mobs seale of mines (See. 1.2) Which sso avanged tat each mineral wil scratch the mineral ofthe nex lower aumber In recent mineralogical work and i certain micro- Scopie metallurgical work, jeweled sratching poins either with a set Toad or else loaded to give a set wah of seratch have been used. Hard- nes nits elation to machioability and 1 Wear and abrasion is gener- ally dealt within dieet machining or Wear ests, and litle attempt fs rade to sparate hardness itself, as a numerically expressed quanti, ffom he results of sich tess, The resistance 0 localized pencuation, or indentation harden, i widely used industrially as a measure of hardness, and indively ay an indicator of other dested properties in a manufaetured peoduct. The indentation tests described blow are essentially nondestructive, and in ‘ost applications may be considered nonmarrng, 0 ha they aay be {nplied to each piece produced and through the empiri relationships ‘of hardness to such proper as tensile strength aig stength, ad impact suength, pices likely tobe deficient inthe later properties may be detected and rejected rin hardes is determined by fering a hardened sphere under 3 own oad into the surfice ofa material and measuring the diameter of the indentation lef afer the fst. The Briel harden umber, or ip the ent number, obtained by dividing the load used, in kilograms, bythe actual surface are ofthe indentation, in square millimeter. Th resulta presse, but the units are arly sated. Dy 7 ww-r/ [20-07] where BHN isthe Briel hardness number; P the imposed load, kg: D the dameter of the spherical indoatr, mm: and d the ameter ofthe resulting impression, mm “ardned too bearing balls may’ be wed fa beyond this hardness specially twcated stab used fo avoid fattening the indenter. The standard-size ball is 10 mm fn the standard Toads 3,000, 1500, and S00 kg, with 100,125, an 250 kg sometitnes used for softer materials. If fer special easons any ‘ther sizeof bal fused the lad should be adjusted approximately ax follows for iron and steel, P = 30D for bas, bronze and thor Sot metals, P= 30%, fr extemaly soft meals, P = D (see "Methods of| Briel adness Testing,” ASTM). Reangs obtained with oer than ‘he standard ball ad loadings should have the load and bal size ap- ponded, as such readings ac only approximately equal those obtained Under standin conditions “The size ofthe specimen should be suicient to ensure that o part of the plate low around the impression reaches a fee surface, and in ‘ist should the thickness be les than 10 times the depth ofthe impres- Sion. The loa should be applied steadily and should remain on for at least 15 sin the case of ferrous materials and 30 inthe ease of ost nonferous materials. Longer periods may be nocessary an ceri sot eras that exhibit corp at tm tmperatre. In esting thin matei- tists pot permissible pl up several thicknesses of material under the indenter asthe readings so obtained wil invariably be lower than the uve readings. With such material, smaller indenters and loads, 0 diferent methods ofhardnse testing. are nocessty In the standard Brinell text, the diameter of the impression i me sured wih Tow-poser hand mietoscops, but Fr prodction work Sv ‘eal testing machines are available which automatically measure the ‘pth ofthe impression and fom this give readings of hardness, Such machines shouldbe eaibeated frequently on test blocks of known hard- nthe Rockwell method oFhardaess testing, the depth of poncuation of an indenter unde certain arbiteay conditions of tests determined. The indenter may be either a steel ball of some specified diameter or & spherical-tipped conical diamond of 120° angle and 0.2-m ip adi, {led Bee." A minor Toudof 10 kg is fst applied whichcausesab intial penetation and bolds the indents in place, Under tis condition, the dials sett zero and the major load applied. The values ofthe later sxe 60, 100, or 180 kg. Upon femoval of te major oad, the reading is taken while the minor load isl on, The hardness number may thet be read divety from the scale which measures penetration, and this scale isso arranged that sof materials with deep penetration give low hard ess numbers ' variety of combinations of indenter and major load ate possible; the most commonly used ae Ry using as indenter a Yirin ball and 2 ‘major load of 100 ky and using Brae as indenter and a major load ‘of 0 kg (ee "Rockwell Harness and Rockwell Superficial Hardness ‘of Mollie Materials” ASTM). ed with the Brinll test the Rockwell method makes a since hardess numbers are read diectly and need not be ealeulted However, the Brine! est may be made without special paras and is Somewhat more widely recognized for Iaboraory use. Tete i also 2 Rockwell sapere ardnen tet sina tothe regular Rockwell, except ‘hat the indentation is much shallower. “The Viekers metho! of hardness esting is similar in principle the Brinl in that it expenses the result in ters of the pressure under the indenter and uses the same unis, ilograms per square miller The indenter isa diamond inthe form ofa square pyeamid wih an apicalangle of 136°, the loads are much ligher, varying between 1 and 120 kg, and the impression fe measured by means of mediam-power compound microscope v= Posse) where isthe Vickers hardness number, sometimes called the dimen pyramid hardaes(DPH);P tho imposed load, ky: andthe diagonal of Indentation, mm The Vickers methods more Rexble and is considered to be more accurate than either the Brinell ofthe Rockwell, but the ‘equipments more exponsve thn citer of the others and the Rockwell isSomewhat fst in production work Among the otter Hardness methods may be mentioned the Seer scope in which a damond-tipped “hanmer"is dropped onthe surface tnd the rebound taken a an index of hardness. This ype of apparatus is Seviously affected by theesilionce as Wella the hardness oF th mate= Fil and has largely ben superseded by other methods. Inthe Menstron ‘method, penctrafors forced ino the materia oa predstrmined depth tna he Toad required is take asthe indgect measure ofthe hardness. This the reverse ofthe Rockwell method in principle, bu the lads and indentations are sinaller than hose ofthe late, In the Herbert Pedal, [sm stool or jewel ball esting onthe surface to be teste Seas the fulcrum for akg compound pendulum of 1s period. The singing of the pendulum causes a rolling indentation inthe materi fd om the behavior ofthe pendlum several fates in hardness, such 25 work hardeaabtiy, may be determined which ate not reveal by ‘other methods. Althoigh the Herbert results ar of considerable signi. ‘ance, the instrument suitable for laboratory use only (ace Hebert, ‘he Pendulum Hardness Teste, and Some Recent Developments ih Hardness Testing, Engineer, 135, 1923, pp. 390,686) nthe Herbert ‘owdburet test a shower of sta balls, dropped from 3 predetermined hojhtdulls the surface ofa hardened par in propoton tits soness tnd thus reveals defective areas. A variety Of muta indentation met ‘sn which erssedeylinders cx prisms of the material tobe tested are forcod together, give results comparable with the Brinll test. These ate Particularly usefl on wires and on materials a high emperatues. “The ration among the scales ofthe various hardness methods isnot ‘act since no two measure exactly the same Sot of hardness, and 2 relationship determined on stools of diferent harnesses willbe found ‘nly approintely tue with other mater. The VieersBrinel rela tin is nearly Finca up toa least 40, withthe Vickers appeotinatly'S pent higher than the Brill (tual values run fom +2 to +11 pent and nearly independent of the material. Beyond 50, te values Become more widely divergent owing to the ftening ofthe Brinell ball The rine Rechnell elton fly stisctry and i shown i Fig. 5.1.23. Approximate relations forthe Shere Slrmeope ate als sven on the stme plot, “The tardaem of wood is defined by the ASTM asthe lad in pounds required to force a all 0444 in in damtr into the wood to & depth (of 0.222 in the spesd of penetration being" innin, Fors summary Fig. 51.23. sadness scl TESTING OF MATERIALS 5-12 ofthe work in hardness see Willams, “Hardness and Hardness Mea- Suemeats,” ASM. TESTING OF MATERIALS. Testing Machines Machines forthe mechanical testing of materials ‘sully contain element (1) for gripping the specimen, (2) for deform ing and (3) for measuring the load requited in performing the deix- ‘maton. Some machines (ductility testts) amit te measurement of load and substitute a measurement of deformation, wheteas ote machines elude the measurement ofboth lod snd deformation through appa ‘ats cither integral with the testing machine stress-strain recoedes) or ‘uur to (strain gages). In most soneal-purpose testing machines, ‘he dfarmation scontolled asthe independent variable ad the result ing lod measured, and in many special-purpose machines, particulary those fr light loads the load contol and the resulting deformation 's measured. Special features may include those for constant eat of Toading (pacing disks), fr constant rate of staining, fr constant load ‘maintenance, and fr cyclical load variation (fatigue) Tn meder esting systems the load ad deformation measurements ate made with lad-and-deformationsensive transducers which generate ‘cca! ouput. These oupus are converted to load and deformation readings by meus of appropiate eccvonic eicuity. The readings are commonly displayed automaticaly on a recorder cat digital meter or thay ate fea in a computer. The uansducer ouputs ae typical wed also as feback signals o contol the test mode (constant aang, con Stan extension, or constant sain rat) The lad transducer usally 8 Toad cll atshed to the test machine fame, with clerical ouput 0 a bridge circuit and amplifr Te load cell operation depends on change of lecial resistivity with deformation (al load) in the wansduce ee ‘ment The defamation tansduce is gonoally an extesometr lipped on tothe test specimen gage length, and operates onthe same pincipe asthe Toad ell wunsducer: the change i eleccal esisaee i the speczon sige lng is eased asthe specimen deforms. Optical exeasomcs are also aalale which do not make plisical contact wih the specimen. \erication and classification of extensomer fe contlled by ASTM Standards. The aplication of fod and defamation to the specimen is ‘sully by micas ofa see-iven chan, bu may also be api bby means of hydraulic and servoydaule systems. In cach eas the load aplication system respons wo contol inputs om te fad and deforma to transducers. Important features in test machine design are the meth fds used for reducing tion, Went, and backlash. In ade testing ma ‘hes test loads were determined from the machine self (ea pseu reading ffom the machine hydraulic pressure) so tat mache fiction ‘made an important cotton to naccuscy The use of machine-nde- pendent wansducers in modem testing has eliminated much ofthis source ‘tron. ‘Gripe should not only bold the west specimen aginst slippage but should also apply te loa inthe desired manner. Centering ofthe lad is ‘of great importance in compression testing, and sould notbe neglected in tension testing the matral is ite, Figure 5.124 sos the heretical feros duc 1 ofF-center loading: the esulis ae dretly applicable to ompession sts using swivel leading blocks. Swivel (Dallan-socket) holdrs or compression blocks should be used with all except the most docile maarals and compression testing o brite materials concrete, Sons, bck, any rough fies sould be smoothly eapped wih plaster of Paris ad one-rdportand cement. Serated grips tay be usa to hold lc materia othe shanks of othe oldersnfension tape of Vn fan the wedge faces gies a sefsightenng action without excessive jan- Imi. Ropes are ordinal eld by wet eye spices, Dut braided ops or small cars may be given Several tums over a fixed pin and then clamped ‘Wire ropes should be zinced it frgod sockets (Solder and lead have Insuficentsuength)- Grip section for tensile testing i described in ASTM standard ‘Accuracy and Calibration ASTM stundards requis that commer- lal machines have eros of ss than I percent wahin the “Toading range’ when checked spans aceptblestndard of comparison at st least ve sultably spaced loads, The “loading range” may be any ange5:14 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS rough which the preceding requirements for accuracy are satsed, ‘xcept tat it shall ot extend below 100 times the leas load to whieh ‘he machine will respond or which canbe read onthe indicator. The use ‘of calibration plots er bles wo caect the resus ofan ethers nae ‘urate machine is not permitted under any ercumstances. Machines With vtors ess than O11 percent are commercially available (Tate- Emery and others, and some hat greater aceuracy is possible in the ‘most refined research appari. Fig 5.1.24. et centring cron ile et pines Deal loads may’be uso to check machines of low capacity acu rately calated proving Ivers ay be used f0 extend the range of {vallable weighs Various east dovies (such asthe Morehouse pr ing ring) made of specially eae tel, With Seasive disoton-mea- suring devices, and calibrated by dead weights a the NIST (formerly Bureau of Standards) are mong the mos! satisfactory means of checking the higher loads | forms of text specimens (ASTM) are shovun in Fis 36-Inweought materials, and particularly in those Which Sef © Fig 5.1.25. Tex pccmsn, 28 (0-5 nigh ig 125.) dame Tee Otc value fr 35m (7S) an On (62S) dame. Fig. 61.28. Chany Voth np pscimons. (AST) have been col-worked, diferent propertios may be expected in difer- ‘ent dtetons with respect othe dreton ofthe applied work, andthe test specimen should be eu out from the pent material in sucha way 2 to give the suongth inthe desived duction With the exception of fatigue specimens and specimens of extremely bite material, surface finish is oF ile practical importance, although extreme roughness tends to decrease theultimate clngstion. 5.2 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS by J.P. Vidosic RERINCES: Timoenka a MicCulogh, “Element of Stenth of Me tion to Plasticity.” Ronald. Van Den Brock, “Theory of Limi Desig,” Wiley stingy, Thetapiecng sre Unneny Pn toe Sol Toa Dic ad Trecion Maing Anocabon enka You, "For ‘lf Strap Stuin” MeCil Pary an Liner "The Stine Primer" McGrew Hl Dono" Beams Pesan Shee,” Engicoins So Partin! of Care, Pub ao AD 759 19,190, Mdge “Wall Sis indy landmass Sen pony ea of ‘pte Develops thn ns comin aps i ao eu iberpes of prosems ane allwith renter coerce the ol ced ectsMala Symbols parent tes pure shearing prpestona laste limit $ield point ulumate strength, tension ultimate compression '.= vertical shear in beams Sp modulus of rupture A= bending M,= torsion > force G = weight of body W= weight of load = external shear 2 = longitudinal G= shearing k= bulk 1, = modulus ofesiience ultimate resienee = volume = velocity >= radius of gyration 1 rectangular moment of ineia por J = pola moment of neta 2, = gros deformation fe" = unit doformation, stain dora = wit, angular unit lateral = Poisson's ratio n= rocprcal of Poisson's ratio += mde P= deflection SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS. eformatins are changes in form produced by extemal forces or lod taacton nrg otis, Defeats ae lentil gtr ing C+ or sborening(~) ofthe Dod and angular a change of ange been the aces ‘Uni deformation (Bimensionlss number isthe deformation in uni distance Uni longtuinal deformation (logiuinal stain), © =e)? (Fig, $2.1). Unit anglardetoematon tar equals cr appx (Fis. S25) “The accompanying Iatcal deformation results in unit tral dete ration (lateral stun)” = e'/7 (Fig. 521), For homogeneous, so tropic material operating nthe latin the rao a constant and isa definite property ofthe materia this ati is called Peon’ fdarental lation among th her inerdepeden comtants EG, and fora given material is F'= 2G(0 +) Noe that ant be Tare than 0; thus the sharing modus Gis ways smaller han the clastic moduli EAUthe extremes, for example. 0. for rubber and SBIPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS. 5.15 parfin 2 ~ 0 for cork. For const, varies from 0.10 t0 0.20 at ‘working Stresses and ean rach 025 at higher sess; for ordinary ls is about 0.25. Inthe absence of definitive data, for mos struc {ural meal canbe taken oe between 0.25 and 0.35 Extensive listings lof Poissons fatioae found in eer sections; see Tables 8.1 Sand 6.1.9. t 4 Fig 521 Stes isan intemal distributed free, of fore per uni area: tis he internal mechanical reaction of the material secompanying deforma tion Suess always oecur in pais. Suess are normal [lense Suess (Cand compressive stress (and tangential, of shearing Fig 522 Intensity of sre, oF ait stro, Si? (acm) i the amount of force pe unit of ara (Fig. $23). Pis the load acting though the center of gravity of the aca. The uniformly distbuted normal sess s s= Pa When the stress is not unifomly distributed, $= Pita ‘Along red will stretch undertow wight C and terminal load P| (soe Fig $2.4), The oul elongation eis that due to the terminal load us that due to one-half the weight ofthe rod considered as acting at the end P+ Gu2VIAE) ‘The maximum stress ea the upper en ‘When ala carsed by several path 0a support, the diferent paths lake portions ofthe load in proportion to thei tifness, whichis com tolled by matevial(E) and by design. EXAMMLE, Two pin of are ily comes hth same lng) any lad Py (Fig. 32.9, sorted Es Brand Pry Py and Se Ss ae Br i gees + tn 5, = SIPMEME Ay? Baa) Temperature Suesses When the deformation arising from change of tomperature is prevented, tmperature steses ars that ae propor tional fo the amount of deformation tat is prevented, Let a = coe5:16 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS TAP 6 Fig 523 Fig 524 ie of expansion per degree of temperature, 1 temperature, and fs length of bar at length at emprtue i. Then =H + ae —4)) 1, subsequent, the bars cooled toa temperature, the proportion ate deformation is 3 = as ~ 1) andthe corresponding uit tess 5 Ea(ts~ For coticients of expansion, see Sec 4, nthe eas fs, ‘change of temporatue of 12°F (6.7 K,6.7°C) will cause in general a unit tess of 2340 Ibn? (164 kgfiem?), » cl +] Fig 525 Shearing tees (Fg. $2.2) act tangentially to surface of contet and ‘donot ching length of sides of elamentary volume; they change the ne Between faces and the length of diagna. Two pals of shearing Se : a : | Fig 526 In the presence of pare shear on external faces (Fig. 5.2.6) the eat re Son one diagonal plane st 45° is pure tension and onthe ther ‘iagonal plane pure compression, § = S, = Son diagonal pl called “diagonal tnsion™ by writers on reinforced concrete. Failure Under pure shear is dificult to produce experimentally, except under torsion and in certtin special eases. Figure 5.27 shows an ideal css, ull Fig 527 Fig 528 and Fig, $28 a common form of test piece that introduces bending et Fig $2.9 represent the symmetie section af area 4 with shea ing force Y acting through its conoid If pure shor exist, S, 14 nd this shear would be unifonnly disuibuted over the area 4 When this cari accompanied by bending ranvere shee in beam) huni shea ‘increases from the extreme fiber tots maximum, which may or may ot beat the noua axis OZ The unit bear pall to OZ at pot d [35,000 + (2 % 60,000) 13,950 in-thin® (982 em-kgtem). {tjo00 ois Untcngatone = si 10 You Medley [B= 4.00 » Yas ~ L.U000 Bi Unt eee Uy = 5% 000% 4.00 Tonos By (0st em ape EXAMPLE 2. A weight G ~ 5,00 ls tough shit = 28 Y= {bo tie Neglsecomprenson fac. Wark don by llins west = Gh St % 2% 13m Bba71 wo ke) Renken sock = 7 8 = Sn % 2% 2 There, P= 1500! GASASD em, ‘Thermal Stresses A bar will changeit length when itstemperature| is rasa (or lowerea) by the amount Aly = clés ~ 32). The linear coofcint of thermal expansion «assumed constant at normal ten povanues and fi the length at 32°F (278.2 K, 0°C). I this expansion {orcontaction) is prevented therm tine ste is developed, equal 10 5 Bells ~ 1,38 the emporatue goes from fof ln thn Hat plats the tess becomes = Eales ~ 1) ~ 4 Poisson's ratio. Such "tess can occur in castings conning large and stall sections. Sii- stresses alo occur whea heat flows through members because of the dltference in temperature between one point and another The heat flowing across a length basa ren of a incar drop in temperature At fsuals O = £44478 Buu (cal). The thermal conductivity kis in iu (OX \CE in of thickness) eal? \RY/a)]. The thermabto ser is then 8 = EOD (Ll) Note, when O is subsiued te sess bovomes.S= Bi Aras above only is now a funtion of distance rather than tine ‘oe tomperate SSO on hehe ead 160 on he othe What he «= guaaxax im ~ lao Bulb ma Bo Lact os x 10x hte x 2123 9 = 14360 in (.0105gtom)5:18 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS COMBINED STRESSES ln the discussion tht follows, the clement is subjoctod to suesses Wing in one plane; thi is the case of plane tens, oF twoimensonal sre Simple stress, defined as such by te exure and tesion tears, ie in plans normal or parallevthe lie of action ofthe forces. Normal, a well as shearing, stresses may, however, exist in other directions A Particle our of loaded member will contain normal and shearing ftresss a5 shown in Fig, $2.11 Not thatthe four shearing sesses rnust be ofthe same magnituds, if equim sto be satsod the panicle is “cut” along the plane 4, quis will reveal that in general, normal aswell x shearing stresses act upon the plane AC (Fig, $2.13) The normal sess on plane AC is abs S,-and Shearing S,. The application of equilibrium yields sin 26 and Fig 52.1 Fig 5202 sign convention must be used, A tensile ste is positive while om- pression is negative. shearing stress is positive when diccted as on Plane 4 of Fig. 52.12; Le, when the shearing sveses on he vertical Planes form a clockwise coupe, the stress i positive ‘The planes defined by lan 2) ~ 28, /S, ~ 5, the principal plans, conta the pracipal streser—the maximum and iiaimum oral stresses, These states ae ‘The maximum and minimum shearing stresses are eepescuted by the = y= nd they act onthe planes defined by T tan 29 = — Exo The em i hl bjt 3 pear milo plane Ut making arate of he diction othe 00 a aes, ‘el tesa lee pps li che nan nd Fig 5213, 4.000 + 8.000, 4000 ~ 8000 9 s90) + Anno 8.000 $000 $000 9.5000) + 0 00 in 60° 5, = 4000 8.000 (0.3660) — 0 = — 1,732 vin? 4.000 + 8.000 [000 — S008 Sigg = AMEE af (AMO SO)" 000 2.000 00 and 000 thin? (S64 and 282 kien?) yo 2x0 cr = 90° and 0° sttan29= pS I= 0 or = 90° and 300 Sisco Sos 100 tine = 141 kaon) Moti's Stress Circle The biaxial stes field with is combined stresses can be represented graphically by the Mobr sess ctl. For instance forthe particle given in Fig. $2.11, Moly Gece isas shown in Fig. $214. The stress sign canvenon previously defined must be adhered to, Furthermore, in rds o locate the point (on Moh’sctle) that yields the stresses on a plane om the vera sie ofthe particle (such plane 44 in Fig'5211), 2¢7 must be laid off in the same ection ftom the ais 10 (S,,S,). For the previous example, Mott's ‘iee becomes Fig 52.18 ight spel stess fields are shown in Figs. 82.1610 $2.23, along with Mobs etele for each e2000i8/ 8 00 Combined Loading Combined fexare and terion ais, for instance, when a shaft twisted by a torque is bet by forces produced by belts ‘or gears An cleat on the surface, suchas ABCD of the shaft of Fig S224, is subjected to a flexure sess S, = Me/I = 8FI(rd and aFig 5216 aL i Fig 6208 Fig 5222 Fig 5225 torsional shearing stessS, = Mei! = LOM a. These stresses wil {induce combined steses. The maximutn combined stresses wil be (5,2 EERE) = SE 5, ‘The above situation applies to any case of norma stress with shou, as wen «bolts under both tension and shear A beam paricl subjected to both flexure and ansverse shear ancter case a ee ar Th Fig 5224 Combined tonion and longa! londs exist on peopel shalt A particle om this shat wil contin a tensile ess computed using S FF and torsion shearing sess qual oS, Mel The es body of Particle onthe surface ofa vertical turbine shaft is subjected to dest ‘Compression and torsion. OY. Fig 5225 ‘When combined loading results in stesses of the same type and sinetion, the adi i algebraic. Such a suation exists onan ofict link ike tat of Fig. 52.25, Mobr's Swain Ccle Stain cqutions can also be derived forplan sain fields. Stains e, and c, are the extensional sans (Lesion or PLASTIC DESIGN 5-19 compression) occursng at a pont in wo rght-angle dictions, and the ‘ange ofthe angle between tem sy, The stain at the point in any ction at an angle withthe x diction derives as Ay Similay, the shearing stain y9 ehange inthe original ight angle between dtetons wand D) is detined by a = ee ~ €) Si 20+ yy 608 20 Inspection casly reveals that the above equations fe, td ae rmathematiealy identical to thse for S,andS,. Ths, once a sigh com ‘Venton is established, a Mabe circle fer sean can be constructed and sed asthe tres cee is sed. The stain is postive when an exten- Son and negative when a contaction. Ifthe dieetion associated ith the fist subscript a rotates counterclockwise during staining wih = spect to the direction indicated bythe second subscript, the shearing Stain s postive, if elockwise, its negative. In constucting the cic, Positive extensional strains wil be ple to the right as abscisas and Positive balfabenring stains willbe potted upward as ordinates, For the stains shown in Fig 52.260, Mohs stan cil Becomes that shown in Fig. 82.260. The extensional suai in the deecon a ‘making an angle of, withthe dieeio, ie, and the shearing sain fe ya counerlockvise. The strain 90" away ie, The maxim pin fjpal stain is ey at an angle y clockwise fom the x diestion. The y+ 2 sin29 cos 29+ 2 sin29 Fig 5.226 PLASTIC DESIGN. any ffosin stress analysis were based on limit loads, thats, loads which suess a member "wholly tote yield stength, Euler's famous paper on column action ("Sur I Force des Colones, Academie des Sciences de Belin, 1757) deals withthe couma problem this way “More recently, the concept of init loads, refered oa Hit, of plat, ses, bs found strong aplication inthe design of eertain struts ‘The thoorypresupposcs a dtl material, absence of sess ases, nd fabrication fice of enbritlement. Local load overtes is allowed, po- vided the structure does not deform appreciably To visualize the limit-iad approach, consider a simple beam of uni form ection subjected to «concentrated lod of midspan, as depicted in Fig. $2.27u, Actonding to elastic theory, the outermost fiber on each side and at midspen —the section of masimum bending moment wil frst reach the yeldstengh value. Across the depth ofthe beam, the sttess distribution will of course, follow the wianguar pattem, bacon Ing ze at the ncual axis. I the mater is ductile, the stess in the ‘outermost fibre will remain atthe yield value until evry oter fiber reaches th sme value asthe load increases, Ths the ses distbution ‘sume the rostangular pte before the ple Nge forms and fale5:20 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS ‘The problem is that of finding the Hal Limit load. Elsie exure theory gives the maximums load triangular distibution as For the rectangular sess distribution, the limit load becomes The ratio FF, = 10—an inrease of 50 percent in load capability ‘The aio FF bas been named shape fstr (Jenssen, Plastic Desig ih Welded Stnctures Promises New Economy and Safety, Welding our, Mar. 1985), See Fig. $227 fr shape factors for same ater sections The shape factor may also be determined by diving the fist moment ‘area about the neual axis by the setin modulus. ESS ane hage stope itis Fig 5227 A constant-scton beam with oth ends fixed, supporting a uni- fomly distributed load, ilsvates another application ofthe plstic- lead approach. The beading-mement diagram based on the clastic theory drawn in Fig $2.28 (broken line) shows a moment atthe enter ‘ual to one-half the moment st either end. A preferable situation, i night be argued sone in which the moments ae the sane athe hice Sttions—solid ne. Thus, applying equiv to, sa, the let hal of the beam ysl a bending momenta each ofthe tre plastic hinges of we DESIGN STRESSES [armachine paris tosafly transmit loads acting upon it, permissible ‘maximum sess must be established and used inthe design. This isthe allowable sures, the Working stesso prefably, the design sre. The ‘design stress should not wast material, yot sould be large enough to prevent file in caseload exced expected vals, or oer uncerain- Hes react unfavorably. The design srs is determined by diving the applicable material property—yeld strength, ultimate tenth, fatigue tength-—by a fe- for of safety. The factor shoul be selected only after all uncertainties havebeen thoroughly considered. Among these are the uncertainty with respect tothe magnitude and kindof operating load the elibiity ofthe Imateral fom which the eompoaent is made, the assumptions involved in the theories use, the ensvoament in which the equipment might ‘operas, the extent to which localized and faction steses tight ‘velop the uncertainty cenceming causes of possible allure, andthe ‘endangering of human life incase of future. Factors of safety vary fom indusuy to indasuy, being the result of accumblated experience with 8 ‘lass of machines ora kind of environment. Many codes, such a8 the [ASME code for power shafing recommend design stessos found sae in practice In general, the dectity ofthe material determines the propery upon which the factor shouldbe based. Materials having an elongation of ‘ver percent ate considered duct. In such cases, the fata of safety 1S base upon the yok stength or the endwanoe limit. For materials With an elongation under S percent, she ultimate sength must be used boctise these materials afebrile and so facture without yielding. Factors of safety based on eld ae often taken betwee LS and 0. For more reliable material r well-defined design atl operating condi- tions, the lower factor are appropriate. Inthe ease of uned materials ‘rotherwise uncertain conditions, the larger Tatrs are safer. The same ‘aus ean be used when ods vary but in such eases they ae applied 19 The faigue or endurance sength’ When the ultimate stength dott tins the design stress (in the case of brite materials), the factors of fey ean be doubled Thus, under site loading, the design stress fr, sty, SAE 1020, Which has a yield suength of 45,000 Tbvin® (3.170 kaem®) may be taken at 45,000/2,o¢ 22,500 Ibin® (1,585 kgfiem?) if a reasonably ‘etuin design condion exis, A Class 30 east-r pat might be de- Signed at 30,0005 o 6,000 Ibi? (428 kam). A 20175-Oaluminuns ly component (13,000 Ibi endurance strength could be computed ta design sess of 13,000/25 er $200 Ivins (366 kam) in the ‘usual fatigued application Beams For properties of structural stel and wooden beams, see Soe. 122. Notation sectangular moment of neta 1, = polar moment of inet 2 = Section modulus = bending moment ‘concentrated loa total vertical shear it normal tess transverse shearing stressf= detection T= slope 1 = distance between supports = radius of gyration = radius of curvature ve = distributed load per longitudinal unit A simple beam rss on supports at its ends which perm otation. A ‘ateser beam i xed (0 rution at one ead. Wheh computing eac- tions and moments, distributed loads may be replaced by thee estas acting atthe cone of aavity ofthe dstibue-oad rca, Reaction ae the frees andr coupes acting atthe supports and holding the Beam in place In genoa, the Weight ofthe beam should be sccounted for The bending moment (pound-ict or pound-inches) (kat =m) at any section isthe algebraic sum ofthe extofal Trees and moments acting ‘on the beam on one side ofthe section, Iti also equal tthe momnet of the intmalstiessforees atthe section, M'= fs iy. A bending mo- rent that bends a beam convex downward (ese ses on betom Aber is considered ps, wile convex upward (compression an bot tom) i native “The vertical shear V (Ib) (kgf) effective on a section is the algebraic sum of all the Toes acting parallel and on ane side of the secon, ‘SF Ikisalso equal tothe sum ofthe transverse shear stresses acting ‘onthe seston, PI'S, 1 shear diagram may be constructed by plotingt scale the entity asthe orate foreach seation of the beam. Such ‘iagras show in continuous forthe variation slong the length of the beam. Moment-Shear Relation The scar Vis the fist derivative of mo- ment with fespct to distance along the um, V = dd. This tela Yionsip dass no, however, account for any sudden changes in mo- Poo i YY ELL Ll. oon Fg 5220 ZA + soe AMEE, : WW it, 3 pt atti § + a, ig 52.90 BEAMS 5-21 Table 5.2.2 gives the eutions,bending-moment equations, vertical soar equations, and the dflcction of some ofthe more comnon types oftbeams Maximum Safe Load on Steel Beams See Tale $23. To obtain ‘maximum safe load (or maximum deflection under maximum safe lead) {or any ofthe conditions of loading given in Table $25, multiply the comesponding cosficint in that table by the greatest safe load (oF deecdon for distributed load fr the particular section under eonsiee lon as gtven in Table $24 The following approximate factors for reducing the load shouldbe sod when beams at long in comparison with thelr bread Tenino ange wich or ‘Theory of Flexure A bent beam is shown ia Fig. $2.31. The com cave sid sin compression andthe convex side in tension. These are Aivided by the netral plane of zoo sess 4°84. The intersection of| ‘he neural lane withthe fae of the Beam isin the metal ie relate serve 48. Te intersection ofthe neural plane wih the cos section is the muta ai NN" Fig 5231 Wis assumed that a beam is prismatic, fa length at leas 10 times its depth, and that he external fers areal at ight angles tothe ais ofthe bam’ and in a plane of symamcuy, and that Mexute is slight. Other assumptions ate: (1) That the material is homogeneous, and obeys ‘Hooke's lw. (2) Tat sree are within the eli at (3) Tha every lager of material is eto expand and contract longitudinally and ate. ally user tesa if separate fom eter layers (8) That the tensile and ompresive moduli of elasticity ate equ. (5) Tha the cross section Femaine a plane surface. (The assumption of plane cose seston is Stietly ue ealy when the shear is constant or 230 over the cross fection, and when the shear is constant throughout the lngth ofthe team) 1 follows then that: (1) The internal forces ae in horizontal balance. (2) The nese nis contin the center af gravity ofthe cross section, where there is no resultant axial stress. (3) The stress intensity Varies ‘ect with the distance from the neta axis “The moment ofthe elastic ores about the newtal axis. the stem someat of moment of resitance, i If ~ Sie, where Sis an clastic unt "Hee at outer fer whose distance fom the neta ai sc: and ithe ‘ectangular moment of inti about the neutral axis. the section “This Frm forthe strength of teams Forrectangularbeams, MI= YoSBne where b = breadth and hr ~ depth ie the elastic tempt of beam sections Varies fll: (1) fr equal width, as the square ofthe depth (2) Tor equal dep, drcedy ab the wid: (3) for equal depth and ‘with, dined asthe strength ofthe material (8) if span varies, then for gual dep, wid, and material inversely asthe span,5:22 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS ‘eble 522, Beams of Uniform Cross Section, Loaded Transversely “tr Ls Tw Max focus ats = ATTA +4 a Orn = renee Onn = +0" 1 Bam is eut in halves ventically, the two haves lid side by side ach will ary only one-half as much a the exginal eam. “ables $2.60 5.28 give the properties of various beam cress sec. tions, For properties of structurale shapes, see Set. 122. (Oblique Loading Itshould be noted that Table 2.6 includes contain ‘cases fr which he horizontal axis snot a nutal axis assuming the ‘common case of vertical loading, The rectangular section with the diag- ‘nal asa horizontal axis (Table 2.6) i such a ease. These cases must Iehandled by the principles of oblique loading. Every section of abet has two principal axes passing through the ‘center of gravity, and these two axes ae always aright angles to each ‘ther The principal axes are axes with respect to which the moment of inna i respectively, a maximum and a minimum, and fr which the product of inertia 220. For symmetical sections axes of symmetry !eaways principal aes. Fr unsymmetrical sections, ikea rated angle Section Fig 5282), the inclination ofthe principal axis with the X axis tay be found fom the forma tan 20} = 20,0, ~ 1), in which 1 fngle of inclination ofthe principal axis tothe axis fy = the product ‘ofineria ofthe section with espetio the Xand Yes, , = moment of Ineaia ofthe secon with espero the Yaxis, ,~ momento inert ofTeansversely (Continued)BEAMS 5-25 Teble 522, Beams of Uniform Cross Section, Loaded Tansversely (Continuodd (es Table 52.2. Unformally Distributed Loads on Simply Supported Rectangul (Lateral Supported Sufficient to Prevent Buckling) [Cole eran erst 1.00 18970 bem ori] Tol tend apni ling he weigh of eam ro (wale Depot me 6 67 ‘310. 1500 80 2200 3.530 4170 4700 : a roo 13s 180 fay 270 30 w so so sa 1.0 aio 2500280 n faim = tn im is 8 Me ie m0 "930 tio 2800 4 an 190 seo 0 Zsa " ho an S650 2 ta tam i om boo ao 90 ss 2» ow mass hoo 280 Lao Ea i 3D so "360 ts = Ma i oo ro) Wig: ot matty st PRESSE ataheh bad. Frectagets mat by 350 ‘he section with respect tothe axis. When tis principal axis hasbeen ound, the eter principal axis i at ight angles tot Calling the moments of inca with respect to the principal axes J: andthe uit sues existing anywhere inthe ection a point whose ‘coordinates are x and y (Fig. 5.2.33) s S= My-cos lz + Msn ci in'which 7 = bending moment with expect othe section in question, (= the angle which the plane of bending momento he plane ofthe loads makes withthe y axis, Meas c¢ = the component of bending ‘momentesusing bending about the principal xis which hasbeen dsig~ nat as the ¥ axis, Y sin x = the component of bending moment ausing bending about the principal axis which hs Been designated as the ¥ axis. The sigh ofthe two tems fr unt stess may be determined by inspection inthe usual Way, abd the est wil be tension oF com pression as determined by the algebraic sum ofthe two terms5:26 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Table 524 Approximate Sale Loads in Pounds (gon Steel Beams,* Simply Supported Single Span 1 ft ering od et tae (6) ‘tons dep nm) Principe) exe In general it may be stated that when the plane ofthe bending mo- / Plane of | mem coincides with oe ofthe principal ass, the eter principal xi is Flare Of | the natal aki. This e the ondary casein which the ordinary formula bending | for unit stress may be applisd. When the plane of the bending moment IY Principat moment | does no coincide with one ofthe principal axes, the above formula for ous, 1x | oblique tsding may be apptied 1 Fig 5232 Fig 5235 Internal Moment Beyond the Elastic Limit ‘Onlinarily, the expression M = SU isused for stesses above the clastic limit n which case 5 becomes an experimental coeficient Sy the imedsie of rapture, and the formula is empirical. The tue relation is ‘huuned by applying fo the eros section asrese-stain diagram fora & tension and compeesion test, a in Fig 52.34, Figure $2.34 shows the fide of «beam of depth d under exure beyond its east Tint Hine 1 shows the distomed eoss section; line 3, the usual retina Cooticints for Correcting Value in Table 5.2.4 fr Various Methods of Support and of Loading, Single SpanBEAMS 5.27 Table 52.6 Properties of Vrious Cross Sections* — bw st Le, relation of stesso stain; and line 2-2, an actual stress-strain diagram, "pple othe eros ection of the beam compression above and tension below, The neutral axis is then blo may be expected sess, bcause of the aus that isnot yet oversvained. This leads to an ‘verte cros seston, Syexceeds the lima site follows: for east ton, 5,25, fr sandstone, 5 Sy = 225 for woad (green) Sy ~ 235), nthe case of sel Iban, file Begins practically when the elastic limit inthe compression ange is reached ‘Because ofthe support of adjoining matria,the elastin ia Mecre §isaso greater than in tensioa, depending upoo the relation of breath Fig 5230 16 depth of scion, Far the same bea he diffrence decreases with Sy forconcrete,5:28 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Table 5.26 Properties of Various Cross Sections (Continued a Nia baw . Lat be ~ 0 pyon) x 012 (ppc) increase of height. No diffrence wil occu inthe case of a beam, of with hard mtr ‘Wide pats wil not expand and contact ely, and the value of E wil be inctesed on account of side constant. Ava consequence of lateral contraction of the fibers ofthe tension side of beam and ltrs swelling of fibers a the compression side the ross section becomes isto toa wapozoidalshaps, and the neural aks i atthe cater of avy ofthe trapezoid tril this shape i one with acuved prime tee the eadis Boing 7/j, whore 7 the radi of curvature of the noua line ofthe Beams, nd js Poisson's rato Deflection of Beams ‘When «beam is subjected to bending, the ets on oe side elongate, while the fibers onthe other sie shorten (Fig. $2.35), These changesin length enuse the bear to delet All pots on the Beam exeept those directly over the suppor fll blow their original postion, as shown in Figs $2.31 and 5285. “The cai are is he curve taken by the neural axis, The aus of curvature a any pitt i = 50MTable 52.6 Propetis of Various Cross Sections* (Continued) BEAMS 5.29 GS) aoe i T= eu —) = Tee | costumes Qe] feo] Fig 5235 Aba bent to crear eure of constant radius ha constant bending Repo Une the ‘ofa bent beam can be tained is, Substituting the the slope of theta tne equation by its approximate geometrical valu, uamental equation fem which the elastic eure lope and the deletion of any bea ob pp)5-20 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Table 5.26 Properties of Various Cross Sections* (Continued) FP SHEE “Piven aA, rt aro ‘expressed in radians. A second iteration gives the vertical defection ‘of any pot ofthe elastic curve ftom is orginal position, stany set ~ "AU 2) ~ ye et and String cost Ingo pn ed te nt iy on at hen == I~ — PIG. im geer he oe contin eran mat be Deflection in general, may be expressed by the equation f= PY (ml), where mis a cote. Seo Tables 522 and 52.4 for values of or beams of various setions and louding. For cotficiens of dele- tion of wooden beams and sructual ste! shapes, sce Sex. 122 Since ares as the cubs ofthe depth the stifles, o inverse dele tion, of various ben varies other factors remaining constant, in ‘versely a the load, inversely asthe cube ofthe span, a dicey asthe ‘be of the depth, This deflection is due to bending moment only. In ‘general, however, the bending of beams involves tansvese shearing Suesscs Whi case searing strain and hs add the tal delet ‘The contribution of shearing swan o overall deflection becomes signif icant only when the beam span is very shor. These sais may affect Substantially the steagth a well as the defection of beams. When ‘defction due to tranaveresheur is tobe accounted or, the differential ‘equation of the clasti cuve takes the form whore K i a factor dependent ypon the beam eross section. Scepius Serge, in “The Effcet of Shearing Forces on the Deflection and Sength of Beams” (Un: Wash. Eg. Exp. Sin. Bul 14) gives k 12 for rectangular sectons, 10/9 for ciclar sections, and 2-4 for 1 beams He also pont out that nthe case ofa dep, rectangular section ‘antilver, carving a concentrated load at the fie end, the defection ‘due to shear ay be up 0 3.1 percent ofthat du to bending nomen i this beam suppors a unifonny disubuted loud, it may be up to 41 percent. A deep, snp beum deflection may increase upto 15.6 pot= ‘ent when earying a unifomnly dstabuted load and up 0 12. percent wen he load concentrated a midspan, Desiga of beats may’ be based on strength (Suess) or on stiffen if ‘efcctton mist be limited, Deflection rather than stress bosoms the | SEG | wes yes V = 7 , ‘changes in sign and magnitude ofthe bending stresses reactions, and shears ‘Maxwe's Theorem When a numberof lads rest upon a bean, he {efcetin at any point is equal othe sum ofthe defections at this point {duet cach ofthe loads taken separately. Maxwell's thee stats that init loads vest upon a beam a to pots 4 and B, the defection a ‘due tothe unit Toad at equals the dflcction at Bde the unit load mt Castgian's theorem states tha the defstion ofthe point of applic tion ofan extemal free acting an a beam is equal othe ptt deiva- tive ofthe work of deformation with respect to his force. Thus, if Pis the fevce, the decetion, and U'the work of deformation, which equals the resilience, avid =f According tthe principe fest mor, the deformation of any stu tuje takes place in Such-a manner that the wark of deformation is 8 ‘Beams of Uniform Strength Beams of uniform strength vary in section so thatthe unit sess remains coostant, the /c varies a8 M. For rectangue beams of breath Ppand depth eh, and M = Sh" Thus fora canleverbeam ‘of rectangular cross section, under a load P, Px ~ Su. IF is com Stat, d? varies with andthe profile ofthe shape ofthe beam will bea Pabola as Fig. 5.2.47. Ids constant b will ary asx andthe beam Wil Be angular ia plan, as shawn in Fig. 52.48 ‘Sherr atthe en of « beam necessities 4 modification ofthe fons ‘determined above. The afea roquied 0 esst shear will be PS in a ‘antlver and R/S, ina simple beam. The dot extensions i Figs. 5249 and $2.48 Show the changes necesary to enable these canti- levers resist shou. The exra material and ost of fabscation, how ver make many ofthe fom impractical Table 5.29 shows some ofthe spl etna af warm tenth In| none ofthese, however, i shear taken into account oe O . y Elevarion ot Z, Fig 5247 Fig 5248 Torsion Under torsion, a bar (Fig. $2.49) is twisted by @ couple of magnitude Pp. Hements ofthe surface becomes helices of angled anda ads rotates through an angle in a length both and being expressed in radian. S. = shearing unt sess at distance r from center: = polar ‘momen of beri: G ~ shearing modulus of elasticity. I i assumed That the cfoss sections remain plane surfaces. The stra on the etess section is wholly tangential, and is zor atthe contr of the seation Note that f= rh the cas of rua ern section, theses S, increases diet as the distance ofthe stsine element fom the cen. “The polar momeat of inca, for any sction maybe obtained from J, =, + fy, whew J and [ar he eetanguar momeats of inti of thesection about any two lines tight angles 1 each other, through the canter of gravityTe rain en! Si wii For stength, The torsional eilinoe is balanced by the intemal resisting For silfiess, sayin) 226120, Fig 5240 ‘The state of suess onan element taken fom the surface ofthe sha, asin Fig, $250 i pure shear, Pure tension exists aright angles oon 45" helix and pure compression a right anges to the opposite els Rechced fermalae for shale af varies sectons are give i TAC 52.11 When the ato of shaft length to the largest lateral dimension in the exo section ig es than approximately 2th end eects may drasti- cally affet the torsional stresses calculated aire under torsion in bile tater is tensile flare a ight angles to a elical element on the surface. Plastic materials twist off ‘quuely. Fibrous materials separate in lng sis ‘Torsion of Noneireuar Sections Weta sovtion snot circu, the unit stesso longer varies dicey as the distance fom the centr ‘Cross ssctions Become warped, and the greatest uit stss usally ‘curs ata pot onthe perimeter ofthe cross scton nearest the axis of twist thus, thre is no sess atthe comers of square and rectangular Sections. The analyses become complex for noaciteuae seein, and the methods for solution of design problems usiag them most often dit only of approximations. TORSION 5-37 Which as the same shape as the bur and den inflated. The resulting Uhroo-imensional surTae provides the following: (1) The toque tans ‘mitted is peopational a twice the volume under the inflated membrane, tnd (2) the shear stess at any poat is proportional to the slope of the furve measud perpendicular to tht slope. In rece year, several fther mathematical technigues have became widely used, especially ‘with she aid of faster computational methods available from elctonic omputes BY using fnedierence methods the diffrent operators of the poverning equations are replaced with diffrence operators which are foluted tothe desired unknown values at gridworkof pont in the ‘une ofthe cross section being investigated The ditetement method, cosmonly refered 143 FEM, deals witha spatial appeoximation of @ complex shape which is then analyzed 10 detrmine deformations, stesso, ete By Using FEM, te exact store is replaced with set of simple suuctural elements interconnected at 2 finite numberof nodes. The governing equation fr the approximate structure an be solved exactly. Note that inasmuch as there an exact Solution for an approximate structure, the end result must be vowed, and the resus thereof used, a approximate solutions othe real true Using 2 finite-difeence approach t Poisson's pail diferent equation, which defines the stress functions for slid and hollow shats ‘vi generalized contours alongwith Prand's membrane analogy, 1a ower has developed a series of practical design chats (ARRADCOM- MISD Manual UN 80-5, January 1981, Department ofthe Army). D- ‘mensionless charts and tables for transmitted frgue and maxitnum sharing sess have been aeneated, Information far cular shafts With ‘ectanglar and circular keyways, extemal splines and milled Ms, as ‘well a rectangular and X-shaped torsion ba, s presented, ‘Assuming the stessdisibuton from the point f maximum ses to the comer to be parabolic, Bach derived the approximate expression, SIM = 94M (2b2H) fora rectangular seton, bby h whete b> b. For loser ess, the shearing stresses fora ectanglar section (Fig. 5.251) Inay be expressed, ~ Mfcgb'h) and Sy MgB). The angle of ‘ist for these satis = MIYSGB>R), The factors uy and fare futons ofthe rato hb ad a given a Table 52.10. Inthe case ofeampote etn such 53 20a angle, the torque tha can be resisted is Mf, ~ GS 3hD' the summation applic teach ofthe Feclagles ito which the setion can be divided. The maximum sess focus on the component rectangle having the lrgst value. I is 3s computed from Sy = Mabou pub) . Torque, defction, and work stations fo some ational sections ‘ aye given in Table $2 Fig 5250 = Torsion problems have been solved for many diferent noneicular oss sections by ulizing the membrane analog, dus to Pra, Which | takes use ofthe fact ha the mutematcal testment fa tvisted ba is 5 fwvemedby thesame cquatonsasforamenbranestetchodoveratole | Fig $251 ‘Table 5.2.10 Factors for Torsion of Rectangular Shafts (Fg. 5.2.51)5:28 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Table $2.11 Torsion f Shafts of Various Cross Sections aoow, Doe, Y (02) 2 tan | EE 7 mm, | = ze re te SS PER wok r ws eit Bley ? " ‘soe EMS couuns Members subjected to direct compression can be groupe ito thee lasses. Campresion backs ae so shot (slenderess ratios below 30) that beading of member is ulikely. At the other limit columas 50 Slender hat beading is primary, are the loa elma defined by Euler's theory The intermediate columns, quite common in practice are called Long columns and the more slender short columns usually fil by bucling whch the ert Had Is ouchod. This a ater of nti ‘hats the column may comin 1 yield and deflect eventhough the loa! snot increased above eral The ender rai she pe ported length divided bythe least radius of gyration, parallel to which t fan bend. ‘Long alums are handled by Kale “The celica accounts for end co both ends a= fe. When the cola is pivoted when one end is fixed and oer rounded = when both ae fixed, = 4 and when one end is fixed wit he other fice, n= ve The slendemes ratio that separates long columns fom shart ones depenis upoa the modulus a elasiity andthe yield strength ‘of the column mater, When Euler's formula results in (2/4) > 8 Strength rather than bekling causes Fae, and he column ceases tbe long. In round numbers, this ert slendraes rat falls between 120 and 150, Table $2.12 gives addtional ft concen long columss. ‘Short Columns The ses in a short column may be consiered ply due to compression and pay doe to bending. A theoretical quation has nt been derived. Empsical, though rational, expressions fg, in general, based onthe assumption that the permissible stress mst be reduced below that which could be permited Were it due tcompres- sion ony. The manner in which this reduction is made determines the ype of equation as well asthe slenderess ratio beyond which the quan docs aot apply. Figue 5252 illsiates the situation. Some iypical Tommutas are given in Table 2.13cotumws 5.39 ‘Teble 5.212 Strength of Round-ended Columns according to Euler's Formula” Geee saya ns 32 io he ‘Teble 5.213 Typical Short-Column Formulas i vw Gy pew pee pe sense QS | memati | ase Tomo w() = esa) i ne Oll= [= r= 180SNTE~ 108 short cokana Combined Flexure and Longitudinal Force Figure $2.3 shows a bar under Mexure due t wansverse and longitudinal loads. The maxi- ‘mum fiber sites Ss made up of Sy due tothe diet action of load P, and, due teenie bending moment M. Mis the algebra sum of vo bonding moments, de to longitudinal load (+ forcompession nd ~ fr tension, and M, due to wansverse load. M= My Mf. Hore Prand f= CSE, Fig 52525:40 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Fon THe Cast OF LoNcHTUDINAL CoMtRESSIN. SyLie = My + (CPS,I24E0), ofS, = Myc ~ CPP). The masiinum sues is = 'S, + Ss compression. The constant C fr the case of Fg. 5253 ede "ved fom the equations P14 ~ S,.ieand = P’P(ARE!). Solving for fof = VaSyPNE0), C= Yo, Fr a beam supported a the ends and ‘iformly Toaded, C™= Ys, Other eases canbe similarly eaulated. Fon nie Cast OF Loscrrubimat Tessin, M = Ma ~ Ph and S, Myc = CPTE}, The maximum sues is $= 5, + Sy esion Sy ie +1 Fig 5255, ECCENTRIC LOADS ‘When ser blacks af leaded eccentric in compression of in tension, ites not tough the enter of gravity (ef, «combination of xl and being stress results. The maximums uit sess Sethe algebra sum ‘ofthese two unit sete, In Fig. $24 a load P acts ina ine of symmetry a the distance fiom eg: r= rads of gyration, The unit stesses ae (1) 5, duc to P, a ititacted trough eg and (2) 5, de othe bending moment of P sting witha leverage ofe about eg. Thus unit suess Sat any pit» is s=s.25, Pit = Poy 50 ev) is postive for points on the same side of eg as P, and negative onthe “oppnite sie. Fora rectangular er seetieof wid tbe maint stress Sy = S.(L ~ 6), Whon P is ouside the mid hed of width D dnd compressive load, tensile stresses occur For & eral crom seton of ameter ch Sy = SL + Seid) The sess due tothe Weight ofthe solid will modify these relations ‘Nore. In these formulas eis messured fom the gravity axis, and ives tension when « greater than onesiath the width (eased i thesame dicetion a), for rectangular sections and when greater tan ‘ne-sghth the diameter for sold eveular sections asin certain classes of mason constriction, the material cannot svithtand tense ste and thus no tension can gee, the enter OF mo Tents (Fig. 52.55) i taken atthe center of stress For rectangular sein, Pacts at distance & from the nearest edge. Length under eo Pression — i, and Sy = "sP(M). For a crear scton, 5, [0372 + 00s6(KeN)PANT, where 7 radius and k= distance of P fiom cirumference. Fo a irelar ing, S = average compressive ress ‘on erss section produced by Pe ~ eccentricity of P: 2 = length of ‘lameter under compression (Fig. 5.256). Values of zr and of the aio (Of Syn 1 aerage S are given in Tables 82-14 and 52.18. Fig 5257 ie a Convey monte Weight f chimney ~ 54,000 ~ 1568: OD of tn both cases 7s the te ses, Fig 5268 FLAT PLATES. 847 PRESSURE BETWEEN BODIES Witk CURVED SURFACES Two Spheres The radius 4 ofthe compressed area is obtained from the formula 4 .68P(e, + ca)(Ury ~ Hrs), in which Ps the com pressing free, and ¢; (= UE, and WE) at resiprocals of the o- spective mod of elasticity, andy and are the rai. (Reciprocal of| Poisson's ratios assumed to ben = 103) The pretest Inthe middle ofthe compressed suice Shaq = 0235P(Uin, + Ura}iley + ea) eormatin ofthe 10 spheres willbe ¥, whichis obined Se) and YP = O46PHe, + eFUM, + irs) VE, Le. wo spheres with the same medals of cat, it Bo Pr = Hira) Sie = OOSDPEXUF + Lede, + UraVE2 i adi of these phere te O68PHiE = OS4PUIE, Sh, = 0.235PE%? OSAP; and Y> = 3.680247) = 736P2\ EA Sphereand Flat Plate. In thiscaser, ~ rand 2 = =, andthe above formulas become 4? = O68PHe, + c,) = 136PHE, and Sigg = O235P (re, + 6)" = OOS9PEY FSS OM6P He, es) LAMPE) Two Cylinders ‘The width b ofthe rectangular pressure sufie i bined fom (49 = O29, + e,)(lin) + (Urs) wheter and ‘pate the radi, and the length Shag = PUGADE = 035P(Uiy + Urge, +63) For cylinders withthe same moduli of elasticity, oy = €y = VE, and (604)? = OSRPIEM( Lr) + (ia) ad Sigg = OITSPEL Ln + Vir When ry = ra = 1 (Na)? = O29P rE) ahd Sig = O.3SPEMIN, Cylinder and Flat Pate Here = Ps ~ =, andthe above frmulas| reduce to (4) = O29P ey + c=) = OSRPPAET), and 035PATe, +e] = OITSPENE For application wo ball and roller bearings and to gear tah, se Se. 8 FLAT PLATES. ‘The analysis f fat plates subjected totter lands is very involved bocause plates bend in all vertical planes. Stet mathematical derive tions ave theefae been aecomplshed only in some special cases. “Most ofthe availble fornults contain some amount of ratonal enpir ism. Plates may be clasifed a (1) thick plats, in which transverse Seat is impart (2) averaethickness pate, in which flexure sess predominates; (3) thin platen which depend in prt upon dies esion. nd (4) membranes, which ate subject io dice tension only. However, ‘sac ines of demaeation donot exist. The farplate formulas given apply primarily to symmetrically loaded averagethickee plats of constant thickness, They aevaidonly ifthe maximum deflection sll relative to he plate thickness; se ally,» = 04 Inthe mathematica analyses, allowance fo stessteis- trhuton, because ofslight local yielding is usually net made. Since this Yielding, especialy in ductile materials bene, the formulas gen tray cw onthe side of safety. Certain cases of symmetrically loaded Sirular and rectangular plates are pesen in Figs. 52.69 and 5.2.70 ‘The maximum stresses are calculated fom ee 2 Suk Sy The fist equation is fora niformly disibuted Toad, tis the second supports a concentated load , Bb; andthe thied a couple C. per Unit ent, uniformly dstrbuted along the edge. Combinations af these Toadiags may be ected by superposition. The Factors fan te given5:48 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Tobie 219 Coeflens and kor Cua Paes in Tables $219 and $220 isthe ais of ela pls or onside isl iH ‘recon pls snd sth ne chs ge aaa [ngs 32.and32 0,7 forces andr~ smallerside They 7 shun lesen” fee pe} on astm The mato eect fr the sme ass in by cs ne Pe ce woh at yy z ue wh wee wi aay f The facts are al given in the bls, Fr aon infomation, ec “ed ensonone ining th fre ASME Handed, Meals Engin: De a se a Sint eG ieee Selo = aaa | ‘ yee oer tht 2aiseme 08 (22108 Fig 5.269 Cicalar pater Cases (0) (5) (6,7) (8 and (18) ave coal THEORIES OF FAILURE Material properties are usually determined from test ia which specie mens are subjected 10 simple stems under static or Huctating Toads ‘The attempt 1 apply these data 1 Bor rail tren ee has esd Fig.5270 Rectan sn clip pe. [i te langr dimension xcept ‘reas 21) a 23)] in the proposal of various theories of flue. Figure $2.71 shows the Principal stresses on wiaxaly stressed element. Wis assumed, for Eimplicy, hat 5, > 5; > 5,. Compressive suesses are negative 1 Masimamestrevs theory (Rankine) assumes flu occurs wen the largest principal stress reaches the yield stress na tension (ar compees- sion) specimen. Thats, 5, 2 cory (Coulomb) assumes yieing (failure) ‘occurs when the maximum searing stress equals that in a simple ten- Sion (or compression) specimen at yield. Mathematialy, 5, ~ 5, =5, 3. Maximumstrai-energy theory (Beltrami) assumes fullure occurs han the energy absorbed per unit volume equals the sain energy perPLasticiry. 5 Table 5220 Coefficients Kandi; fr Rectangular and Elipical Plates (enon) unit volume ina tension or compression) specimen at yield, Mathemat- | above holds fr Sacuaing sree, provide that principal stresses a the telly, $3 + 53+ 53 ~ 245,52 + 5:8) ~3)S)) ~ SE “4 Masimum-dtrtomnergy teary (Huet, on Mises, Hencky) 35+ sues yielding occurs when te distortion energy equals hatin simple tension at yield. The distotion energy, that potion ofthe total energy which causes distation rater tian volume change s Thus fire is defined by SEF SE SE~ (515+ 5355+ 5,5) cory (Saint-Venant las Failure oceurs when ‘he maximum strain equals the sain in simple tension at yield or Sy 5) BS, 6 eon theory (Mol). When the ultimatstrenths in te son and compeesion are the same, sis theory reduces to tha of maxi- ‘mum shear. Fo principal stresses of opposite sgn, fale is defined by 5, ~ SyI8,) Sy —S,- tthe sigs are the same 5, = 5, or ~ 5S whore SL & the ultimate strength ia compression. Ifthe principal Suesss aie Both either tension or compressian, then the larger one, ay ‘Sic anust equal S, when Ss tnsion oS, when 5 compression, ‘N graphical reprnentation ofthe ist four theories appli to a iat suest ld is presented in Fig. 5272. Suosses ousie the bounding lines inthe case of each theory mean failure (yield or factze).A ‘comparison with experimental data roves the distoron-eneray theory (4) best for ductile material of equal tenson-compression properties When tose properties are unequal, the intemal tion theory (8) a prs best In practice, judging by some coeped codes, the maximun- Fig 5271 Fig 5272 scar theory (2) is generally usd for ductile materials, and the maxi- smumesressthery (1) fr brite materia Fatigue flues canaet be rated, theoretically, elastic stongth| nd this othe theories described, However, experimental results justify this at east a limited extent Therefore, the theory evaluation given ‘maximum load are used and the edarance engin simple bending is Substituted forthe yield strength [ExaMMLt, A sel sha in inact, abject bending momen oF 120000 i as wall a tong Ite ld stg in ena 10.000 wet maxima nus an Be applied der (1) mains hey gw Bh - 12000 2 = 255,00 1295280 cm bat) puastieiry ‘The rection of materials o stress and stain in the plastic range is nat fully defined. However, some concepts and theories have been peo- posed ally, purely etic materia is one complying explicitly with Hooke's aw In a veo materia the shearing stress i proportional the shearing stain. The parely plate material yields indefinitely, but onl tier eaching a cena tess, Combinations of theseare the east: sinc andthe elatplai materials "Enginering materials are not ideal, bu usually contin some ofthe clastoplstic characteristics, The etal stenn the sum ofthe eae Strain, plus the pln strain a5 shown ia Fig. 52.78, where the Sres-stain curve is approximated by wo staight lines. The Which is at the same Sine the total stain, is © at = tm (i, tn this equation 1 is the instantaneous length, while isthe ginal length. In tems othe normal sti, the natural strain becomes 2 ln + «,). Sine itis assumed that the volume emai constant, “yA ad 50 the natural stess becomes 3 Plt = (Pid, XI + Ais the orginal crost-seconal ae, Ifthe natural tes i posted ‘gains sualn on loglg pape, the graph is very nearly a staight ine ‘The plasticange elation i thus approximated by S = KF", where the proportionality factor K an the srsia-hardeningcoefiiet are deter5:50 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS rind fiom bes fits o experimental data, Valss of K and » determined by Low and Garofalo (Proc. Soe: Exp. Stress nal, val. IV, 0.2, 1947) ane given in Table 522 fp Fig 5273 The assy fig S273 an eed areata scan apo 5, +(e, —e,)tan# et whore H = tn i kind of pli mad "The deformation teary plat om forthe general cas of combined stress is developed using the above concepts. Cetin additonal as- Sumpions involved include: principal plasti-suain dictions a the Sime se principal sess dictions the Case tani negligible con pated to plaste stain: and the ratios of the thie principal shearing Sains—(@, ~ 2) (2 ~ Fy), ( ~ Fy)—to the principal shearing suesses—&, ~3,y2, G. ~3,)2, G, —3,y2—ane equal. The eela- tions betweon the principal ans and stresses in tonne of the simple tension quantities Become = G+ 3021 FSS, — G+ 521 3 B+ 3921 1 these equations are added the plasi- low theory is expressed: and axe the efetve, or significa, stress and stain, respectively, sete ade all 0.375 ck. Te lone sng testis ele 500 fbi Campus the maxima smn a wll he pst at ete “ ae aE Os sik =(3.)-(Q) (Ga) 10 tin? (109 Eaeem*) ROTATING DISKS Rovating circular disks may be of various profes, of canstamt of vari ablethicknos, with oe without ceatall and noncontelly located holes, ‘nd with ada, tangondal, and shearing sess. Solution starts with the diferent equations of equilibrium and ‘compatibility and the subsequent application of appropriate Boundary ‘conditions fr the derivation of working-sress equations. the disk thickness is small compared with she diameter, the vai tion of sess wit thickness canbe assumed tobe negligible and sy ety liminates the shearing sues. Inthe rotating ease the disk weight iS neglected, buts ino fore hocomes the body-force tem in the ‘uilibium equations. “Thus solved the sess components ina solid dik become whore j= Poisson's rato: ins «9 = angular peed, rads; R= outside dik ads; and r rads to point in ques The largest suesss occur atthe center ofthe slid disk and are en AOE pat ‘ak with contrat of radius (no extemal frees is subjected to the following stresses Table $221 Constants K and fr Sheet Materials Decatur COC veel Ameena aanThe ant nga ees ex a he ner ound, nd ae lan rd 2H poe (we tn) As the hoe radius approaches 2a, the tangential sess assumes 2 ‘alu twice that a he center ofa rotating slid disk, given above ‘Stresses in Turbine Disks Explicit solutions for cases eter than those cited ae not avilable; so approximate solutions, such as those proposed by Stodbla, Thomson, Hetenyi, and Robinson, ae necessary ‘Manson uses th calculus of nite differences, See commentary under previous discussion of torsion fer altemate methods of approximate folition, The prblem ilustited below i prime example ofthe ele ince of the combination of approximate methods and eeevonie com Puts, which allow a rapid solution to be obtained. The speed with Inhich the repetitive calculations are done allows equally api solitons With changes indesign variables. The customary, simplifying assumptions of axial symmeury—no variation of ates in the thickness direction and a completely elastic sess situation —are made. The diferent equations of equlibrium {nd compariiy ate rewnten in fntediference form. Solution of the nte-difference equations, appreciation of thei incr nature, and successive application of them yield the suesses at any ‘tation in tems of those a boundary station such s 7. The equations thus derived are a, an = Antti, * Bo Gin Aiton Bin ean ‘The fnte-difference expressions yield Eys. (52.2), which permit the 0.338 (sce Fig. 533) ‘atos of actual max longitudinal Rexre, ans verse oxure, and shearing stesses to Mii! for curved sections of pipe (se Fig 53.3) aby pA, Rew Fig sa Fig 525-56. PIPELINE FLEXURE STRESSES. ABCEGH of pipe at reactions ‘Ai = change in (eased by movements of supports, oF by temperature change, o both, ad dds = ah inntesimal element of length of pipe = length of puricular curved section of pipe, ia ) 2 = ‘radius ofeuvane of pipe centri, in (m) constants given by Table $3.2 fngle of intersection between tangents to disstion Fig. 82.3 Flevure constant of itl suved pipes, Genera Decussion Under the effet of changes in temperature ofthe pipeline, or of move- ment of suppor reactions (ether wasslation or rotation), or both, the ‘termination of sess distabution ina pipe Becomes a Satcally nde- terminate problem, In general the problem may be solved by a slight Imodifiation of the sandard arch theory: Ay = — KJMy dQ), Ay KJMeas(ED), and A(~ KJM ds) whore the constant K i iato- ‘duced o core far the inerasedlexibility ofa curved pie, and where the imegration is over the entre Ingth of ppe Between suppor. In Table $3. are given equations derived by this method for moment and stat ene reaction point fer pipes in one plane that ae ally xed, hinged at both ends, hinged at one endl and Hed a the oer, or partly fixed. Ifthe reactions atone ead of the pipe are known, che moment 0.335 ASF ORV =u KGW — Ge +3) San Is + 128) = [BA ~ 36," + (2)? + 208) XSF STR = (1 +1249) = (28 F104 8) when 4 < 0.38 ‘when A> 0.38 ‘able 53.1 General Equations for Pipelines in One Plane (See Figs. 5.8.1 and 53.2) ‘ign oly nad, tar ond ly moo‘The increased flexibility of the curved pipe is brought about bythe tendency of is cross section to fatten. This latening cause tans ‘verse Roxure sess whose maximum is S, Because the maximum loa- tudinal and maximum wansversesuesses do not occur atthe same Point in the pipes erse section, the resulting maximum shear i nat fne-alf the diffrence of Sand; its S,-In the sight sections of the Pipe, c= 1 the transverse sess sappeats, and 1 = ' This discus fon of S, dacs no include the uniform transverse or longitudinal ten Son suesses induced bythe intemal pressure in the pipes tei effets should beaded i apprcible, Table 3.2 gives values ofthe constants 4,8, C.F, G, and for we in equations listed in Table $3.1. The valucs may be used (1) for the Solution of any pipeline or (2) forthe derivation of equations for sae ard shapes composed of suaight Sections and ares of cicles as of Fig 53.3, Equations Tor shapes not given may be obuaiod by algebraic Audion of those given. All measurements are fom the le-and end of the pipeline. Reactions and stresses are realy influenced by end eondi- tion. Formulas are given to cover the extreme conditions. The fallow ing suggestions and coments should be considered when laying out a Pipeline ‘Aoi expansion bends, and design the entice pipeline take ear ofits ‘own expansion, “The movernen ofthe equipment to which he ends of the pipeline a atuached must be incl inthe Ax and Ay of he equations, Maximum flexibility is obtained by placing supers anil anchors 50 that they will ao interfere with the natral movement ofthe pipe ‘That shape is nos! eficient in which the mesa length of pipe vrking atthe maximum safe sess Excessive beading sument at joint is more likely to cause wouble than excessive stresses in pipe walls Hence, kep pipe ois away fom Points ar high moment. Reactions and suesss are greatly influenced by section ofthe curved portions ofthe pipeline is recommended that cold springing allowances be discounted in sess calculations ‘Application to Two: and Thvee-Plane Pipelines Pipoins in more than ine plane may be solved by the successive application of the preceding data, dividing the pipeline imo two or more aneplae ies fra Tte 2 ae = a om sot pe ‘Up ied af = 120 (3.5m b= 60 i (1.2) anc ~ 180 se (Sm, io the proccing ress (Table $33) for BCG the My HL Ae 7.4608 5 10-9) + Ay (8368 x 10-9) Fm BL Ae (4 10885 10-7) + AF B6 (43.1485 10-9) Bm BAe 3.1088 10-9 + ETSY C4 STIX 10-9) My = y+ Ra = BYE (430625 % 10-4) + BF 478779 10-4) M.= AM — Rb = BYAM(-355 x 10-4) + y(— 1121S x 10-*) Mj~ MG Re BF ( 2145 10-9 4 £1 By (412884 10-4) "To ttl a intial er ses ~ Let pipe) PIPELINE FLEXURE STRESSES 5-57 There ino tansverte flare se sins ll secs ae nigh. The man- sum ern sre chr (onc alo the masialonginal ber tess Stghen ave (2) ee hal ofthe hoop enna read bya tral a [rere that ah oxat nie, oneal lees of he mama Fig sa Ipc ecole I only emperstue change ae comidrd th acto the ‘aktanae pipeline ip 815) may bedetemind er the lowang xaos: M~ Gat ace ones arpa my Be Loh Fig 55 Right ne peti. Elimination of Fleure Stesses Pipeline Nexure sss that nor ‘mally would result fom movement of supports or fom the tndeney of the pipes to expand under temperature ctange often may be avoided teiely trough the use of expansion joins (See. ®7), Their use my Simplify bo the design ofthe pipeline andthe support structure. When "sing expansion joins, the following suggestions shouldbe considered (select expansion joint earful for maximum temperature ange {and delecon) expected so as to prevent damage to expansion iting, (2) provide guide to limit movement at expansion joint to ditetion pormited by joins (3) provide adequate anchors atone end af each Sait scction a lon thir midlength forcing movement o occur at expansion joint yet providing adayuate support for pipeline; (2) mount txpansion joins adjacent to an anchor pont to pevent sagging ofthe Pipeline under its own Weight and do net depend upon the expansion Jom for sifiness-—it is intendod tobe flenble, (5) give consideration to effets of comosion, since corugated character of expansion joins makes cleaning dificult.wera Bada Svenity 099 0 ale a (ed)PENETRANT METHODS 5-61 ‘Teble 5.3.3 Example 1 Showing Determination of tages 5.4 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING by Donate D. Paid Wilh, "A Fur Handbook Invi Radngrapy Amol SAE Handbook, Secs 358/559, H20, 125-28, 12021367, SAE Maer Nandetrocive tnt are those test that deere the usefulness viceabiity or gualyof a part or material without linting its use fle tess Nomiestnctive tests are used in thachinery menace to avoid ‘tly unscheduled los of sevice die to fatigue or wear they ae used Inmanufacturing wo ensure product quality and minimize cos. Consid- eration of ts equiements early inthe design ofa product may fcc tate testing and minimize testing cost Nealy every form of ener is used in nondestructive tei, including all wavelengths ofthe electo- ‘magnetic specrum as well as vibrational mechanical energy. Physical Properties, composition, and structure are determined: Maw are de- tected: and thickness measured, These tests archer divided ino the following baie mothods: magnetic particle, pentrant, radiograph, al trond corren, cbaticembsion, microwave andinfated Nut fous tchnigussacutlizedin the application ofeach test method. Table 54.1 gives a summary of many nondestuctive test methods MAGNETIC PARTICLE METHODS Magnetic parte sting is @ nondestuctive method for detecting dis- continues a or ner the surtce in ferromagnetic materials Af the test objects properly magnetized, finely divided magnetic particles are applied to its surface. When the object i propedy viene tothe ine dled magnetic ld, «discontinuity creates a leakage Mux which a tuts and holds the pails, forming a visible indication. Magnesc- fold diction and earacter ave dependent pon how the magnetizing force is applied and upoa the type oF eurtent used. For best sensitivity, the magactcing carret must flaw ina diction paral tthe principal dlreation ofthe expect defect. Circular ficks, produced by passing futon though the object, are almost completely contained wihia the test object. Longitudinal ils, produced by cals o yoke, create ex- ternal pols and a generableakage Held, Akomating, dicit or hal Dodge wave direct current may be used forthe locaton of surfice defects Haléwave direct current is most effective for locating subsurface de- fet, Maynetc particles may be applied dry or asa wel suspension ina Tiguid suchas kerosene or walter Colored dry powdery are advantageous when testing for subsurface defects and when testing objects that have rough surfaces, such as castings foypngs, and weldment. Wet parties te prefered for detection of very fine cracks, such as fatigue tess omosion, or grinding cracks. Fluorescent Wet pales ae Used ite pect objets with the aid of ulaviolt light, Fluorescent inspection is ‘widely used because ofits areaterseasivity. Application of particles whe magnetizing eure ison (cotinbous method) produces Songer Indications than those obtained ifthe particles are ‘plied ater the ‘ent shutoff residual method) Interpretation of ssurface-defest indications requires experience. Demagetization ofthe est object after inspection is advisable “Magnetic tux leakage i a variation whereby leakage fx due to fas is detected electronically vi a Halleffet sensor. Comptrized Signal incepretason and data imaging techniguss are employed. lecried parte testing indicates minute eracks in nonconducting smatrias, Patil of ealium carbonate are positively charged a they ae blows tough a spray guna the test objet. the objects mete backed, such a poeslain enamel, no preparation other than leaing is rnocessry, When tf not meal-bicked, the object mst be dipped in ‘guecs pnetant solution and died. The penetant remaining cracks Provides mobil eleewon supply forthe test readily visible powder Indication forms ata crack owing to the attaction of the positively rgd particles. PENETRANT METHODS Liga peetrant testing i used to locate flaws open 10 the surfae of sonporous materia. The test object must be thoroughly cleaned before testing Penewating liquid is eplid tothe surface ofa test abjct by 8 bash, spray, flow, or dip method. A time allowance (I 1030 min) is equited for iguid penetration of surface laws. Excess penetrate then ‘aeflly removed frm the surface, and an absorptive coating, known developer. is applied tote object o draw penetat out of Maw this Showing thir location, shape, abd approximate siz. The developer is ‘ypically fine powder, such as tale usually in suspension in a igi. Ponewating-lguld types ate 1) for test in visible light, and (2) for test under uluavolet ight (3.680 A}. Sensivity of penetrant testing is tatest when a fuoresesnt penetra s used and the abject is observed5:62 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING Table 54.1. Nondestructive Test Methods" Tamas vigiyauie Boing eaten reo i) etn of spit nine eR eee) ORESa tae Baalaabnetoist Raabe Prey eit or be wee ‘Spot chee” all pet gh ped oct rm por Stolle dp onc ictnce Peuity ae Pemument cur casi terevatons ch catine Neate Nnricamentcpes | Pater Cok depth zeal comdctve resued Src comaninaion ‘hans Bar plates ier ap ecm pcs pins tlt Sos TighotgedtaaeTable $4.1. Nondestructive Test Methods* (Continued) PENETRANT METHODS 5.62 ied price co Taramaiaahs Coane free Sena oof in Grndng whee Taking pat over 00°F Panceting power of Highton sor ‘quckiy a easy appl ‘sapeson ca ic Stay ware Pra neat tthe ewig debe hema pcre Celie tempera Tempest get temo tcknes ‘untive ‘stony Taam ‘Weies ely ral Heke ‘aces of parted Tech al ah Dena pe Count se Tear ine ly deel magic age ett Noose crops Watttetnes of iece in moamagmcic robe lia CChemsal prt ‘eatee of cue. ate eae s 7 catch “evough wal cake teetaoeeany) Fanon abet Ton ip Oreos a ern5:64 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING Table 5.4.1 Nondestructive Test Methods* (Continued) Tamas Deseo prepay Comoion prods Tigh eron bein by Low neuen aorta by ‘rnd ppc et tn tien “iam 3) ‘orton pony Tchr aot Peet ced Bln Stacey sett oe ea atalino iors ime ae Kaayatioey Tal vs a ‘Conse Permanent acer Tigh anal os ston poomety Seal thn, comps igh sensi deity ‘role Denny varnions Nonmettcs No enn required Dep of a at inte Tihs 1 pal temoaany () ‘Sarogaphy earn ip ty sd apenton ae ae al Colne bd engRADIOGRAPHIC METHODS 5-65 Table $4.1. Nondestructive Test Methods* (Continued) =" Tavitonsencks, ek Wells Toarcmlstnews Smaller complex Sohne ‘hsv bended joins Actomating and pe ahs secs pt oy — bint in a somidarkened location. After esting, she penetra and developer ave eomoved by washing with wate, sometimes aided by an emus, for with a solvent In ered parle testing, cracks in pares object (100 mesh o ssaller ar indicated by te difference in sbsortion between eacked find atte surface. A liguid containing suspended particles is spayed on a text objet. Ifa crack exists, particles a lteted out and conconate atthe surface a guid ows ito the addtional absorbent fea created by the crack. Fluorescent or colored piles ae used 10 locate aw in unfred rid ely, certain rd crams, concrete some powdered meals, carbon, and partly sited tungsten and Stanium ‘arbi, RADIOGRAPHIC METHODS Radiograph test methods employ X-rays, gamma ay, similar pene- tating radiation to reveal Mas, voids, iblusons, thickness, or suc {ure of objects Eeeromgnetc energy wavelengths in the range of OL to 10A(LA = 10-*em) reused to examine the interior of opaque materials. Penewating radiation proccods from is source in straight Ties to the test objoe. Rays ae diferent absorbed bythe object, depending yp the energy ofthe radiation and the nature andthickness ofthe materi ‘Xray of a varity of wavelengths result when high-speed elctons| ‘na vacuum tbe are suddenly stopped. An X-ray te consis heated lament (cathode) and a earget (anode); radiation intensity is almost siretly proportional to lament curzent (mA; tube voltage (LV) dete tines the penetration capability of the rays. As tube voltage increases, shorter wavelengths and more intense Xerays ae peoduced. When the {energy of penetrating radiation inceass, shore wavelengths and mere Intense X-rays are produced. Also, when the enor of penetrating radi- ation increases, the difeence ip attenuation between materials de- treaees. Consequently, more f-image contrast is obtained at lower ‘olag, and prt range of thickness can be radiographed at one time a higher voltage. ‘Gamma rae of «specific wavelength ae emited fom the dst ating nucle! of natal radioactive clement, such as radium, abd fom 2 varoty of artificial radioactive isotopes produced in nuclear teats. Cat 60 and iridium 192 aze commonly used Tor industalradiogts py. The halPlife of an isoape is the time equied for half of the Fadouctive material 10 decay. This tie ranges from a Tew hours to many yeas Radiograph ae photographie rconds produced by the passage of penctating radiation on a fil. A void oe reduced mass appears a flarker image onthe Hn because ofthe lesser absoption of energy and the resulting addtional exposure of the flm. The quansiy of X-rays sorbed by @ material generally mereases a th atomic number in A radiograph is shadow pictur, since X-zays and gamma rays follow the laws of ight in shadow formation. Four factors detemine the Best geometric sharpess of a petre- (1) The effective focal spat ‘ze of the radiation source should be as smalls possible. (2) The Soure-o-objctdistane shouldbe adequate for proper definition of the area ofthe objet farthest fom the fm. (3) The fm Should be as lose as possible to the objet. (4) The area of interest should be in the center of and pependicula othe X-ray beans and parallel to the Xeny fl. Redingrphic Bas vary in speed, conta, and grain size. Slow films| generally have smaller grain sic and produce mote coatast. Slo lms te used where optimum sharpness ahd maximum couast are deste Fast filmy are used where objets with ge difference in thickness are to be raliograped or where sharpness and contrat canbe sacrificed 10 shorten expose time. Exposure of a taiographie fil comes fom dlzec radiation and scatcted radiation. Direct radiation is siabe, ftnage-forming radon, watered eaten, which ours inthe objet being X-rayed or in neighboring objects, produces undesirable images fn tet an loss of contrast Intenufing sree mad of 0.008- oF (otosin-(013-mm or 0.25-mum) thick ead ae often used for radigts+ py at voliages above 100 LV. The lead ters out much ofthe low-en- fry scalter radition. Under action of X-rays or gamma rays above I KV, a lead sereen aso emits electrons whieh, when in intimate con tact withthe fim, produce addon coherent darkening ofthe fin Exposure time an be matrilly educed by use a intensifying ercens shave ad Below the ll, enerameters are used Yo inca the contrast nd definition which exist ina radiograph. The ype generally usa inthe United Sats is 2 Stall ectangulr pate ofthe same material ashe object being X-rayed. nis uniform in thicknes (usually 2 percent of the objec thickness) and has holes died through i. ASTM speifis hole dameters 1,2, and 4 times the thickness ofthe pentamnter. Step wire, and bed pentran- ‘ors rv also used. (See ASTM Materials Specification E94.) ‘Becais of the variety of factors that affect the prodactio and mea- surements of an X~ay image, operating facts ae generally selected fiom reference ables er grapis which have Bee prepared fom test data sbuined for range of opeating condos, All materials may be inspected by radiograph means, but hee are liniations to the configurations of materials. With optimum tech niques, ies 0.001 in (0.003 mm in diameter ean be resolved in smal ‘lecrcl components. Atshe other extreme, welded sta pressure Ves Sels ith 20-n (S00-mm) wall thickness canbe routinely inspected by Use of high-energy accelerators asa source of radiation. Newton a tn penetrates eatemely dease materials such as lead more read than craps organ rays but fatenuated by lghtr-atmic-weight mate- als such as plastics, usualy because of their hydrogen content Radinprapie tana are published by ASTM, ASME, AWS, an APL primarily for detecting lack of peactration or lack of fusion in ‘welded obiccs. Cascmaal objects ate radiogzaphed to detect condi-5:66 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING ions suchas slink, porosity, hot ears, old shut, inclsions, coarse ‘method of uilizng penetrating radiation employs fil, However, Geiger counters, semiconductors, phosphors (orscopy), Photoconductrs (xeroradiography), scintillation erystls, and vidicon Tubes (image intnsifrs) are also used. Computerized digital radiogea- phy isan expanding technology. “The dangers connceid with exposure ofthe human body to X-ays and gamama rays shouldbe Tally understood by any person responsible forthe use of radiation quipment. NIST ia prime source of informa tion conceming radian safety. NRC speciis maximum permissible ‘exposure tobe a 1.28 Ri year ULTRASONIC METHODS tenon nondestructive est methods employ high-fequoncy mechan ical vibvasonal energy to detcet and locale structural discontinue or

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