Photovoltaic Power Systems -2 Grid connected PV

Professor Chem Nayar Curtin University of Technology Perth , Western Australia

Grid Connect PV Systems

Simplest of systems No storage Maximise PV to Grid

Grid Connect PV Systems

Net Metering single meter runs in both directions Can also be with two meters : one to measure energy sold and the other energy bought

Components of a Grid Connected System

PV PANELS
SPECIFICATION (NOMINAL VALUE)
MODEL : PV-MF130EA2 600 V 130 W 24.2 V 7.39 A 19.2 V 6.79 A

MAXIMUM SYSTEM VOLTAGE MAXIMUM POWER (Pmax) OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE (Voc) SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT (Isc) MAXIMUM POWER VOLTAGE (Vmp) MAXIMUM POWER CURRENT (Imp)

 Sine wave output Low harmonic distortion (less than 4%) Input voltage range 160 350 VDC Output voltage range 187 253 VAC Single phase, can operate in frequency range 50 Hz +/- 6% Power factor > 0.98 High efficiency (more than 90%) Maximum power point tracking Mains and solar generator are galvanically isolated Disconnect from grid line within 1 cycle in case of abnormal condition Computer interface for local and remote monitoring and data retrieval

Connecting Solar Panels

Series connection to increase voltage Parallel connection for increasing current Terminology
Module String Sub array Array

PV Array Diagram

Array of sub arrays

Blocking Diodes to prevent reverse current flow

PCU

Cable Sizing
Size for volt drop
Maximum of 5% recommended

Size for current rating

Note that energy can typically feed from both the array and the power conditioner Current rating of the cable is the rating of the protective device, not the PV output Consider cable exposed temperature when sizing for current rating

Protection Requirements
Module protection Bypass diodes String protection
Blocking diodes Fuses

Array protection
Overcurrent protection disconnection

Australian Requirement
Breaker trip current to be between
1.25 x Isc 2 x Isc

Isc is for the section feeding through the

trip device Cable is then sized to the breaker Note some PV manufacturers recommend maximum fuse ratings for the modules

Components
Over current protection
Must be DC voltage rated DC arcs are hard to extinguish

Disconnection
Distinguish between isolators for breaking down the array and load break isolators for disconnection under load Plugs and sockets cant be separated under load

Components cont.
Blocking diodes
Are not considered a fuse Cannot be relied upon to block reverse current Make sure they meet the voltage rating requirements of the system They can get hot, keep them cool

Australian requirements include breaker the array into Extra Low Voltage (ELV) sections and being able to isolate the inverter for removal

Australian considerations
Australian requirements include
breaking the array into ELV sections for safe install and maintenance being able to isolate the inverter for safe removal

GRID CONNECTED INVERTER SYSTEM

Converts DC current from solar panels to AC current and feed to the grid . The system uses 50 Hz voltage waveform from grid line as a reference signal and feed current to the grid line. Before connecting, the inverter will check property of grid line according to following conditions : Voltage level Frequency range Phase of signal If all conditions are within specified range and synchronized with internal generating frequency, the inverter will be connected to the grid In case there is some abnormal condition with the grid, inverter should disconnect itself for both safety to human life and safety to the system.

PV/Grid Energy System Inverter Configurations

Large Single Inverter Type (Central

Inverter) Multiple Small Inverter Type (String Inverter) DC Bus (Multi-string Inverter) AC Module

PV/Grid Energy System Inverter Configurations

Central Inverter Type

Series and Parallel connection on DC side All PV panels connected to single DC bus Single Central Inverter Affected by partial shading of panels Only one protection system required

Kalbarri PV System in Western Australia (1995)

10kW 10kW

6.6kV 250Vdc 35kVA (75kVA) 415Vac

100kVA

String Inverter Type

One inverter per string Panels grouped into smaller inverter rated power of Inverter ( 0.7-5kW) Not so badly affected by shading Not badly affected by inverter failure

Grid-Connected PV Inverter (String Type)

@ 3.3kW

String Inverter Battery Backup

AC Grid Line

DC from PV 160 to 240 V

DC 48 V

AC Line

Controller

AC Line
DC 48 V

Back up Line

Grid-Connected PV System with Back up Inverter Kang Som-Mao, Ratchaburi

PV CONTROLLER BATTERY INVERTER

75 Wp x 42 modules
batteries for S-218C APOLLO G 304 And S-218C

DC Linked or Multistring type

Each panel or group have a DCDC step up converter High voltage DC link feeds transformer-less converter

DC Linked
String #1

Lboost

S1

S3

HFT

D1

D3

CPV
S2 S4

CDC

D2

D4

String # 2

Lboost

S1

S3

HFT

D1

D3
Ground

S1

igrid

S3

CPV
S2 S4

CDC

S2

Grid

Lgrid S 4

D2

D4

String #3

Lboost

S1

S3

HFT

D1

D3

CPV

CDC S2
S4
D2 D4

AC Modules
One Inverter per

panel High volume/ low cost Plug-and-play

Inverter characteristics
Efficiency Response times Harmonic output Fault current contribution Synchronisation Frequency control Power factor DC injection

Requirement General Compatibility with electrical installation Power flow direction Power factor

Standard AS/NZS 3100 AS 60038 N/A AS 4777.2

Details Electrical Safety Requirement A.C. Voltage and frequency ratings Power flow between energy source and grid may be in either direction Range between 0.8 leading to 0.95 lagging between all outputs from 20% to 100% of rated volt-amperes Harmonic current shall not exceed the limits in

Harmonic Currents

AS 4777.2 Radio Communications

Table 1.

EMC Voltage fluctuation and flicker Impulse protection Transient voltage limits Direct current injection

Act AS/NZS 61000.3.3 AS/NZS 61000.3.5 IEC 60255-5 AS 4777.2 Rated more than 16A per a phase Withstand a standard lightning impulse of 0.5J, 5kV with 1.2/50 waveform Voltage-duration curve derived from measurements taken at a.c. terminal shall Not exceed the limits listed in Table 2. N/A Single-phase inverter: the dc output current of the inverter at the a.c. terminals shall not exceed 0.5% of its rated output or 5mA which ever is greater Three-phase inverter: the dc output current of the inverter at the a.c. terminals measured between any two phases or between any phase and neutral shall not exceed 0.5% of its rated output or 5m which ever is greater Rated less that or equal to 16A per a phase

Data logging and communication devices

AS/NZS 60950

Any electronic data logging or communications equipment incorporated in the inverter requires to comply with the appropriated requirements

DC-AC ELECTRICAL CONVERSION EFFICIENCY

Efficiency is the most important parameter for grid-connected PV

generation Depends on whether galvanic insulation transformer is used between the AC on the grid side and the DC generated on the PV side or not. Transformer can be either 50 Hz LF transformers, or HF transformers. The presence or absence of LF or HF transformers in the inverters influences not only the size, weight, ease of installation and material costs, but also the earthing and safety measures to be adopted in the PV system, and the control of DC injection feed into the grid. Inverters with an LF transformer can achieve DC-AC efficiency of 92%,while those with an HF transformer typically achieve a maximum efficiency of 94%.

European Efficiency
Normalized efficiency, E, and is valid for irradiance levels in central Europe. It is defined as a function of the efficiency at defined percentage values for nominal AC power. This is shown in the following equation: E = 0.035% + 0.0610% + 0.1320% + 0.130% + 0.4850% + 0.2100%

Experimental inverter efficiencies

Experimental inverter efficiencies for different string inverters; values used are representative of state-of-the-art technology
Efficiency by inverter type (%)

AC power (% of nominal) 5 10 20 30 50 100 E

HF 77.5 85.8 91.0 93.1 93.8 93.3 92.3

LF (old technology) 84.8 90.4 92.0 92.5 90.9 90.0 90.8

LF (new technology) 85.1 88.9 92.3 93.1 93.4 92.8 92.6

Transformerless 86.7 91.5 94.2 94.6 95.0 94.2 94.2

MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING EFFICIENCY

The DC power input to an inverter depends on which point in the current-voltage (I-V) curve of the PV array it is working at. Ideally, the inverter should operate at the maximum power point (MPP) of the PV array. The MPP is variable throughout the day, mainly as a function of environmental conditions such as irradiance and temperature, but inverters directly connected to PV arrays have an MPP tracking algorithm to maximize energy transfer. The MPP tracking efficiency, MPPT, can be defined as the ratio of the energy obtained by the inverter from a PV array, to the energy obtained with ideal MPP tracking over a defined period of time.

MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING EFFICIENCY

where PDC is the DC input power to the inverter and PM is the power at MPP

Total Harmonic Distortion

Inverters for grid-connected PV

systems must generate energy at a defined quality The standards (example: international Standard IEC 610003-2 ) above require a THD of 5% for the harmonic spectra of the current waveform. nominal.
Table 1 - Harmonic current limits [2] Harmonic order number Limit for each individual harmonic based on percentage of fundamental 2-9 10-15 16-21 22-33 Even harmonics Total harmonic distortion (to the 50th harmonic) 4% 2% 1.50% 0.60% 25% of equivalent odd harmonics 5%

%THD = 100 x

I dis I s1

I s2 I s21 = 100 x I s1 I sh = 100 x h 1 I s1

2

AS 4777

Power Factor
Traditionally poor due to
displacement power factor harmonics

Present technology is very good

Maintain close to unity without great difficulty Can regulate power factor or reactive power for voltage control or power factor correction applications

Example :Current THD and power factor vs AC power

DC Injection
Is possible if an output transformer is not present Control systems can be added to prevent excessive injection Is regulated by standards Limits of 5 mA (0.025% of the rms output current for a 5 kW system, based on the IEC 61000-3-2) or 0.5% (UL1741) are being adopted in the UK and US respectively

Synchronisation
Performed automatically Typically uses zero crossing detection on

the voltage waveform Can be instantaneous on the next zero crossing If phase locked loops are used it could take a up to few seconds

Frequency Control
Locked to the grid May have a bias to drift in the event of grid

failure Lock range may be limited

Germany 49.8Hz - 50.2Hz Australia 48Hz - 52Hz India 47Hz - 53Hz

Prevention of Islanding
An island occurs when the inverter

continues to supply power to a portion of the grid that has become isolated from the rest of the system The power may be unstable during the island period

Anti islanding methods

Inverters are required to have measures to

protect against this occurring

Passive methods
Under/Over voltage Under/Over Frequency

Active Methods
Frequency drift Impedance measurement Power Shifting

Earth Leakage Current

In the US, the National Electrical Code, NEC, requires all PV installations with system voltages above 50 V DC to be earthed. Ground fault protection ('GFP') devices are used to measure the earth leakage current, in order to disconnect from the ground (that is, unearth the installation), in the case of fault. Stray leakage currents may be an issue in the sensitivity of this protection.

Fault currents
Battery-less systems can only deliver

what the energy source can deliver

for PV this can be very little to a maximum of 1.2 times rated current wind is extremely variable

If a battery is present the fault current

contribution is limited by the inverter.

Typically in the range of 100% to 200%

AC Power Output
The losses in a PV system are due to:
Inverter losses Dust/dirt in the modules Mismatch in modules Differences in ambient conditions from Standard Test Conditions (STC) 1000w/m2, AM 1.5 and 250C.

Pac =Pdc,STCx efficiency

Mismatch in Arrays

Mismatch in Arrays

Mismatch in Arrays

System design
1. Select the size of the system to be installed 2. Select main equipment to be installed, calculate for matching of spec. of 2.1 PV panel 2.2 Grid connected inverter 3. Examine location for PV mounting. There should be no obstruction of sunlight for whole day or at least 9.00 a.m. to 4.00 p.m. 4. Consider for tilt angle of panels according to latitude of that location 5. Select PV mounting structures.

System design
6. Check ampere capacity of each string of inverter, select size of blocking diode to be 30 % larger than string short circuit current with diode max voltage more than 2 times of max system voltage. 8. Select proper wire size so voltage drop for DC side is less than 3% 8.1 Select wire size between each string to the combiner box to enable less than 1% voltage drop 8.2 Select wire size between the combiner box to control box / inverter to enable less than 2% voltage drop 9. Select proper wire size so voltage drop for AC side is less than 3% 10. Select size of disconnect switch both DC and AC side to proper rating

Case Study : A PV grid connected system in Bangkok

1. 2. Select size of system to be around 3 kWp Select main equipments as 2.1 PV panel - Mitsubishi model PV-MF130EA2 - 130 Wp / panel - 2 strings with 12 panels in each string - Isc / string = 7.39 amp. - Total PV power = 130 x 24 = 3,120 Wp - V max = Voc = 24.2 x 12 = 290.4 Vdc - Oper. volt. at max. power = 19.2 x 12 = 230.4 Vdc - Max DC current = Isc x 2 = 7.39 A x 2 = 14.78 Amp 2.2 Grid connected inverter - Leonics G-303M - 2.7 kW output - Max DC voltage = 350 Vdc - Nominal Operating PV voltage = 230 Vdc Location for PV mounting is on the roof deck with no obstruction of sunlight for whole day Select hot dip galvanized steel for PV mounting with stainless steel nuts & bolts Tilt angle of panels is set to 14 deg. facing south as Bangkok locates at latitude 13.73 deg. North

3. 4. 5.

Case Study : A PV grid connected system in Bangkok

6. 7. Plan to install control box and inverter in training room , 3 rd floor. Selection of blocking diode 7.1 Min. device rating (I) 7.2 Min. device rating (V) = Isc x 1.3 = 7.39 x 1.3 = 9.61 A = Voc x 2 = 290.4 x 2 8. Measure cable length of the system 8.1 Cable length between each string to the combiner box = 10 meters Select wire for each string to be 4 sq.mm. to get voltage drop < 1% Voltage drop in each string Percentage of volt. Drop = 11,650 x 10 x 7.39 = 0.86 V = 0.86 / 205 = 0.42 % = 580.8 V

Then select blocking diode to be 10 ampere 600 V. for each string.

Case Study : A PV grid connected system in Bangkok

8.2 Cable length between combiner box to control box / inverter is 35 m. Select wire size to be 10 sq.mm. to get voltage drop < 2% Voltage drop Percentage of volt. Drop = 3,903 x 35 x 7.39 x 2 = 2.02 V = 2.02 / 205 = 0.99 %

9. Cable length between Control Box / Inverter to load panel is 12 meters Select wire size to be 2.5 sq.mm. to get voltage drop < 3% Voltage drop = 15,695 x 12 x (2,700/238) = 2.14 V Percentage of volt. Drop = 2.14 / 238 10. Max DC current Max AC current = 7.39 x 2 = 2,700 / 232 = 0.90 % = 14.78 A = 11.64 A

Select both DC and AC breaker to be 20 A

Calculate annual energy output

Use data source and get annual daily average energy available Adjust down for losses
Inverter 7% Temperature 15% Cable 3% Dirt 2% Orientation 1% Total about 25%-30%

Multiply by the size of the array to get the electrical kWhr output
OR

Use a modelling package

Verify
Does it fit in the area Does it meet budget Does it produce required kWhr Is the CO2 offset met Check it works Re-size if necessary

System Acceptance Test

1. 2. 3. 4. Sum total module ratings at STC (Standard Test Condition) : Watts STC Estimate inverter AC output to be 70% of Watts STC : Watts AC-estimated Measure real AC output and irradiation, then define Watts AC-corrected = Real AC output / irradiation x 1000 Compare that Watts AC-corrected is more than Watts AC-estimated

Result from the installation

Generating power and irradiation is measured on Mar 26, 2004 at 11.25 p.m. 4. Watts STC = 130 x 24 = 3,120 Wp = 2,310 Watts Watts AC-estimated = 3,120 x 0.7 = 2,184 Watts Watts AC-corrected = 2,010 / 870 x 1000 Watts AC-corrected (2,310) > Watts AC-estimated (2,184)

*** PASS SYSTEM ACCEPTANCE TEST ***

Generating Power VS Time for 3.12 kWp Grid Connected inverter at Leo Electronics Co., Ltd. (Apr 1, 2004)

2500 Generating Power 2000 1500 1000 500 0

8 7 9 15 16 17 10 11 12 13

Time

18

14

Power generating from Grid Connected System

Date 1/4/2004 31/3/2004 30/3/2004 29/3/2004 28/3/2004 27/3/2004 26/3/2004 25/3/2004 Gen. Power 14.30 12.79 12.13 12.33 13.49 13.51 13.14 13.01 Date 24/3/2004 23/3/2004 22/3/2004 21/3/2004 20/3/2004 19/3/2004 18/3/2004 17/3/2004 Gen. Power 13.73 12.12 10.94 8.02 7.22 8.57 11.87 14.68 Date 16/3/2004 15/3/2004 14/3/2004 13/3/2004 12/3/2004 11/3/2004 10/3/2004 9/3/2004 Gen. Power 12.85 10.88 12.53 12.02 11.67 13.21 11.34 10.15

Max. Generating Power/day Min. Generating Power/day Average Generating Power/day

14.68 kWh/day 7.22 kWh/day 11.94 kWh/day

Orientation terminology

Tracking Array
The PV array may either be fixed, sun-tracking with one axis of rotation, or sun-tracking with two axes of rotation. Generally fixed arrays are used though significant increase in energy yield is possible with single axis tracking with an additional small gain using duel axis tracking Trackers
add cost but offset by PV savings require some maintenance Very good for water pumping applications

Tracking Relative Energy Production

160% 140% 120% 100%

Fixed north facing at latitude angle N-S Axis tracker horizontal N-S Axis tracker Fixed at latitude angle Dual Axis

80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Albany Geraldton Halls Creek

34o57"

28o48"

18o14"

Energy from Power of the Sun

Energy =Power x Time = Area under curve Power
1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0:00 2:00 4:00 6:00 8:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 22:00

Area = 7500W.hr

Time

Peak Sun Hours

Equivalent Time at 1 peak sun (1000W/m2)
1200

2 1000 1000W/m
800 600 400 200 0 0:00

Area = 7500W.hr

2:00

4:00

6:00

8:00

10:00

12:00

14:00

16:00

18:00

20:00

7.5 hours

22:00

Solar Irradiance
A typical sunny day in Perth
1000

Irradiance S (W/sqm)

750

500

250

18/05/98
6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00

0:00

Time

A Typical cloudy day in Perth

1000

Irradiance S (W/sqm)

750

15/05/98

500

250

0
0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00

Time

Average Daily Solar Radiation, Perth

Calculate annual energy output

Use data source and get annual daily average energy available Adjust down for losses
Inverter 7% Temperature 15% Cable 3% Dirt 2% Orientation 1% Total about 25%-30%

Multiply by the size of the array to get the electrical kWhr output
OR

Use a modelling package

Verify
Does it fit in the area Does it meet budget Does it produce required kWhr Is the CO2 offset met Check it works Re-size if necessary

Suboptimal orientation the impact

Common in building integrated

applications Roof may be wrong orientation Facade may be vertical Tilt angle may be dictated by aesthetics