CH 7

C|rcu|t 1heory I
Learn|ng Cb[ecnves
1. 8e able Lo deLermlne Lhe naLural response of boLh
and clrculLs.
2. 8e able Lo deLermlne Lhe sLep response of boLh
and clrculLs.
3. know how Lo analyze clrculLs wlLh sequenual
swlLchlng.
4. 8e able Lo analyze op amp clrculLs conLalnlng
reslsLors and a slngle capaclLor.
2
C|rcu|ts conta|n|ng energy-storage
e|ements
1he slmplesL clrculLs conLalnlng energy sLorage elemenLs are
Lhose conslsung of a " energy-sLorage elemenL
embedded ln a llnear neLwork of sources and reslsLors.
Powever complex Lhe llnear neLwork of sources and reslsLors
may be, we can always replace lL wlLh lLs 1hevenln or norLon
equlvalenL.
3
Fxomple of sinqle
enerqy storoqe element
embeJJeJ in o complex
lineor network of sources
onJ resistors
ClrculLs LhaL conLalns only one energy-sLorage elemenL (or LhaL
conLaln muluple energy sLorage elemenLs buL ln such a way LhaL
Lhey can be reduced Lo a slngle equlvalenL elemenL vla serles-
parallel comblnauons) embedded ln a llnear neLwork of sources
and reslsLors can always be reduced Lo one of Lhe followlng forms:
4
C|rcu|ts conta|n|ng energy-storage
e|ements
source
tronsformotion
source
tronsformotion
I|rst order kC and kL c|rcu|ts
We wlsh Lo nd Lhe volLage and currenL developed by Lhe
energy sLorage elemenL. 1he manner ln whlch volLage or
currenL varles wlLh ume ls referred as nme response
Slnce Lhe volLages and currenLs of Lhe baslc" 8L and 8C
clrculLs are descrlbed by rsL order dlerenual equauons Lhe
baslc 8L and 8C clrculLs are a.k.a. frst order circuits
3
RC
dv(t)
dt
+ v(t) = v
s
(t)
L
R
di (t)
dt
+i (t) = i
s
(t)
I|rst Crder kC and kL c|rcu|ts

RC
dv(t)
dt
+ v(t) = v
s
(t)
L
R
di (t)
dt
+i (t) = i
s
(t)
Botb RC onJ l,R
bove tbe Jimensions
of time
Botb equotions bove tbe some structure:
dy(t)
dt
+ y(t) = x(t)
Ilneur Flrxt OrJer
lfferentlul Fq.
wlth Conxtunt
Coefflclentx
y(t) = unknown variable =
v(t) for the capacitive case
i (t) for the inductive case

x(t) = forcing function =
v
S
(t) for the capacitive case
i
S
(t) for the inductive case

= time constant =
RC for the capacitive case
L / R for the inductive case

Ana|ys|s of bas|c kL and kC c|rcu|ts
Coal:
deLermlne Lhe currenLs and volLages LhaL arlses when energy
ls elLher acqulred or released by an lnducLor or capaclLor ln
response Lo a change ln a volLage or currenL source
nC1L: a clrculL conLalnlng muluple capaclLances (or
lnducLances) ls sull a rsL order clrculL lf lLs Lopology allows
for Lhe capaclLances (or lnducLances) Lo be reduced Lo a slngle
equlvalenL capaclLance (or lnducLance) Lhrough repeaLed
usage of parallel and serles comblnauons
7
kesponse of bas|c kL and kC c|rcu|ts
Slnce Lhe clrculLs we are deallng wlLh are L1l, we can apply
superposluon Lo solve Lhem.
As a resulL of applylng superposluon we can expecL Lhe soluuon Lo
be formed by Lwo componenLs:
Cne componenL LhaL does noL depend on Lhe drlvlng source
Cne componenL LhaL depends on Lhe parucular drlvlng source
8
dy(t)
dt
+ y(t) = x(t)
dy
*
(t)
dt
+ y
*
(t) = 0
dy
**
(t)
dt
+ y
**
(t) = x(t)
y(t) = y
*
(t) + y
**
(t)
AL a rsL glance lL may seem odd Lo expecL Lhe clrculL Lo produce a
non zero response wlLh a zero forclng source, however Lhls
behavlor sLems from Lhe ablllLy of capaclLors and lnducLors Lo sLore
energy
lL ls preclsely Lhls energy LhaL allows Lhe clrculL Lo susLaln non-zero
volLages and currenLs even ln absence of any forclng source
1hls volLages and currenLs wlll perslsLs unul all of Lhe lnlual energy
has been used up by Lhe reslsLance ln Lhe clrculL
9
dy
*
(t)
dt
+ y
*
(t) = 0

1he componenL of Lhe soluuon LhaL does noL depend on Lhe drlvlng
(= forclng = exclLauon) source ls called Lhe homogenous assoc|ated
so|unon (lL ls Lhe soluuon of Lhe homogeneous dlerenual
equauon assoclaLed wlLh Lhe orlglnal dlerenual equauon) Lhe
source free so|unon Lhe natura| response (lL depends only on
Lhe lnLernal energy sLorage properues of Lhe clrculL noL on lLs
exLernal sources)
10
y
*
(t) y
HA
(t) y
N
(t)
dy(t)
dt
+ y(t) = x(t)
dy(t)
dt
+ y(t) = 0
Orlglnul Jlfferentlul equutlon
Homogeneoux (xet the forclng functlon
ln the orlglnul Jlfferentlul equutlon to 0)
Jlfferentlul equutlon uxxocluteJ
1he componenL of Lhe soluuon LhaL depends on Lhe parucular
drlvlng source ls called Lhe parncu|ar so|unon Lhe forced
response
ln summary, Lhe tota| response (= general soluuon) of a baslc 8L or
8C clrculL has Lhe followlng sLrucLure:
11
y
**
(t) y
P
(t) y
F
(t)
y(t) = y
HA
(t) + y
P
(t) y
N
(t) + y
F
(t)
Natura| response of bas|c kL c|rcu|t
LeL's assume LhaL Lhe lndependenL currenL source l
S
generaLes a
consLanL currenL l
0
and LhaL Lhe swlLch has been ln a closed posluon
for a long long ume (leL's say lL has been closed slnce L=-~)
all currenLs and volLages have consLanL values
rlor Lhe swlLch belng opened Lhe lnducLor appears as a shorL
clrculL:
12
i
s
=I

v = L
di
L
dt
= L
d(constant)
dt
= 0

Natura| kesponse of bas|c kL c|rcu|t
8ecause prlor Lhe swlLch belng opened Lhe lnducLor appears as a
shorL clrculL (Lhe volLage across Lhe lnducLance ln zero) and Lhere
can be no currenL ln elLher 8
0
or 8. 1herefore, all source currenL
l
s
=l
0
appears ln Lhe lnducLance
Aer Lhe swlLch has been opened (LhaL ls aer Lhe source has been
dlsconnecLed) Lhe lnducLor begln releaslng Lhe sLored energy
13
i
s
=I

L
di (t)
dt
+ Ri (t) = 0 for t 0


L
di (t)
dt
+ Ri (t) = 0 L
di
dt
dt + R i dt = 0
Ldi = R i dt
di
i
=
R
L
dt
di
i
i ( 0)
i ( t )
=
R
L
dt
0
t
ln
i (t)
i (0)
=
R
L
t i (t) = i (0)e
( R / L ) t
with t 0
Since on instontoneous cbonqe of current connot occur in on inJuctor {unless tbe
voltoqe ocross it is injinite) in tbe jirst instont ofter tbe switcb bos been openeJ,
tbe current in tbe inJuctor remoins uncbonqeJ:
i (0) = i (0) = I
0
i (t) = I
0
e
( R / L ) t
with t 0
i{0)=l
0
Fxponentlul Jecuy

i (t) = I
0
e
( R / L ) t
with t 0
At t=0 tbere is o step in tbe voltoqe
0
v{t)
Rl
0
v(t) = R i (t) = RI
0
e
( R / L ) t
with t 0

v(0) = L
di
L
dt
t =0
= L
dI
0
dt
= 0 with t < 0
v(0+) = L
di
dt
t =0
= L
d
dt
I
0
e
( R / L ) t
( )
t =0
= RI
0
with t 0
0
v{t)
Rl
0
v(t) = R i (t) = RI
0
e
( R / L ) t
with t 0
v(0+) = R i
R
(0+) = RI
0
Be cureful before openlng
the xwltch the current
ln I unJ R ure Jlfferent xo
ut t=0- the currentx ure:
l
I
=-I
0
unJ l
R
=l=0
At t=0 tbere is o step in tbe voltoqe
I
s
=I
0
v(0) = R i
R
(0) = R 0 = 0
After openlng the xwltch the current
ln I unJ R ure the xume: l
I
=l
R
=l for tz0
l
I
i{0)=l
0
1he energy dellvered Lo Lhe reslsLor durlng any lnLerval of ume aer
Lhe swlLch has been opened ls:
17
p(t) = i (t)v(t) = I
0
e
( R / L ) t
I
0
R e
( R / L ) t
= I
0
2
R e
2( R / L ) t
for t 0
w(t) = p(t)dt
0
t
j = I
0
2
R e
( ~2 R / L ) t
dt
0
t
j = I
0
2
R
e
( ~2 R / L ) t
~2R / L
|
|
|
|
|
|
0
t
=
I
0
2
R
~2R / L
e
( ~2 R / L ) t
[ ]
0
t
=
=
1
2
LI
0
2
1~e
( ~2 R / L ) t
( )
for t ~ 0
As t tbe enerqy JissipoteJ by tbe resistor
opproocbes tbe initiol enerqy storeJ in tbe inJuctor
i{0)=l
0
1he nme constont r

i{0)=l
0
Tbe time constont = : =l,R Jetermines
tbe rote ot wbicb tbe current or voltoqe
Jecoys {= opproocbes zero)
Slope of i{t) ot t=0
i I
0
=
I
0
t
i
t
i
0
=l
0
t
0
=0
Ai=-l
0
6ropbicol
interpretotion
of tbe tonqent: i-i
0
= m {t-t
0
)
di
dt
t =0
=
d
dt
I
o
e
( R / L ) t
( )
t =0
= I
0
R
L
=
I
0
At=:

1he nme constont r

i{0)=l
0
0ne : =l,R ofter tbe inJuctor bos bequn to releose its storeJ enerqy to tbe resistor
tbe current is reJuceJ to e
-1
{=0.S7) of its initiol volue or in otber worJs tbe response
bos JecoyeJ 6S% {=1-0.S7) of its entire Jecoy
S: ofter tbe inJuctor bos bequn to releose its storeJ enerqy tbe current become
less tbon 1% of its initiol volue, tbus for most procticol purposes we consiJer tbe currents
onJ voltoqes os bovinq reocbeJ tbeir jinol volues
i (t) = I
0
e
t /
with t 0
=
L
R
Natura| response of bas|c kC c|rcu|t
LeL's assume LhaL Lhe lndependenL volLage source v
S
generaLes a
consLanL volLage v
0
and LhaL Lhe swlLch has been ln Lhe a" posluon
for a long long ume (leL's say lL has been closed slnce L=-~)
all volLages and currenLs have consLanL values
rlor pumng Lhe swlLch ln posluon b, Lhe capaclLor behaves as an
open clrculL:
20
R
s
o b
v
s
=v
0
i = C
dv
C
dt
= C
d(constant)
dt
= 0
Slnce Lhe volLage source cannoL susLaln
a currenL, all Lhe source volLage appear
across Lhe capaclLor Lermlnals:
Aer Lhe swlLch has been moved Lo b" (LhaL ls aer Lhe source has
been dlsconnecLed) Lhe capaclLor begln releaslng Lhe sLored energy
21
v
0
v(0) = V
0
R
s
o b
v
s
=v
0

C
dv
dt
+
v
R
= 0 for t 0
Slnce an lnsLanLaneous [ump ln Lhe capaclLor volLage would requlre
an lnnlLe splke of currenL, for nlLe currenL Lhe volLage across Lhe
capaclLor volLage musL be conunuous:
22

v(0) = V
0
= v(0+)
C
dv
dt
+
v
R
= 0 for t 0
v(t) = v(0+)e
t
RC
= V
0
e
t
RC
for t 0

v
0
v(t) = v(0+)e
t
RC
= V
0
e
t
RC
for t 0
0
i{t)
v
0
,R

i (t) =
v(t)
R
=
V
0
R
e
t
RC
for t 0
At t=0 tbere is o step in tbe current
i (0) = 0; i (0+) =
V
0
R

R
s
o b
v
s
=v
0

Natura| kesponse of bas|c kC c|rcu|t
1he energy dellvered Lo Lhe reslsLor durlng any lnLerval of ume aer
Lhe swlLch has been puL on b" ls:
24
p(t) = i (t)v(t) =
V
0
2
R
e
2t
RC
for t 0
w(t) = p(t)dt
0
t
=
1
2
CV
0
2
1e
2t
RC
( )
for t 0
As t tbe enerqy JissipoteJ by tbe resistor
opproocbes tbe initiol enerqy storeJ in tbe copocitor
v
0
1he nme constont r

0ne : =RC ofter tbe copocitor bos bequn to releose its storeJ enerqy to tbe resistor
tbe voltoqe is reJuceJ to e
-1
{=0.S7) of its initiol volue or in otber worJs tbe response
bos JecoyeJ 6S% {=1-0.S7) of its entire Jecoy
S: ofter tbe copocitor bos bequn to releose its storeJ enerqy tbe voltoqe become
less tbon 1% of its initiol volue, tbus for most procticol purposes we consiJer tbe currents
onJ voltoqes os bovinq reocbeJ tbeir jinol volues
v
0
Tbe time constont = : =RC
Betermines tbe rote ot wbicb
tbe current or voltoqe
Jecoys {= opproocbes zero)
= RC
slope of v{t)
ot t=0: -v
0
,:
ropernes of the Natura| kesponse

dy(t)
dt
+ y(t) = 0
ln motb tbis equotion is colleJ on homogeneoux
flrxt orJer Jlfferentlul equutlon wlth conxtunt
coefflclentx, onJ its solution y{t) is referreJ os tbe
bomoqeneous solution
Pbysicolly, tbe solution is referreJ
os tbe xource free rexponxe or tbe
nuturul rexponxe
lockinq ony forcinq source tbe response of tbe
circuit is Jriven solely by tbe initiol enerqy of
its enerqy storoqe elements
dy(t)
dt
+ y(t) = 0
dy(t)
dt
= y(t)
Amonq tbe mony functions encountereJ in colculus only tbe exponentiol function
enjoys tbe unique property tbot its Jerivotive its still exponentiol, so we expect tbe
solution to be some exponentiol function:
AsiJe from tbe constont -: tbe
unknown onJ its Jerivotive must
be of tbe some form
y(t) = A e
st
lugglng Lhe expecLed soluuon back lnLo Lhe orlglnal equauon:
AL Lhls polnL we found an expresslon for s buL we sull mlss one for
A. llndlng ouL A ls relauvely easy, all we need Lo do ls leL L0:
27
dy(t)
dt
+ y(t) = 0 (s +1)Ae
st
= 0 s +1= 0
Ae
st
0
y(t) = Ae
st 0nless A=0 wbicb qives
tbe triviol solution y{t)=0
s +1= 0 s =
1
Tbis is usuolly colleJ tbe

churucterlxtlc equutlon
Tbe root of tbe cborocteristic eq. bos tbe
Jimension of reciprocol of time {=frequency)
so it is colleJ churucterlxtlc frequency or
crltlcul frequency or nuturul frequency
y(t) = Ae
st

t 0
y(0) = A
A is tbe initiol conJition y{0) in tbe circuit
{tbot is tbe initiol voltoqe v{0) ocross tbe
copocitonce or tbe initiol current tbrouqb
tbe inJuctonce)
So wrapplng" lL all LogeLher, Lhe soluuon ls:
28
y(t) = y(0)e
t /
y{t) is on exponentiolly Jecoyinq function from
tbe initiol volue y{0) to tbe jinol volue y{)=0
Since the Jecuy JepenJx only on y(0) unJ x wbicb ore cborocteristic of tbe
circuit irrespective of ony porticulor Jrivinq source, tbis solution is colleJ tbe
noturol response {or source free response or bomoqeneous solution)

: proviJes o meosure of bow ropiJly tbe
exponentiol Jecoy
y( ) = y(0)e
1
=
1
e
y(0) 0.37y(0)
: represents tbe omount of time it tokes for tbe noturol response to Jecoy to
S7% of its initiol volue {tbot is, ofter o time : tbe response bos JecoyeJ 6S%
{=100%-S7%) of its entire Jecoy)
An olternotive woy of lookinq ot : is to soy tbot it represents tbe instont ot wbicb tbe
tonqent to tbe noturol response ot tbe oriqin intercept tbe t oxis
dy(t)
dt
t =o
=
1
y(0)e
t /

t =0
=
y(0)
initiol slope of tbe response curve

Tbe lorqer tbe volue of :
tbe slower tbe rote of Jecoy
Altbouqb in tbeory tbe response reocbes zero only in tbe limit t , in
proctice it is common proctice to reqorJ tbe Jecoy os essentiolly
complete ofter S: {since by tbis time tbe response bos olreoJy JroppeJ
below 1% of its initiol volue, wbicb is neqliqible in most coses of
interests )
1he s-p|ane
lL ls useful Lo vlsuallze Lhe
rooL of Lhe characLerlsuc
equauon as a polnL ln a
plane called Lhe s-plane
1he furLher away Lhe rooL
from Lhe orlgln Lhe more
rapld Lhe exponenual
decay
small decay ls fasL
31
1he s-p|ane
lL ls lnLeresung Lo noLe LhaL ln Lhe llmlL of a rooL rlghL aL Lhe orlgln
(1/=0) we have =~ whlch lmplles an lnnlLely slow decay.
hyslcally, Lhe condluon =~ can be achleved by lemng 8=~ ln Lhe
capacluve case, or 8=0 ln Lhe lnducuve case.
When open-clrculLed an ldeal capaclLor wlll reLaln lLs lnlual volLage
lndenlLely, so v(L)=v(0) for anL L > 0
When shorL-clrculLed an ldeal lnducLor wlll susLaln lLs lnlual currenL
lndenlLely, so l(L)=l(0) for any L > 0
32
kesponse to Arb|trary Iorc|ng Iuncnons
AlLhough ndlng Lhe naLural response of a clrculL ls denlLely a
good sLarung polnL Lo learn abouL Lhe characLerlsuc of a clrculL, ln
general we need Lo be able Lo nd Lhe response of a clrculL Lo any
arblLrary forclng funcuon x(L)
lL Lurns ouL LhaL Lo sLudy Lhe response of a clrculL Lo any arblLrary
forclng funcuon Lhe speclal cases ln whlch DC (= consLanL value
sources) and AC (= slnusoldal sources) forclng funcuons are
sudden|y applled Lo Lhe clrculL are of speclal pracucal lnLeresL.
33
An eleganL way of solvlng Lhe rsL order dlerenual equauon we
are deallng wlLh ls Lo muluply boLh sldes by:
34
dy(t)
dt
+ y(t) = x(t)
1
e
t /
e
t /
dy(t)
dt
+
e
t /
y(t) =
e
t /
x(t)
d
dt
e
t /
y(t)
( )
=
e
t /
x(t)
d
dt
e
t /
y(t)
( )
0
t
dt =
e
t /
x(t)
0
t
dt

d
dt
e
t /
y(t)
( )
=
e
t /
x(t)
d
dt
e
t /
y(t)
( )
0
t
dt =
e
t /
x(t)
0
t
dt
d e
t /
y(t)
( )
0
t
=
1
x(t)e
t /
0
t
dt
e
t /
y(t) e
0
y(0) =
1
x(t)e
t /
0
t
dt
y(t)e
t /
y(0) =
1
x(t)e
t /
0
t
dt
y(t) = y(0)e
t /
+
1
e
t /
x(t)e
t /
0
t
dt
ln conclusion, tbe response consists of two components:
Tbe jirst component wbicb is inJepenJent of tbe forcinq function x{t) {tbis is tbe
olreoJy fomilior nuturul rexponxe)
Tbe seconJ component wbicb JepenJs on tbe porticulor forcinq function x{t) onJ is
colleJ tbe forceJ rexponxe
Tbe sum of tbe two components is colleJ tbe complete rexponxe
kesponse to Arb|trary forc|ng funcnon

y
complete
= y
natural
+ y
forced
y
complete
= y(t)
y
natural
= y(0)e
t /
y
forced
=
1
e
t /
x(t)e
t /
0
t
BepenJinq on tbe form of tbe forcinq function evoluotinq tbe inteqrol onolyticolly
con be quite o cbollenqe onJ numericol metboJs moy bove to be useJ insteoJ
Tbe coses of qreotest procticol interest ore two:
tbe suJJen opplicotion of o constont source {BC forcinq function)
tbe suJJen opplicotion of o sinusoiJol source {AC forcinq function)
kesponse to the sudden app||canon of a DC
forc|ng funcnon (= step funcnon)
A uC forclng funcuon ls a funcuon of Lhe Lype:
Assumlng Lhe uC forclng funcuon ls applled aL L=0:
37
x(t) = X
S
(with X
s
being a constant)
x(t) =
0 for t < 0
X
S
for t 0

= X
S
u(t)
u.k.u. Step Functlon
x(t)
X
s
Step response of hrst order c|rcu|ts
We wanL Lo nd Lhe currenLs and volLages produced ln rsL order 8L
or 8C clrculLs when elLher a DC volLage source or a uC currenL
source ls sudden|y app||ed
38
l
I
(0-)=I
0
v
s
{t)=v
s
u{t)
l
I
(0-)=I
0
Step Response of Bosic Rl Circuit
i
s
{t)={v
s
,R) u{t) l
I
(0-)=I
0
Source 1runxformutlon

Step Response of Bosic RC Circuit
i
s
{t)=l
s
u{t)
v
C
{0-)=v
0

v
C
{0-)=v
0

v
s
{t)=R l
s
u{t)
v
0
Source 1runxformutlon

We wanL Lo nd Lhe currenLs and volLages produced ln rsL order
clrculLs when a DC source ls app||ed (LhaL ls Lhe same as
saylng when a step source ls applled)
40
dy(t)
dt
+ y(t) = X
S
for t 0
y
forced
=
1
e
t /
X
S
e
t /
0
t
dt =
X
S
e
t /
e
t /
0
t
dt =
X
S
e
t /
e
t /
[ ]
0
t
for t 0

y
forced
= X
S
1e
t /
( )
for t 0
y
natural
= y(0)e
t /
for t 0
1hus Lhe compleLe sLep response of a rsL order clrculL ls:
noung LhaL for L~ Lhe prevlous equauon ylelds:
We can also rewrlLe Lhe compleLe sLep response as:
41
y(t) = y
natural
+ y
forced
= y(0)e
t /
+ X
S
(1e
t /
) =
= y(0)e
t /
+ X
S
X
S
e
t /
for t 0
y() = y(0)e
+ X
S
X
S
e
= X
S

y(t) = y(0)e
t /
X
S
e
t /
+ X
S
=[ y(0) y()]e
t /
+ y() for t 0
Witb X
S
=y{)
ln summary, Lhe compleLe sLep response of a rsL order clrculL ls an
exponenual ttoosleot from Lhe lnlual value y(0) Lo Lhe nal value
y(~). 1he exponenual LranslenL" ls agaln characLerlzed by Lhe ume
consLanL .
42
y(t) =[ y(0) y()]e
t /
+ y() for t 0 (with y() = X
S
)
t
0
We can Lhlnk of as Lhe ume lL Lakes for y(L) Lo accompllsh 63 of
Lhe enure Lransluon
AlLernauvely, we can vlsuallze as Lhe ume aL whlch Lhe LangenL Lo
y(L) aL Lhe orlgln lnLercepL Lhe y(~) asympLoLe
43
y(t) =[ y(0) y()]e
t /
+ y() for t 0
Wrlung Lhe sLep response of a rsL order clrculL as:
we can regard lL as Lhe sum of Lwo componenLs.
1. An exponenual decaylng componenL wlLh lnlual magnlLude
y(0)-y(~) called Lhe LranslenL componenL
2. A ume lndependenL componenL of value y(~) called Lhe uC
sLeady-sLaLe componenL, because Lhls ls Lhe value Lo whlch Lhe
compleLe response wlll seule once Lhe LranslenL response has
dled ouL
44
y(t) =[ y(0) y()]e
t /
S
)
y
transient
(t) =[ y(0) y()]e
t /
for t 0 (with y() = X
S
)
y(t ) =[ y(0) y()]e
/
S
)

lL ls lnLeresung Lo noLe LhaL y
LranslenL
has Lhe same funcuonal form as
y
naLural
(and lL conslsLs of Lwo Lerms y
naLural
lLself y(0)e
-L/
and Lhe
Lerm y(~) whlch ls broughL abouL by Lhe forclng funcuon):
We also noLe LhaL y
sLeady-sLaLe
has Lhe same form as Lhe forclng
funcuon:
43
y(t) = y
transient
+ y
steadystate
for t 0

y
transient
=[ y(0) y()]e
t /
y
steadystate
= y()

for t 0
y
transient
= y(0)e
t /
y()e
t /
for t 0
y
steadystate
= y() = X
S
Step response of bas|c kL c|rcu|t

l
I
(0-)=I
0
V
S
= Ri (t) + L
di (t)
dt
for t ~ 0 = V
S
u(t) = Ri (t) + L
di (t)
dt

i (t) =
V
S
R
+ I
0
~
V
S
R
[
\
|

)
j e
~t /
for t ~ 0
t=0
Since tbe current tbrouqb tbe inJuctor connot cbonqe instontoneously
unless we bove on injinite voltoqe ocross it, we concluJe tbot tbe current
tbrouqb tbe inJuctor before {t=0-) onJ ofter {t=0) closinq tbe switcb must
be tbe some i{0-)=i{0)=l
0

i (t) =
V
S
R
+ I
0
~
V
S
R
[
\
|

)
j e
~t /
for t ~ 0

Tbe voltoqe ocross l is zero before tbe switcb closes, it jumps to v
S
-l
0
R ot tbe
instont tbe switcb closes {for t=0 tbe current tbouqb tbe circuit is i{0)=l
0
so tbe
voltoqe ocross tbe resistor is l
0
R) onJ tben it Jecoys exponentiolly to zero os time
qoes by.
i (t) =
V
S
R
+ I
0
~
V
S
R
[
\
|

)
j e
~t /
for t ~ 0
l
I
(0-)=I
0
v
S
-Rl
0
v(t) = L
di (t)
dt
= (V
S
I
0
R)e
t /
for t 0

Step response of bas|c kC c|rcu|t
v
C
{0-)=v
0

C
dv
C
dt
+
v
C
R
= I
S
for t 0 C
dv
C
dt
+
v
C
R
= I
S
u(t)
v
C
(t) = I
S
R + (V
0
I
S
R)e
t /
for t 0
i
C
(t) = C
dv
C
dt
= (I
S

V
0
R
)e
t /
for t 0
Since tbe voltoqe ocross tbe copocitor
connot cbonqe instontoneously unless
we bove on injinite current tbouqb tbe
copocitor, we concluJe tbot tbe voltoqe
ocross tbe copocitor before {t=0-) onJ
ofter {t=0) closinq tbe switcb must be
tbe some v
C
{0-)=v
C
{0)=v
0

Tbe copocitor broncb current cbonqes
instontoneously from 0 ot t=0- to
l
S
- v
0
,R ot t=0

Step response of bas|c kC c|rcu|t
v
C
{0-)=v
0

v
C
(t) = I
S
R + (V
0
I
S
R)e
t /
for t 0
i
C
(t) = C
dv
C
dt
= (I
S

V
0
R
)e
t /
for t 0
V
S
=I
S
R
I
S
-(V
0
,R)
i
s
{t)
I
S
Sequenna| Sw|tch|ng
Whenever swlLchlng occurs more Lhan once ln a clrculL we call lL
sequenna| sw|tch|ng
1he key Lo solve sequenual swlLchlng clrculLs ls Lo nd ouL Lhe lnlual
value aL Lhe umes of swlLchlng for Lhe capaclLors and lnducLors ln
Lhe clrculL
AL ume of swlLchlng capacluve volLages (lnducuve currenLs) cannoL
change lnsLanLaneously unless lnnlLe currenL (lnnlLe volLage) can
be susLalned
31
llnd l
L
(L) for 0 < L < 33 ms
llnd l
L
(L) for L > 33 ms
32
Lxamp|e of Sequenna| Sw|tch|ng
llnd Lhe volLage across Lhe capaclLor
loL Lhe capaclLor volLage versus ume
33
Lxamp|e of Sequenna| Sw|tch|ng
-~ < L < 0 swlLch ln posluon a
0 < L < 13 ms swlLch ln posluon b
13 ms < L < ~ swlLch ln posluon c
Unbounded (=D|vergent) kesponse
A clrculL may grow raLher Lhan decay exponenually
1hls Lype of response called an unbound response ls posslble lf Lhe
clrculL conLalns dependenL sources.
ln Lhe case ln whlch Lhe clrculL conLalns dependenL sources Lhe
1hevenln's equlvalenL reslsLance may be negauve.
A negauve reslsLance generaLe a negauve ume consLanL so Lhe
resulung currenLs and volLages lncreases wlLhouL llmlL (aL leasL
Lheoreucally)
34

Criticol Irequency:
s=-1,:
v
0
{t) =v
0
{0-)e
-t,:
Unbounded (=D|vergent) kesponse
ln pracuce, ln an acLual clrculL, Lhe response cannoL grow
lndenlLely. 1he response evenLually reaches a llmlung value when
a componenL breaks down or goes lnLo saLurauon sLaLe (LhaL ls Lhe
componenL sLops behavlng llnearly) prohlblung furLher lncreases ln
volLage and currenL
33
v
0
{t) =v
0
{0-)e
-t,:
{: is neqotive)
Lxamp|e of Unbounded 8ehav|or

R
1H
=v
uux
,l
uux
i
aux
=
v
aux
10K
7i
+i
=
v
aux
20K
i
aux
=
v
aux
10K
6
v
aux
20K
= v
aux
(0.110
3
0.310
3
)
v
aux
i
aux
= 5K
I|rst Crder Cp Amp C|rcu|ts
1hanks Lo lLs ablllLy Lo draw energy from lLs own power supply and
ln[ecL lL lnLo Lhe surroundlng clrculLry, Lhe op amp can be used ln
lngenlous ways Lo creaLe eecL LhaL cannoL be achleved wlLh purely
passlve 8,L,C componenLs
37
lnteqrotinq Amplijier
Bifferentiotinq Amplijier
D|erennanng Amp||her
i
C
= i
R
i
v
O
(t) = Ri (t)
i (t) = C
dv
I
(t)
dt
38
v
O
(t) = RC
dv
I
(t)
dt
1he ouLpuL ls proporuonal Lo Lhe ume derlvauve of Lhe lnpuL
unforLunaLely, unwanLed nolse ls usually characLerlzed by a rlch
conLenL of hlgh frequencles so uslng Lhe dlerenuaung ampller
has Lhe undeslred drawback of boosung unwanLed nolse.
D|erennator
uurlng Lhe ume lnLervals over
whlch v
l
lncreases l
C
ows Loward
Lhe rlghL maklng v
C
negauve
uurlng Lhe umes when v
l

decreases l
C
ows Loward Lhe le
maklng v
C
posluve
39

Integranng Amp||her
1he clrculLs produces an ouLpuL volLage proporuonal Lo Lhe ume
lnLegral of Lhe lnpuL volLage
v
C
(0) ls Lhe ouLpuL volLage aL L=0. lLs value ls deLermlned by Lhe
charge sLored aL Lhls ume ln Lhe capaclLance
60
i
C
= i
R
i
i (t) =
v
I
(t)
R
i (t) = C
dv
O
(t)
dt
v
O
(t) =
1
RC
v
I
(t)dt + v
O
(0)
0
t
Integrator
Cf parucular lnLeresL ls Lhe case where
Lhe lnpuL ls a consLanL v
l
(L)=v
l
1he raLe aL whlch Lhe ouLpuL ramps ls
WlLh v
l
>0 we obLaln a decreaslng
ramp, wlLh v
l
<0 we obLaln an
lncreaslng ramp
When v
l
>0 Lhen l
C
ows Loward Lhe
rlghL and v
C
decreases
When v
l
<0 Lhen l
C
ows Loward Lhe le
and v
C
musL lncreases
61

v
O
(t) =
V
I
RC
t + v
O
(0)
dv
O
(t)
dt
=
V
I
RC
Integranng Amp||her Lxamp|e
1he swlLch remalns ln posluon (a) for 9ms and Lhen lL moves
lnsLanLaneously Lo posluon (b)
Pow long does lL Lake for Lhe op amp Lo saLuraLe?
62
-10V
v
C
(0-)=SV
v
C
(t)=-v
O
(t)
Integranng Amp||her
1he lnLegraung ampller can perform Lhe lnLegrauon very well, buL
only wlLhln specled llmlLs LhaL avold saLuraung Lhe op amp.
1he op amp saLuraLes due Lo accumulauon of charge on Lhe
feedback capaclLor. We can prevenL Lhe op amp from saLuraung by
placlng a reslsLor ln parallel wlLh Lhe feedback capaclLor
63
v
O
(t) =
1
RC
v
I
(t)dt + v
O
(0)
0
t
1heoreucally we can deslgn lnLegraung and dlerenual ampller

clrculLs by uslng an lnducLor lnsLead of a capaclLor
Powever fabrlcaung capaclLances for lnLegraLed clrculLs ls much
easler, so lnducLors are rarely used
64
I|rst Crder Cp Amp C|rcu|ts
lnteqrotinq Amplijier
Bifferentiotinq Amplijier

CH 7

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CH 7

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C|rcu|t 1heory I

Tbis is usuolly colleJ tbe

initiol slope of tbe response curve

1heoreucally we can deslgn lnLegraung and dlerenual ampller

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