17 Coastal Processes Wave action is the dominant mechanism in both erosion and deposition along coastlines.

Waves are powerful due to their pounding action but are also very selective in etching out rock weaknesses and controlling sediment deposition. The largest and most powerful waves are those which have travelled furthest, i.e. have the greatest fetch. Large storm waves are powerful and destructive. Tidal surges cause damage when waves reach new heights; they occur on high spring tides, aided by strong onshore winds and low atmospheric pressure, as in the North Sea, !"#, and at $angladesh, !%&. 'L()) *+,S(,N 'oastal erosion is by wave action at beach level. This creates a wave notch, which advances, leaving a wave cut platform, and undercutting the cliffs - which retreat by a se.uence of rock falls /or larger landslides in weak material0. Selective wave erosion of strong rock cliffs etches out faults, 1oints and weaknesses to form sea caves, arches and inlets which retreat between headlands and sea stacks. 'oastal e.uilibrium produces slowly eroding headlands between bays where soft rocks are protected by beach deposition. S2,+*L(N* $345*T The main source areas of beach sediment are eroding cliffs of soft 6leistocene material, and also active river delta deposition. ,n any shoreline, erosion and the production, transport and deposition of sediments are all finely balanced; any disturbance of the budget prompts renewed erosion or deposition to recover the e.uilibrium. The longshore drift budget is easily disturbed by coastal engineering works, most notably where sediment is trapped or deflected into deeper water, so that downdrift beach starvation causes renewed erosion. Similarly, any disturbance of a beach profile prompts natural processes which oppose the change in order to restore a stable form. S*4(7*NT T+8NS6,+T 'lastic sediment is mostly rolled along the seabed where it is reached by wave motion in shallow water.

$eaches are formed by sand deposition where wave upwash /swash0 is greater than the backwash due to water soaking down into the porous sand. Shingle storm beach forms higher up by larger waves. 'oastal dunes are of beach sand blown inland by wind. Sediment washed into deeper water is deposited below wave influence, as wave-built terrace or offshore bar. Longshore drift is due to obli.ue upwash of impacting waves, then backwash directly down beach slope - always away from waves arriving with greatest fetch. 4eposition occurs in the lee of any obstacle, where sand is drifted into deep or slack water; a spit forms down drift of a headland, and may e9tend into a bar across a bay or river mouth; a tombolo may form a sand link between an island and the main shore. Salt marsh forms on mud held behind spits, storm beaches or coastal dunes. $arrier islands, as on east coast of 3S8, may evolve from e9tended spits or emergent offshore bars. 'arbonate sediments in shallow water create varied and difficult ground conditions for coastal and off-shore structures. Strengths of shell sands and coral reefs vary greatly with type and cementation history. Lagoons and sabkha sediments include mulls, gypsum and carbonate weakened by karstic solution cavities. Western 8ustralia oft-shore oil platforms re.uired piles through more than & m of loose shell sands. 'oastal retreat is most rapid where soft rock cliffs are eroded and longshore drift leaves no protective beach. ,n the east coast of *ngland, the glacial till cliffs of 2oiderness retreat about : m;year, and successive landslides destroy houses, farms and roads. 'oastal *ngineering *+,S(,N 4*)*N'*S 8 wide sand beach is the best means of preventing coastal erosion and retreat. Sea walls may prevent erosion, but wave action is relentless, and even the largest structure is only a short-term defence unless there is effective beach sediment control. *fficient sea defence is porous to absorb wave energy; made of armour stone /blocks of <: tons0, concrete tetrapods, or massive wall faced wiih cellular concrete. +eflected waves off solid face may induce scour. Sea walls may cost ="7;km. *conomical alternative on long eroding coast /eg 2olderness0 is to create hard points - short sections of stable, fully defended shore - with intervening coast left unprotected. 4own-drift of each hard point, erosion creates a shallow bay, which traps beach sediment. *ventually,

a crenulated coast should become stable, but compensation is needed for short term accelerated land loss between hard points. $*8'2 ',NT+,L 5roynes are timber, concrete or steel barriers across beach which prevent or reduce longshore drift by trapping sediment. 5royne spacing should be double their length to effectively stabili>e beach. ,ffshore breakwater, parallel to Shore, absorbs wave energy and causes beach accumulation in its lee - similar to on a natural tombolo. $each may be stabili>ed or e9panded by pumping seawater from a buried porous pipeline. Wave upwash adds sand to foreshore, but a drained beach absorbs and reduces wave backwash - so that sand is not swept back out to sea. ? 8ctive spits, bars and barrier islands migrate inland mainly by wave overwash. 8ny development, with erosion defences on the e9posed outer face, causes thinning due to continued sediment loss from the inner face. The Spurn head spit, *ngland, and the 'arolina barrier islands, 3S8, are now precariously thin; they should be allowed to break up and reform at a stable site further inland, as artificial defences will become increasingly e9pensive. TS3N87(S These are large waves generated by seabed earth.uake movements; they form in series of -@ waves. (n the open ocean they are long and low, but they slow down in shallow water, and can build up to < & m high approaching a shoreline; they reach ma9imum heights in tapering inlets. 7ost tsunamis occur in the 6acific ,cean, and take up to :A hours to travel from the earth.uake location to distant shores. The practical defence for such rare events is warning and coastal evacuation; the 6acific is covered by an efficient international warning system. '28NN*LS 8N4 28+$,3+S 2arbours, cut into the coastline or built out between breakwaters, are stable on a coast which is an erosional source area of overall sediment losses. 2arbour mouths may develop obstructing sand bars if longshore drift is strong. Betties deflect sediment drift; they may develop spits off their ends and cause downdrift beach starvation. Natural clearance of harbour and lagoon channels relies on tidal scour, which must

e9ceed deposition by beach drift; larger tidal volumes and flow velocities improve scour clearance, so larger lagoons and narrow channels are better kept clear. $*8'2 ST8+C8T(,N Sediment input and output, by longshore drift, must be in balance to maintain a stable beach. 7any artificial measures - trapping drift on a groyned beach, reducing erosion with a sea wall, deflecting sediment at a harbour mouth - reduce onward drift, and therefore cause beach starvation at downdrift sites. This may cause beach loss or renewed erosion /as at )olkestone Warren, section #@0 at new sites downdrift of engineered sections. $each nourishment by artificial input of sediment is an e9pensive alternative to downdrift e9tensions of the initial control measures. 2ailsands village stood on a rock platform with a protective beach in front of it, on the 4evon coast. (n D!%, offshore shingle dredging steepened the seabed sediment profile. Natural response was lowering and removal of beach within five years; so houses were ( e9posed to waves, and destroyed in a storm in ! %. S*8 L*C*L '28N5*S 6leistocene sea levels fell by about "& m when water was trapped in continental ice sheets, and some land areas were depressed as much as "& m by ice weight. 4rowned valleys /rias0 were flooded by sea level rise at the (ce 8ge end, after having been cut by rivers draining to the lower sea levels; some now form natural harbours, as 7ilford 2aven and 6lymouth; others have sediment fills, leaving deep coastal buried valleys. +aised beaches have abandoned cliffs, dry sea caves and fossil beach sediments; many were cut in ice depressed coastlines at end of (ce 8ge after sea level had risen but before land had isostaticly rebounded; ScotlandEs raised beaches are due to its 6leistocene ice burden; 'aliforniaEs are due to plate boundary uplift. 3nconsolidated raised beach sediments may be clays, sands and;or gravels, typically with lateral variation. 7odern sea level rise is about :&& mm; && years worldwide, due to glacier melting which may increase with artificial global warming. Local tectonic movements may greatly increase or reduce the local effect. +ising sea levels, or ground subsidence, accelerate coastal erosion, cliff retreat, coastal flooding, beach losses and barrier island migration. 5reatest effect-is on low eastern coastlines of both $ritain and 3S8.

18 Groundwater +ainfall /precipitation0 is the ultimate source of all fresh water, and when it lands on the ground surface it is dispersed in three waysF *vapotranspirationF combination of evaporation from open water and transpiration by plants, both returning water to the atmosphere; in temperate climates it may vary from :&G of the rainfall on open hills to %&G from wooded lowland. +unoffF surface water flow into streams and rivers, increases with low rock permeability, steep slopes, intense rainfall and urbani>ation. (nfiltrationF seepage into the ground to become groundwater, important on permeable rocks, and where runoff is slow. 5roundwater is all water flowing through or stored within the ground, in both rocks and soils; it is derived from infiltration, and is lost by flow to surface springs and seepage out through the sea bed. Water budget is the balance of flows for any part or the whole of a combined groundwater and surface water system; a natural budget is easily disturbed by manHs activities, notably where /and drainage or urbani>ation, reduce infiltration and groundwater recharge. 6*+7*8$(L(TI ,) +,'JS 6ermeability is the ability of a rock to transmit water through its interconnected voids. 8.uiferF rock with significant permeability, suitable for groundwater abstraction, e.g. sandstone. 8.ulcludeF impermeable rock with static water held in poorly connected voids, e.g clay. 8.uifugeF impermeable rock with no voids, e.g. clay unfractured granite. 8.uitardF rock with very low permeability, unsuitable for abstraction but significant in regional water budgets, e.g. siltstone. 6ermeability /K hydraulic conductivity K coefficient of K permeability K J0 K flow through unit area of a material in unit time with unit hydraulic head. J is e9pressed as a velocity, correctly as metres;second, more conveniently as metres;day /in 8merica as 7ein>er units K gallons;day; s.uare foot K &.&A&D m;day0. (ntrinsic permeability /k0, e9pressed in darcys, is also a function of viscosity, only significant in considering oil and gas flows through rock. 5roundwater velocities are normally much lower than the J values because natural

hydraulic gradients are far less than the ground water flow rates vary from limestone caves.

in

of the coefficient definition. Typical m;year, but far higher through

m;day to

6orosity F G volume of voids or pore spaces in a rock. Specific yield F G volume of water which can drain freely a rock; it must be less than the porosity, by a factor related to the permeability, and indicates the groundwater resource value of an a.uifer. Typical hydrological values for rock 6ermeability 6orosity 5ranite Shale 'lay Sandstone /fractured0 Sand 5ravel Limestone /cavernous0 'halk m;day &-&&& &-&&& &-&&&: " :& #&& erratic :& G # "& " #& :" " :& & # D :D :: A A Sp. Iield G &-"

)racture >one "& JL &-& m;dayK impermeable rock J< m;day K e9ploitable a.uifer rock

8M3()*+ ',N4(T (,NS Water table /K groundwater surface0 is the level in the rocks below which all voids are water-filled; it generally follows the surface topography, but with less relief, and meets the ground surface at lakes and most rivers. Cadose water drains under gravity within an aerated a.uifer above the water table. 6hreatic water flows laterally under hydrostatic pressure beneath the water table; it is the resource for all high-yield wells; there is less at greater depths and pressures, and most rocks are dry at depths < # km. 'apillary water rises above the water table by surface tension, by very little in gravels, by up to & m in clays. 2ydraulic gradient is the slope of the water table, created by the pressure gradient necessary to overcome frictional resistance and drive the phreatic flow through the a.uifer rock. Water table is

steeper where permeability is low or flow is high; typical gradient is F && in good a.uifer. 5roundwater flow is in direction of water table slope, identified in unpumped wells. +ivers normally have water table sloping towards them, with groundwater flow into them *phemeral rivers lie above water table, and leak into the a.uifer. 6erched a.uifer lies above the regional water table. 3nconfined a.uifer has vadose >one in upper part. 'onfined a.uifer has artesian water held beneath an overlying a.uiclude, with a head of artesian pressure to drive the water above the a.uifer, perhaps to rise to ground level; artesian water is common in alluvial sand clay se.uences and in comple9 landslides. 5roundwater flow K M K Jbwi, where J K permeability, b K a.uifer thickness, w K a.uifer width and i- hydraulic gradient. This is 4arcyEs law, easily calculated for a simple geological structure or as a rough guide for flow through a cut face; the maths is more comple9 for convergent flow to a well or spring where the water table steepens to compensate for the decreasing crosssectional area of the a.uifer. TI6*S ,) 6*+7*8$(L(TI (ntergranularF diffuse flow, between grains, in sands and gravels, poorly cemented sandstones and young porous limestones. )ractureF through 1oints, in nearly all rocks; erratic flow in fault >ones, but dense 1oint systems provide diffuse flow in sandstones, chalk and young basalts; most fractures are tight at depths < &&m. SecondaryF groundwater flow increases permeability by solution, notably in limestones; non-diffuse conduit flow is erratic through enlarged fissures and caves. 5+,3N4W8T*+ 4*C*L,67*NT Springs are natural groundwater overflows from a.uifers; many are capped or ponded for supply; a large spring yields &- - -& m#ls; smaller springs are used in rural areas; limestone caves may feed larger springs. Manats are ancient, hori>ontal adits hand-dug to a sloping water table and freely draining to the surface. Wells are hand-dug or drilled to below the water table, hand-dug wells may have hori>ontal adits to intersect productive fracture >ones; wells -need

pumping unless they are artesian; well yield depends on depth below water table, diameter and a.uifer permeability; a good well yields &. m#;s, or about # litres;s;m depth below water table; improve yield by blasting to raise fracture permeability near well, or acid in1ection in limestone. 'one of depression in water table is formed where pumped flow converging on a well creates steepening hydraulic gradient; the depth of the cone is the well drawdown, related to permeability and flow. +eservoir impoundment raises the local water table; groundwater leaks through a ridge if water table slope is reversed in an a.uifer that reaches a nearby valley. J8+ST 5+,3N4W8T*+ 'avernous limestones do not conform to normal groundwater rules because caves carry water in erratic and unpredictable patterns. Limestones have comple9 water tables unrelated to topography. Jarst groundwater is difficult to abstract or control, as wells and boreholes can 1ust miss ma1or conduits. 'ave streams transmit undiluted pollution to springs. 6,+* W8T*+ 6+*SS3+* The groundwater head provides the pore water pressure /p.w.p.0 in saturated rocks and soils. (ncreased p.w.p. may cause slope failure /section ##0 4ecreased p.w.p. may permit or cause subsidence in clays /section :D0. (n fractured rocks, 1oint water pressure is e.uivalent to p.w.p. and is critical to slope stability /section #:0. 5+,3N4W8T*+ ',NT+,L 4ry e9cavation below the water table is possible within coalesced cones of depression from pumped well points round a site perimeter. 5roundwater barriers permit dry e9cavation without lowering the surrounding water table; barriers may be steel sheet piles, concrete diaphragm walls, grouted >ones or ground free>ing, in order of rising cost; grouting or free>ing can also control rising groundwater in thick a.uifers. Slopes may be drained by ditches, adits or wells. 'apillary rise in embankments is prevented by a basal gravel layer. 5+,3N4W8T*+ +*S,3+'*S

8.uifer stability only ensured if abstraction L recharge. 8bstraction < recharge is groundwater mining - a.uifer is depleted; water table falls, springs and wells may dry up, pumping costs increase, artesian wells may cease to flow, resource will ultimately be lost. 8.uifer recharge is possible through intake wells or leaky reservoirs. 8rtesian water emerges unpumped from a flowing artesian well. Large resources may lie in synclines. 5roundwater .uality is ensured by a.uifer filtration and the underground residence time in contact with absorptive clays and cleansing bacteria in soils. 6ollution is most likely in shallow alluvial gravels and cavernous limestones; ma1or pollutants are tank leaks, and hydrocarbons from road drains in recharge >ones. Water hardness is carbonate /limestone0 and sulphate. Cilla )arm disposal site, near 'oventry, separated li.uids in lagoons in old sand .uarry "& m across. )luid loss of %&&& m#ly was infiltration to sand a.uifer. 6ollution had little radial spread, but formed plume @&& m long in direction of hydraulic gradient. Saltwater intrusion near a coastline is caused by overpumping which disturbs the saltwater interface beneath the freshwater lens fed by land infiltration. 8s saltwater has a density of .&:", the freshwater lens floats on it like an iceberg and the inverted cone in the interface is A& times higher than the matching cone of depression is deep. 19 Ground Investigation 5round investigation assesses ground conditions prior to starting a construction pro1ect. Site investigation includes legal and environmental aspects, in addition to the ground investigation. ,b1ectives of a ground investigation vary with the si>e and nature of the proposed engineering works, but usually include one or more ofF Suitability of the site for the proposed pro1ect; Site conditions and ground properties; 6otential ground difficulties and;or instabilities; 5round data to permit design of the structures.

6lanning of the investigation then has to be directed towards ascertaining data on three different aspects of the ground conditions 4rift and soil condition, which, especially in the case of cohesive clay soils, involves

laboratory tests and application of soil mechanics techni.ues; +ockhead, whose depth is commonly significant to both e9cavations and foundations; $edrock, whose strength properties and structural variations and likelihood of containing buried cavities are all relevant. ',STS ,) 5+,3N4 (NC*ST(58T(,N The e9tent and cost of ground investigations vary enormously depending on the nature of the pro1ect and the local comple9ity and;or difficulties of the ground conditions. *9pressed as percentages of pro1ect costs, the tabulated guideline figures illustrate the contrast between pro1ect types but cannot show the contrasts due to differing ground conditions. Typical 5round (nvestigation 'osts 6ro1ect $uildings +oads 4ams G Total costs &.&"-&.: &.:- ." -# G )oundations costs &."-: -" -"

The principle of any ground investigation has to be that it is continued until the ground conditions are known and understood well enough for the civil engineering work to proceed safely. This principle can and should be applied almost regardless of cost - even a doubling of the site investigation budget will generally add L G to the pro1ect cost - but after an inade.uate ground investigation, unforeseen ground conditions can, and fre.uently do, raise pro1ect costs by &G or more. Some recent statistics from $ritain clearly demonstrate the importance of ade.uate ground investigationF ,ne third of construction pro1ects are delayed by ground problems 3nforeseen ground conditions are the main cause of piling claims. 2alf of over-tender costs on road aro1ects are due to inade.uate ground investigation or poor interpretation of the data

Savings on the ground investigation budget generally prove to be false economies. Iou pay for a ground investigation whether you have one or not. S*M3*N'* ,) ST85*S (nitial stage 4esk study of available data Site visit and visual assessment 6reliminary report and fieldwork plan

7ain stage )ieldwork 5eological mapping if necessary 5eophysical survey if appropriate Trial pits, trenches and boreholes Laboratory testing, mainly of soils )inal report

+eview stage 7onitoring during e9cavation and reconstruction

These stages are in order of ascending cost so they should form the time se.uence to be cost-effective. (t is essential to start with the desk study. 8s a bare minimum, this is the e9amination and interpretation of published geological maps, and it is a basis for planning all further investigation. 8ny tendency to start an investigation with boreholes is both inefficient and uneconomic. (nefficient because it is often very difficult to interpret borehole logs without the conte9t of some knowledge of the local geology as broadly interpreted from a desk study. 3neconomic because the boreholes may only yield data already available and cannot address any ground problems that should have been identified by a desk study. 4())('3LT 5+,3N4 ',N4(T(,NS 8n efficient ground investigation recogni>es, during the initial desk study, the possibilities or probabilities of any specific difficult ground conditions occurring within

the pro1ect site. (t then directs the fieldwork e9ploration to either eliminate the considered possibilities or determine the e9tent of the ground difficulties. The most common difficult ground conditions areF Soft and variable drift materials; Weathered, weak or fractured bedrock; Natural or artificial cavities within bedrock; 8ctive or potential slope failure and landsliding; 'ompressive landfill with or without soft spots; )lowing groundwater or methane gas; 3ne9pected old building foundations. 3N),+*S**N 5+,3N4 ',N4(T(,NS 'onstruction of a multi-storey car park in 6lymouth provided a good e9ample of a pro1ect delay due to unforeseen ground conditions. The site e9tended over :&& 9 %& m, with a complete layer of drift and therefore no bedrock e9posure. " boreholes found rockhead at "- & m deep. 6iling work then found a deep rockhead gully with steep sides; this e9tended across nearly &G of the site; all the boreholes had missed it. 6ro1ect was delayed, while && probes were used to further e9plore rockhead. $ored piles were needed over sloping rockhead. The gully had been formed by solution of a narrow unmapped limestone band; it had been impossible to foresee. (n this case, the need for more e9ploration probes was only apparent with the benefit of hindsight. W8LJ,C*+ S3+C*I 8n early site visit combines with the desk study to recogni>e any possibilities of difficult ground conditions, so that a planned field e9ploration is cost effective. 'heck-list of aspects re.uiring only observationF 'orrelate ground features with geological map; vegetation may relate to rock type. Local e9posuresF check stream banks, road cuts and .uarries for geological details and soil profiles. Land useF signs may remain of past use for mining, old tips, backfill, .uarries,

buildings, basements. 6hysical features of ground may be interpreted; escarpments, moraines, terraces, floodplains, peat flats easily recogni>ed. $eaks of slopeF all must have a reasonF edge of erosion profile, geological boundary, or artificial. Lumpy groundF created by hollows or hummocks or a combination of both. 7ay be caused by any of a variety of conditionsF sinkholes, crown holes, mine subsidence, mineshafts and waste heaps, .uarry waste, moraine, landslip, solifluction. 8ll e9cept moraine provide potential appropriate engineering ha>ards and re.uire investigation. *9isting structuresF check for distress in buildings and stability of old cut slopes. LandslipF disturbed ground, displaced or damaged structures, deformed trees. 5roundwaterF sinkholes, springs, seepages, solutional features, stream levels, flood potential. 62,T,5*,L,5I 5eological interpretation of air photographs can be a valuable part of the desk study of some sites. (nterpret from vertical air photographs, scale normally about F & &&& on contact prints., 6hotographs taken with @&G overlap along flightpath, so view through stereoscope to see #-4 image with vertical e9aggeration of relief. 3se in ground investigation to identify local contrasts, anomalies and relief features visible on photos and which relate to ground conditions. $lack and white photosF widely available and usually most cost effective. 'olour photosF e9pensive, and colour may disguise some features. (nfra-red photosF sensitive to temperature, so useful to trace emerging groundwater from seepages and small springs. 7ulti-spectral imagesF not widely available at large scale, and need specialist interpretation. 8ll photos reveal little of the geology in urban areas and bensath thick tree cover. (nterpretation of geology 6hotographs show vegetation and soil; generally these are related to drift and bedrock therefore contrasts on photos can be interpreted as contrasts in ground conditions. (nterpretation is largely based on three factorsF ToneF generally related to water content of soil and plants; dark K wet clay; light K dry

sand. Te9tureF includes drainage channel density and patterns, rock banding and lineations, and patchy or mottled ground. TrendF single linear features or correlated anomalies, may trace geological boundarios or structures. 5eomorphological features can be directly identified, notably landslips, moraines, sinkholes, old channels, terraces, breaks of slope, etc. 4istinguish man-made features by association, e.g. ploughing patterns relate to field boundaries. Land use may relate to rock or soil type. . 5round types on photographs 8lluviumF light sand and dark clay tones, level ground, channels, meanders. 5lacial tillF irregular relief, hummocks and drumlins, patchy tones. LandslipsF arcuate head scars, concave slopes, debris hummocks, lobate toes. $edrockF angular 1ointed te9tures in stronger rocks; most bare rock has lighter tone, notably white limestone. +ock permeabilityF relate to drainage channel densityF many K clay; few K sandstone; none K limestone. StructuresF may show by linear trends, tonal >ones. )aultsF straight features, may disappear under drift. ,ld shafts, active or filled sinkholesF spot anomalies with dark or light tonal contrast. 8ir photograph from the Iorkshire 4ales North is top left; scale bar is appro9. #&& metres. +elief cannot be seen without stereopair; valley at lower right has high ground to both NW and N*. 8F bare limestone pavement with clear 1ointing. $F bare screes and grassed lower slopes. 'F scars along contours in hori>ontal limestone. 4F tongue of glacial till buries limestone scar. *F spring from limestone Leeds stream flowing over impermeable rock. )F valley floor in soft slates with drift and soil cover. 5F bands of greywacke form small outcrop scars. 2F tree plantation, farm and gravel road.

20 Desk Study *very site investigation should begin with a desk study. This is an office-based e9ercise /therefore ine9pensive0 in gathering published and available information. 8n initial site visit is made during the desk study, ground conditions are more readily visuali>ed once the site has been seen, and potential ground problems can better be appreciated /section !0. Sources of data vary with type, si>e and location of site but generally fall into five groups, as below. They also vary between countriesF $ritain has a greater variety of historical and recorded data than many and provides a comprehensive e9ample of the desk study material which can be sought. 5*,L,5('8L 786S 8N4 +*',+4S $ritish 5eological Survey /$5S0 has published and unpublished data which is readily available 6ublished geological maps are normally the first desk study target; for a small investigation on uncomplicated ground they may provide all the data re.uired. 6rinted material available from the $5S includesF 7ap and book series tabulated opposite. +eports on applied geology related to planning and development, with multiple derived maps and engineering data summaries; available for "& urban areas, as valuable guides to difficult ground. 4igital data is now the main $5S output, over the web for licensed regular users, or to single re.uests. 4ig7ap has digiti>ed map for the whole of $ritain at scales of F & &&& or F "& &&& data always updated /so better than paper copies0, available on demand as digital file or print-out with appropriate descriptive te9t. Layers of data include geology, drift thickness, landslip, made ground, and outline geoha>ard potential. 5eoscience 4ata (nde9 at www.bgs.ac.uk;geodata has outline geological and surface maps to locate sites of borehole records, maps and reports coverage and lists of au available data, with an ordering faclity. *n.uiries Nbgs.ac.uk will produce on re.uestF 7aps, reports, borehole logs, mining records, site investigation reports and laboratory test data held by the National 5eological +ecords 'entre. +eports on specified areas, sites or geoha>ards based on interpretations by a geologist; these are consultancy reports produced at commercial rates.

National surveys on mining instability / !!:0 and on natural cavities / !!A0 were produced for 4o* and are available in hard copy; useful guides to potential ha>ards n unfamiliar areas. 4ata from the landslide survey / !!D0 is now incorporated in $5S database. $5S library and borehole core store, near Nottingham, are accessible at nominal charges for commercial use. L,'8L S,3+'*S 7uch detail on ground conditions from local residants, farmers, historians, societies, universities and council authorities. 4ifficult to trace without local knowledge often for diminishing returns, but can yield useful pointers. 4ata Sources in 3S8 5eological Survey /3S5S0 publishes a huge list geological maps, reports, topographic maps, air photograph and digital data; accessible through www.usgs.gov or at the offices of State 5eological surveys /which also have their own publications0. 7(N(N5 +*',+4S 'oal mining has left large areas of undermined, potentially unstable ground in $ritain and in many other countries. 'oal 8uthority is obliged by law to keep and provide data cr. all aspects of coal mining in $ritain. 7ansfield office, at & @:# A:% @:, or check www.coal.gov.uk 7ining reports for engineering en.uiries cost =#A, and notify known past, present and future underground and opencast mining. recorded shafts and adits, and claims for subsidence damage since !DA. 'urrent miningF recorded on seam plans at F & &&&; these show recent mining and directions of working, and are available for inspection on re.uest. Subsidence predictions, are not provided, but advice may be gained from a consultant or the mine operator. 6ast mining is incompletely recorded; records are only complete since !A%, and seam maps before then are generali>ed and incomplete. 8s old records are unreliable, assume all workable seams /notably L && m deep, above water table, < &-@ m thick0 have been worked, unless proved otherwise /normally by boreholes0. 8bandonment plans, re.uired by law when a mine closes, have often been lost; many with 'oal 8uthority at 7ansfield, available for inspection; can give useful detail, but may be difficult to relate to present locations. Shaft register records all known shafts in coalfields, on F:"&&

maps with files noting depth, si>e, capping and treatment it known. Sites are noted in mining report and e9tracts of full data are available at = per shaft. ,pencast mining sites, and the backfilled areas, are recorded on F & &&& maps. 7ining other than coal has no controlling authority, so records on old stone and metal mines are e9tremely erratic in coverage and reliability, and can be difficult to trace. 6rime sources are county authorities /but $5S in Scotland0; some with many mines /inc 4erbyshire and 'ornwall0 have systematic records and search facilities; others have little or no data submerged in archives. +ecords from a nationwide search after the Lofthouse mine disaster in !%: /due to forgotten workings0 is now held by the 'oal 8uthority or the counties. The lost shafts of Wigan. (n !"D, "&& old mine shafts were known within boundaries of Lancashire town of Wigan. (n !D&, after years of redevelopment and site clearance, %&& shafts were recorded in the same area. 2ow many more shafts remain unmappedO T,6,5+862('8L 786S ,ld maps show features no longer visible on the ground and therefore omitted from later maps. $est are first edition ordnance surveys /@P K ,ld .uarries, mines, buildings, past land use; ,ld streams, ponds, valleys lost due to landfill; *rosion changes in rivers, coastlines and landslips mile0 of about D%&; mostly in local libraries for reference. Simple comparisons with new maps may showF

8(+ 62,T,5+862S $lack and white photographs, around F & ,',, widely available, about = @ per print, covering : km s.uare. 3seful for site detail and photogeological interpretation in certain conditions /section !0. SourceF National 8ir 6hotograph Library at Swindon www.english-heritage.org.uk;knowledge;nmr

21 Ground Investigation Bore oles $,+*2,L* 4+(LL(N5 7*T2,4S 2oles may be drilled with a great variety of commercially available rigs; methods fall mainly into three groups, dictated by the need for soil or rock penetration and re.uired sample or core recovery. L(52T 6*+'3SS(,N 4+(LL(N5 7obile 8-frame, easily erected, with power winch. Steel shell is driven into ground by weight repeatedly dropped -: m and lifted by cable over 8-frame /hence cable and tool rig0. ,nly for shallow e9ploration of soils and soft clay rocks. (n clays, smooth shell is driven by weight dropped onto it and soil adheres inside. (n sands, whole weighted shell may be surged and dropped, and soil is held inside by hin.ed clack valve. 'an add light rotary drive for auger drill in clays /hence shell and auger rig0 but less suitable for most site investigations as sample is disturbed. 7ay use chisel head for limited rock penetration. Widely used, as all sites need soil investigation; usually with && mm sampler inside "& mm casing, reaching depths of "-A& m. T+(8L 6(TS and T+*N'2*S 'heapest method of shallow soil e9ploration. 4ug with any site e9cavator with backhoe. 3sually :-" m deep; may need temporary support or safety cage to allow full inspection of e9posed walls. *specially useful in variable man-made fills. Caluable in disturbed or slipped material, including soliflucted head, as shear surfacee may be recogni>ed in clean cut walls and not in borehole cores. 'an cut block samples, or drive in 3 && sample tubes with backhoe, or test load a plate on pit floor. Trenches can e9pose rockhead in search for fractures or outcrops. 8void trenches precisely on foundation sitos; hackfill with compacted soil or lean concrete. 6its and boreholes may need sealing to prevent groundwater movement through breached a.uiclude. Light percussion rig sampling soils to a depth of & m for a construction pro1ect in 4erbyshire

+,T8+I ',+(N5 Truck mounted rig with full rotary drive which can be applied with downward force. 8ir, water or bentonite mud flush, pumped down inside drill string, and washes chippings back up outside. Tip of cylindrical drill bit is tugsten carbide or with diamond inserts /hence Ediamond drillingE0. Normally double tube barrel holds full core in inner non-rotating barrel about -# m long 'an penetrate any soil or rock to < && m deep. 'ommonly use N si>e, providing "A mm diameter core from cased hole of D! mm diameter. Larger diameter is better in weaker rocks. 'ontinuous flight hollow-stem auger can be used in clays; not common in e9ploration. +,'J 6+,$(N5 +otary percussion rig with hammer action capable of rock penetration. Tricone roller or drag bits with air or water flush to remove chippings /hence Eopern hoin drillingE0. Truck mounted to provide rotation and downward force; large rigs can reach < && m oeep. No core recovery /hence Edestructive drillingE0 but much cheaper than diamond drilling. 6enetration rate indicates strength of rock, soil or voids; flushed chippings can be e9amined; flush loss also indicates cavities Wash boring uses water flushing in driven shell to probe soils /common in 3S8 but rare in $ritain0. 2and held pneumatic drill can reach D m in uniform rock 3sed mainly to locate cavities in rock and rockhead beneath soils.