Modals - English Grammar

1) can
Use ability to do sth. in the present (substitute form: to be able to) permission to do sth. in the present (substitute form: to be allowed to) request offer suggestion possibility Examples I can speak English. Can I go to the cinema? Can you wait a moment, please? I can lend you my car till tomorrow. Can we visit Grandma at the weekend? It can get very hot in Arizona.

2) could
Use ability to do sth. in the past (substitute form: to be able to) Examples I could speak English.

permission to do sth. in the past (substitute form: I could go to the cinema. to be allowed to) polite question * polite request * polite offer * polite suggestion * possibility * Could I go to the cinema, please? Could you wait a moment, please? I could lend you my car till tomorrow. Could we visit Grandma at the weekend? It could get very hot in Montana.

3) may
Use possibility permission to do sth. in the present (substitute form: to be allowed to) polite suggestion Examples It may rain today. May I go to the cinema? May I help you?

4) might
Use possibility (less possible than may) * hesitant offer * Examples It might rain today. Might I help you?

5) must
Use force, necessity possibility advice, recommendation Examples I must go to the supermarket today. You must be tired. You must see the new film with Brad Pitt.

6) must not/may not

Use prohibition Examples You mustn't work on dad's computer. You may not work on dad's computer.

7) need not
Use not necessary Examples I needn't go to the supermarket, we're going to the restaurant tonight.

8) ought to
Use advice obligation Examples You ought to drive carefully in bad weather. You ought to switch off the light when you leave the room.

9) shall
instead of will in the 1st person Use suggestion Examples Shall I carry your bag?

10) should
Use advice obligation Examples You should drive carefully in bad weather. You should switch off the light when you leave the room.

11) will

Use wish, request, demand, order (less polite than would) prediction, assumption promise spontaneous decision habits

Examples Will you please shut the door? I think it will rain on Friday. I will stop smoking. Can somebody drive me to the station? - I will. She's strange, she'll sit for hours without talking.

12) would
Use wish, request (more polite than will) habits in the past Examples Would you shut the door, please? Sometimes he would bring me some flowers.

Comparison of adjectives
There are three forms of comparison: - positive - comparative - superlative A - Comparison with -er/-est clean - cleaner - (the) cleanest We use -er/-est with the following adjectives: 1) adjectives with one syllable clean new cheap cleaner newer cheaper cleanest newest cheapest

2) adjectives with two syllables and the following endings: 2 - 1) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -y dirty easy dirtier easier dirtiest easiest

happy pretty

happier prettier

happiest prettiest

2 - 2) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -er clever cleverer cleverest

2 - 3) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -le simple simpler simplest

2 - 4) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -ow narrow narrower narrowest

Spelling of the adjectives using the endings -er/-est

large big sad dirty larger bigger sadder dirtier largest biggest Double the consonant after short vowel saddest dirtiest Change -y to -i (consonant before -y) Here -y is not changed to -i. (although consonant before -y) leave out the silent -e

shy

shyer

shyest

B - Comparison with more - most difficult - more difficult - (the) most difficult all adjectives with more than one syllable (except some adjectives with two syllables see 2 - 1 to 2 - 4)

C - Irregular adjectives good bad much many little little better worse more more less smaller best worst most most least smallest uncountable nouns countable nouns

D - Special adjectives Some ajdectives have two possible forms of comparison. common likely pleasant polite simple stupid subtle sure commoner / more common likelier / more likely pleasanter / more pleasant politer / more polite simpler / more simple stupider / more stupid subtler / more subtle surer / more sure commonest / most common likeliest / most likely pleasantest / most pleasant politest / most polite simplest / most simple stupidest / most stupid subtlest surest / most sure

Difference in meaning with adjectives: farther far further furthest farthest distance distance or time

later late latter x older old elder nearer near x

latest x last oldest eldest nearest next people and things people (family) distance order

Irregular adverbs well badly much little late far better worse more less later farther further best worst most least last farthest furthest

Present Perfect - Use

The Present Perfect is not easy to understand for ESL learners. It is a combination of past and present. An actions in the past has something to do with the present. 1) Result of an action in the past is important in the present (It is not important when this action happened. When we use a specific time in the past - e.g. yesterday - then we use the Simple Past.) I have cleaned my room. (It is clean now.) Has Peggy ever been to Tokyo? (Has Peggy been there or not?)

2) Recently completed actions He has just played handball. (It is over now.)

3) State beginning in the past and still continuing - mostly with since (point of time) or for(period of time) We have lived in Canada since 1986. (We still live there.)

4) together with lately, recently, yet I have been to London recently. (no specific point of time) He has not written the e-mail yet. (He has not done it.)

Form of the Present Perfect

We form the Present Perfect with have and the past participle (regular verbs: infinitive + -ed; irregular verbs: 3rd column of the table of the irregular verbs) have/has + past participle has: 3rd person singular (he, she, it) have: all other forms past participle: - regular verbs: infinitive + -ed - irregular verbs: 3rd column of the table of the irregular verbs

Affirmative sentences
regular verbs I/we/you/they have opened the window. He/she/it has opened the window. irregular verbs I/we/you/they have gone to the supermarket. He/she/it has gone to the supermarket.

NOTE: We use has in the 3rd person singular (he, she, it).

Negative sentences
regular verbs I/we/you/they have not opened the window. He/she/it has not opened the window. irregular verbs I/we/you/they have not gone to the supermarket. He/she/it has not gone to the supermarket.

NOTE: We use has in the 3rd person singular (he, she, it).

Questions
regular verbs Have I/we/you/they opened the window? Has he/she/it opened the window? irregular verbs Have I/we/you/they gone to the supermarket? Has he/she/it gone to the supermarket?

NOTE: We use has in the 3rd person singular (he, she, it).