GENERAL TERMINOLOGIES
ANTERIOR: towards the front (head) of an organism.
CHITIN: outer covering which forms an external skeleton
DISTAL: away from the body of an organism.
DORSAL: the top (back) of an organism.
ECDYSIS: casting of exoskeleton
LATERAL: the sides of an organism.
MEMBRANE: the soft, flexible areas between the sclerites.
NOTUM: the dorsal surface of a thoracic segment.
POSTERIOR: towards the rear (tail) of an organism.
PLEURON: lateral plate between the tergum and sternum
PROCTODAEUM: posterior part of the alimentary tract
PROXIMAL: near the body of an organism.
SCLERITE: individual hardened areas of an insect.
STERNUM: the ventral surface of a thoracic or abdominal segment.
STOMODAEUM: anterior part of the alimentary tract
TERGUM: the dorsal surface of an abdominal segment.
VENTRAL: the bottom (belly) of an organism.
HEAD
VERTEX: the top (dorsal) region of the head between the compound eyes.
FRONS: region of the head below (anterior of) the vertex, above (posterior of) the
clypeus, and between the genae.
GENAE: the regions on the lateral aspects of the head; insect "cheeks".
CLYPEUS: rectangular sclerite below (anterior of) the frons and above (posterior of)
the labrum.
HEAD APPENDAGES
ANTENNAE
COMPOUND EYES (adults only).
OCELLI: small pits or bumps between the compound eyes (not on all insects)
LABRUM: upper "lip" of insect; located below (anterior of) the clypeus.
MANDIBLES: opposable "jaws" of insect; located below (anterior of) labrum.
MAXILLAE: food handling structures, located below (anterior of) the mandibles.
MAXILLARY PALP: antenna-like structure attached to each maxilla.
LABIUM: lower "lip" of insect, located below (anterior of) maxillae.
LABIAL PALP: antenna-like structure attached to each side of the labium.
THORAX
PROTHORAX: thoracic region posterior of the head; contains one pair of legs.
MESOTHORAX: thoracic region posterior of prothorax; contains one pair of wings
and legs.
METATHORAX: thoracic region posterior of mesothorax; contains one pair of wings
and legs.
WINGS: found on most adult insects, of various shapes and designs.
THORACIC LEG SEGMENTS
COXA: proximal leg segment, usually quite small.
TROCHANTER: very small leg segment between coxa and femur.
FEMUR: usually the longest leg segment; between trochanter and tibia.
TIBIA: leg segment between the femur and tarsus.
TARSUS: distal leg segment; composed of several tarsal segments and a claw.
ABDOMEN
SPIRACLES: external respiratory openings found on both thorax and abdomen, but
much more conspicuous on the abdomen.
PROLEGS: fleshy outgrowths used for locomotion, found primarily in larvae of the
hymenoptera and lepidoptera.
CERCI: antenna-like structure at the very end (posterior) of the abdomen, found in
various insect groups.
OVIPOSITOR: found at the very end (posterior) of the abdomen in females of various
insect groups, variable in shape and size
 INSECT’S INTEGUMENT NERVOUS SYSTEM

Composed of three layers which allows insect to freely move without loss of body - Consists of “brain” (results from fusion of 3 pairs of ganglia)
defense and protection - A pair of slender connectives cords run, side-by-side from the brain to the end of the
insect's abdomen are known as the “ventral nervecord”
1. cuticle- composed of bristles and hairs - These connective cords meet at intervals along the insect's body at the 'ganglia’
2. epidermis- a single layer of secretary cells - In the most primitive design there is one pair of ganglia per body segment, thus, as
3. dermis- membrane' which is an amorphous layer about 0.5 micrometres thick. the head is made up out of 6 fused body segments, it contains 6 pairs of ganglia, these
are collected into 2 groups, each of 3 ganglia, the foremost of which is called the brain
CUTICLE and the hindmost the 'subesophageal ganglion'

- relatively thin layer of non-cellular material which lines the external surface of the
body as well as lining the tracheae the anterior and posterior sections of the alimentary
canal and parts of the reproductive system

- it is flexible, elastic and white when first formed and stays this way in many larval
forms

Sclerotization- chemical processes which result in hardening and darkening of the

cuticle in adult insects

- cuticle can be divided into two layers;

1. epicuticle- which contains no chitin and is highly resistant to water and other
solvent
2. procuticle- much thicker and beneath the epicuticle and can be divided into two
distinct layers
a. exocuticle
b. endocuticle

- consists of a large number of layers of protein and chitin fibres laid down in a
laminated pattern such that the individual strands in each layer cross each other thus
creating an extremely tough and flexible substance
 BREATHING
-Insects have no lungs and breath passively through the spiracles and the air reaches
the body by series of smaller and smaller pipes called “trachea” (when their diameter
is large) and “tracheoles” (when their diameter is very small)
-Diffusion of gasses is effective over small distances but not over larger ones, this is
one of the reasons insects are relatively small
-Then number of spiracles an insect has is variable between species however they
always come in pairs, one on each side of the body, and usually one per segment
-Many insects have valves that allow them to close their spiracles, thus preventing loss
of water.
-The tracheae, which are thin pipes, spread out from the spiracles to reach the whole
body, with the smallest tracheoles contacting single muscle cells individually
-However in most insects the tracheae are all linked through a series of longitudinal
pipes called trunks and many smaller connections
-Most insects can use their body muscles to squeeze their tracheae and airsacs thus
forcing air out, and on release of the muscular tension, drawing fresh air into the large
tracheae
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
-The insect digestive system is a closed system, with one long enclosed tube
(alimentary canal) running lengthwise through the body. The alimentary canal is a one
way street – food enters the mouth and gets processed as it travels toward the anus.
Each of the three sections of the alimentary canal performs a different process of
digestion
-The salivary glands produce saliva, which travels through salivary tubes into the
mouth. Saliva mixes with food and begins the process of breaking it down
-The first section of the alimentary canal is the foregut or stomodaeum. In the foregut,
initial breakdown of large food particles occurs, mostly by saliva. The foregut includes
the buccal cavitythe esophagus, and the crop, which stores food before it passes to
the midgut
- Once food leaves the crop, it passes to the midgut or mesenteron. The midgut is
where digestion really happens, through enzymatic action. Microscopic projections
from the midgut wall, called microvilli, increase surface area and allow for maximum
absorption of nutrients.
- In the hindgut or proctodaeum, undigested food particles join uric acid from
Malphigian tubules to form fecal pellets. The rectum absorbs most of the water in this
waste matter, and the dry pellet is then eliminated through the anus
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
-Insects don't have veins or arteries, but they do have circulatory systems. When blood
is moved without the aid of vessels, the organism has an open circulatory system.
Insect blood, properly called hemolymph, flows freely through the body cavity and
makes direct contact with organs and tissues
-A single blood vessel runs along the dorsal side of the insect, from the head to the
abdomen. In the abdomen, the vessel divides into chambers and functions as the insect
heart (14). Perforations in the heart wall, called ostia, allow hemolymph to enter the
chambers from the body cavity. Muscle contractions push the hemolymph from one
chamber to the next, moving it forward toward the thorax and head.In the thorax, the
blood vessel is not chambered. Like an aorta (7), the vessel simply directs the flow of
hemolymph to the head.
-Insect blood is only about 10% hemocytes (blood cells); most of the hemolymph is
watery plasma. The insect circulation system does not carry oxygen, so the blood does
not contain red blood cells Hemolymph is usually green or yellow in color.

IN FOCUS:
Above is the different stages of development of the croton bug (Blatella
germanica); Bottom is the differernt stages of development of the oriental roach
(Blatta orientalis )
ORDER ORTHOPTERA

-Species of this order have two pairs of wings, the anterior mesothoracic part is
thickened, act as covers/ tegmina for the hinder metathoracic pair which is
membranous
-Antennae is long and filamentous and many jointed
-Mouthparts are adapted for chewing
-Feeding habits: Feed on starchy or sugary materials but will almost eat anything if
necessary

IN FOCUS:
a. Adult Periplaneta americana
b. male american cockroach
c. stages of development from egg case to different instar of nymph
d. female Periplaneta americana
e. egg case (ootheca)
Top:Oriental,German
Bottom: American, Brownbanded
 ORDER DIPTERA

Suborder Nematocera
- antennae ( > 8 segments ) of the adults are longer than the head and thorax
- arista is absent, pupal stage are obtectate type

FAMILY CULICIDAE

Important species:
Culex spp.,
Aedes spp.,
Anopheles spp.

IN FOCUS:
A. Different larval stages of anopheles, aedes and culex
B. Antennae of male male mosquito showing “hair” like projections
(plumose)
C. Adult anophelen mosquito ( note of the position of the body when feeding)
Above: An adult Aedes mosquito feeding a blood meal Below: An adult black fly
Below: An adult Culex mosquito feeding on a blood meal

Below: An adult biting midges feeding (note of the humped thorax)

FAMILY CERATOPHOGONIDAE

- known as biting midges, no-see-ums, punkies

Below: An adult sandfly/owl midges

Below: A horse with a “queensland itch/sweet itch”
- basically its an allergic response from the saliva of feeding biting midges
- this will cause extreme irritation and intense itching which will lead to self-
infliction on horses
Below: An adult horsefly. Take note of the structure of the wings and the elongated Below: The external and internal anatomy of the common housefly
body.

Below: An adult Musca domestica. Note the stripes on its thorax.

 Below: Sarcophaga spp ( flesh flies )
Below: Life cycle of housefly. Take note of the stages of larval development Note of the tosselated grey and dark spots on the abdomen.

Below: Blue bottle fly ( Calliphora spp. )

Below: Different pupal development of housefly. Note of the color of the body and the red color of the eyes.
Take note if the developing pupa is seen from its puparium.

Below: Green bottle fly ( Lucilla spp. )

Below: Stomoxys calcitrans (stable fly). Note of the metallic green with coppery or bronze tints color of the body.
Note of the yellow and dark stripes on the abdomen and thorax. The proboscis is of
piercing type for sucking of blood.
Below: Life cycle of the Gasterophilus spp.
Note the different site of egg deposition on the body of the horse

Below: An adult horse bot fly and the different stages of development of its larva.

Below: Eggs of the Gasterophilus spp glued to a hair strand

Below: Horse bot fly larvae in the stomach of the horse.

Below: A larva of horse bot fly. Note of the spines located on the abdominal segments
of the larva.
Below: Life cycle of sheep nasal fly. Below: Larvae of tumbu fly

Below: Larvae of sheep nasal fly from necropsied animal.

Below: Larvae of sheep nasal fly

Below: An organ affected with skin maggot fly. The protruding yellow object are
actually the larvae feeding the tissue of the organ.
Below: An adult Pseudolynchia canariensis

Below: An adult Melophagus ovinus. Note the absence of the wings.

Below: Life cycle of Bed bugs. Note the different nymphal stages.

Below: An adult sheep louse fly on the wool of sheep.

Below: Adult bed bugs.

Below: Ctenocephalides canis. Compare the shape of the head to cat flea.

An adult kissing bugs. Can you see the pair of wings?

Above: Stick tight flea of the chicken.

Below: Ctenocephalides felis. Note the shape of the head and the arrangement of the
ctenidia.
Below: Oriental rat flea