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Jahanzeb Jahan
I.D: 100784-006
C n!en!":
#1$: %ha! &" 'an()a(e* #+$: E'e,en!" - 'an()a(e #.$: %ha! &" "e,& !&/"* #4$: Te0,&n ' (1 #2$: 3&"! 01 - "e,& !&/". #6$: I,4 0!an! "e,& !&/&an". #7$: Cha0'e" San5e0" 6e&0/e7" !he 01 #18.891814$. #8$: :e05&nan5 5 "a)")00e7" !he 01. #8$ S&(n&-&e0 an5 "&(n&-&e5 &n "a)")00e7" !he 01. #10$: C n/')"& n. #11$: ;&b'& (0a4h1.
Language
is
purely
human
and
non-instinctive
method
of
A// 05&n( ! Ca,b0&5(e D&/!& na011882 Language is system of communication consisting of set of rules
(synta !, morphology,(phonology, which decides the way to which these parts can be combined to produce massage (function! that have meanings ("emantics!.
A// 05&n( ! (ene0a' 5e-&n&!& n <) !e5 b1 =.%a05ha)(h Language is a system of conventional symbols used for
communication by a whole community.
+ Language is a symbolic system lin$ing what goes on inside our heads with what goes on outside. %t mediates between self and society. %t is a form of representation, a way of representing the world to ourselves and to others.
Language is an organi&ed system of linguistics symbols (words! used by human beings to communication through words. (1!' Language is basic to all communication (2!' (ncompass all forms of e pression
63ONOLOGY:
)he study of the sound patterns of language.
SYNTACTICS:
)he study of structure of sentence or rules that govern how words are combined to form phrases and sentences
63ONEMES:
"maller unit of speech sound.
MO=63EMES:
*ombination of phonemes ma$es morphemes.
SEMANTICS:
)he "tudy of meanings.
Se,& !&/" ha" been ?a0& )"'1 5e"/0&be5 b1 J3ON LYONS a":
"cience of signs, of symbolic behavior or of communication system.
C anyone could possibly study such disparate phenomena. %f you get this far they.ve probably already .read the signs. which suggest that you are either eccentric or insane and communication may have ceased. -ut if you study semiotics in linguistics than you can easily identify what type of e planation linguistics gives us in this respect. SIGNS AND SYM;OLS IN COMMUNICATION A=E )")a''1 5&?&5e5 &n! !h0ee b0an/he": Se,an!&/"' 4elation between signs and the things to which they refer5 their denotata S1n!a/!&/' 4elations among signs in formal structures 60a(,a!&/"' 4elation between signs and their effects on those (people! who use them "emiotics is fre/uently seen as having important anthropological dimensions5 for e ample, 6mberto (co proposes that every cultural phenomenon can be studied as communication. 7owever, some semioticians focus on the logical dimensions of the science. )hey e amine areas belonging also to the natural sciences 8 such as how organisms ma$e predictions about, and adapt to, their semiotic niche in the world!. %n general, semiotic theories ta$e signs or sign systems as their ob9ect of study' the communication of information in living organisms is covered in biosemiotics or &oosemiosis. Syntactics is the branch of semiotics that deals with the formal properties of signs and symbols. :ore precisely, syntactics deals with the ;rules that govern how words are combined to form phrases and sentences.; *harles :orris adds that semantics deals with the relation of signs to their designata and the ob9ects which they may or do denote5 and, pragmatics deals with the biotic aspects of semiosis, that is, with all the psychological, biological, and sociological phenomena which occur in the functioning of signs.<<<< 0%=%>(?%@ (A*2*LB>(?%@.
#4$: TE=MINOLOGY
)he term, which was spelled semiotics (Eree$' FGHIJKLJMNO, semeiotikos, an interpreter of signs!, was first used in (nglish by 7enry "tubbes (13CP, p. C,! in a very precise sense to denote the branch of medical science relating to the interpretation of signs. Qohn Loc$e used the terms semeioti$e and semeiotics in -oo$ +, *hapter 21 of An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (13RP!. %n the nineteenth century, *harles "anders >eirce defined what he termed ;semiotic; (which he sometimes spelt as ;semeiotic;! as the ;/uasi-necessary, or formal doctrine of signs;, which abstracts ;what must be the characters of all signs used by...an intelligence capable of learning by e perience;, and which is philosophical logic pursued in terms of signs and sign processes. *harles :orris followed >eirce in using the term ;semiotic; and in e tending the discipline beyond human communication to animal learning and use of signals. :e05&nan5 5e Sa)"")0e, however, viewed the most important area within semiotics as belonging to the social sciences' %t is... possible to conceive of a science which studies the role of signs as part of social life. %t would form part of social psychology, and hence of general psychology. 0e shall call it semiology (from the Eree$ semeSon, .sign.!. %t would investigate the nature of signs and the laws governing them. "ince it does not yet e ist, one cannot say for certain that it will e ist. -ut it has a right to e ist, a place ready for it in advance. Linguistics is only one branch of this general science. )he laws which semiology will discover will be laws applicable in linguistics, and linguistics will thus be assigned to a clearly defined place in the field of human $nowledge. TC&!e5 &n Chan5'e0C" DSe,& !&/" : 0 ;e(&nne0"D> In!0 5)/!& n.
1P
11 signifying relation. >eirce was also a notable logician, and he considered semiotics and logic as facets of a wider theory. Vor a summary of >eirce.s contributions to semiotics, see Lis&$a (1RR3!.
12
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WaYa^d][ab! (1DR, 8 Qune 1#, 1R#3! was a "oviete4ussian linguist, whose wor$ has been influential in the field of literary theory and :ar ist theory of ideology. 0ritten in the late 1R2Ps in the 6""4, foloshinov.s Mar!ism and the Philosophy of "anguage (tr.' :ar$si&m i Vilosofiya 2a&y$a! developed a counter-"aussurean linguistics, which situated language use in social process rather than in an entirely deconte uali&ed "aussurean langue.
1# bourgeois cultural myths were second-order signs, or connotations. @ picture of a full, dar$ bottle is a sign, a signifier relating to a signified' a fermented, alcoholic beverage 8 wine. 7owever, the bourgeois ta$e this signified and apply their own emphasis to it, ma$ing gwineh a new signifier, this time relating to a new signified' the idea of healthy, robust, rela ing wine. :otivations for such manipulations vary from a desire to sell products to a simple desire to maintain the status /uo. )hese insights brought -arthes very much in line with similar :ar ist theory.
J)0& L !,an (1R2281RR#! was the founding member of the )artu (or
)artu-:oscow! "emiotic "chool. 7e developed a semiotic approach to the study of culture and established a communication model for the study of te t semiotics. 7e also introduced the concept of the semiosphere. @mong his :oscow colleagues were fladimir )oporov, fyacheslav fsevolodovich %vanov, and -oris 6spens$y.
U,be0!
E/
semiotics by various publications, most notably A Theory of Semiotics and his novel The 'ame of the #ose, which includes applied semiotic
1+ operations. 7is most important contributions to the field bear on interpretation, encyclopedia, and model reader. 7e has also critici&ed in several wor$s (A theory of semiotics, "a struttura assente, "e signe, "a production de signes! the ;iconism; or ;iconic signs; (ta$en from >eirce.s most famous triadic relation, based on inde es, icons, and symbols!, to which he purposes four modes of sign production' recognition, ostension, replica, and invention.
(liseo ferjn (1R#,-present! developed his ;"ocial ?iscourse )heory; inspired in the >eircian conception of ;"emiosis;.
,ean&n("'
we ma$e and
interpretation of .signs.. %ndeed, according to >eirce, .we thin$ only in signs. #6e&0/e 18.1-
28> +..0+$. "igns ta$e the form of words, &,a(e", sounds, odours, flavours,
acts or ob9ects, but such things have no intrinsic meaning and become signs only when we invest them with meaning. .Aothing is a sign unless it is interpreted as a sign., declares >eirce #6e&0/e 18.1-28> +.17+$
1, Verdinand de "aussurehs Course in General Linguistics #1816$ is a summary of his lectures at the 6niversity of Eeneva from 1RP3 to 1R11. "aussure e amines the relationship between speech and the evolution of language, and investigates language as a structured system of signs. )he te t includes an introduction to the history and sub9ect-matter of linguistics5 an appendi entitled >rinciples of >honology5 and five main sections, entitled' >art Bne' Eeneral >rinciples, 6a0! TI : S1n/h0 n&/ L&n()&"!&/">J 6a0! Th0ee: D&a/h0 n&/ Linguistics, >art Vour' Eeographical Linguistics, and >art Vive' *oncerning 4etrospective Linguistics.
KSa)"")0e 5e-&ne" '&n()&"!&/" a" !he "!)51 - 'an()a(e an5 a" !he "!)51 - !he ,an&-e"!a!& n" - h),an "4ee/hJ
. 7e says that linguistics is also concerned with the history of languages, and with the social or cultural influences that shape the development of language. Linguistics includes such fields of study as' Phonology (the study of the sound patterns of language!, Phonetics (the study of the production and perception of the sounds of speech!, morphology (the study of word formation and structure!, Syntax (the study of grammar and sentence structure!, Semantics (the study of meaning!, pragmatics (the study of the purposes and effects of uses of language! , and language acquisition.
13 EA4'ana!& n: when we say of someone that he spea$s (nglish, we can mean one of two things' (a!5 that he, habitually or occasionally, engages in a particular $ind of behaviour or (b!' that he has ability(whether he e ercised it or not! to engage in this particular $ind of behaviour referring to the former as 6E=:O=MANCE and latter as COM6ETENCE, we can say hat performance presupposes competence, whereas competence does not presupposes performance the concepts of competence and performance is given by *homs$y.<<<< b1 J3ON LYONS> LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS INT=ODUCTION. "pea$ing is an activity of the individual5 language is the social manifestation of speech. Language is a system of signs that evolves from the activity of speech.
1C @ sign can be altered by a change in the relationship between the signifier and the signified. @ccording to "aussure, changes in linguistic signs originate in changes in the social activity of speech. "aussure says that linguistic signs are by nature linear, because they represent a span in a single dimension. @uditory signifiers are linear, because they succeed each other or form a chain. fisual signifiers, in contrast, may be grouped simultaneously in several dimensions. 4elations between linguistic signs can be either' syntagmatic (linear, se/uential, or successive!, or associati&e (substitutive, or having indeterminate order!.
sassure defines semiology as the study of signs, and says that linguistics is a part of semiology. 7e maintains that written language e ists for the purpose of representing spo$en language. @ written word is an image of a vocal sign. K Sa)"")0e a0()e" !ha! 'an()a(e &" a "!0)/!)0e5 "1"!e, - a0b&!0a01 "&(n".J . @ symbol may be a signifier, but in contrast to a sign, a symbol is never completely arbitrary. @ symbol has a rational relationship with what is signified. Linguistic signs may, to a varying e tent, be changeable or unchangeable. ?eterrents to linguistic change include' the arbitrary nature of signs, the multiplicity of signs necessary to form a language, and the comple ity of the structure of language. Vactors that promote change in language include' individual variation in the use of language, and the e tent to which language can be influenced by social forces. "aussure distinguishes between synchronic (static! linguistics and diachronic (evolutionary! linguistics.
1D
1R
)he sign is the whole that results from the association of the signifier with the signified (Sa)"")0e 188.> 67L Sa)"")0e 1874> 67!. )he relationship between the signifier and the signified is referred to as .signification., and this represented in the "aussurean diagram by the arrows. )he hori&ontal line mar$ing the two elements of the sign is referred to as .the bar.. %f we ta$e a linguistic e ample, the word .Bpen. (when it is invested with meaning by someone who encounters it on a shop doorway! is a sign consisting of'
a signifier' the word 4en5 a signified concept' that the shop is open for business.
@ sign must have both a signifier and a signified. 2ou cannot have a totally meaningless signifier or a completely formless signified ( Sa)"")0e 188.> 101L Sa)"")0e 1874> 10+-10.!. Aowadays, whilst the basic ."aussurean. model is commonly adopted, it tends to be a more materialistic model than that of "aussure himself. )he signifier is now commonly interpreted as the material (or physical) form of the sign - it is something which can be seen, heard, touched, smelt or tasted. Vor "aussure, both the signifier and the signified were purely .psychological. ( Sa)"")0e 188.> 1+> 14-12> 66L Sa)"")0e 1874> 1+> 12> 62-66!. -oth were form rather than su*stance' A '&n()&"!&/ "&(n &" n ! a '&n@ be!Ieen a !h&n( an5 a na,e> b)! be!Ieen a / n/e4! an5 a " )n5 4a!!e0n. The " )n5 4a!!e0n &" n ! a/!)a''1 a " )n5L - 0 a " )n5 &" " ,e!h&n( 4h1"&/a'. A " )n5 4a!!e0n &" !he hea0e0C" 4"1/h ' (&/a' &,40e""& n - a " )n5> a" (&?en ! h&, b1 !he e?&5en/e - h&" "en"e". Th&" " )n5 4a!!e0n ,a1 be /a''e5 a C,a!e0&a'C e'e,en! n'1 &n !ha! &! &" !he
2P 0e40e"en!a!& n - )0 "en" 01 &,40e""& n". The " )n5 4a!!e0n ,a1 !h)" be 5&"!&n()&"he5 -0 , !he !he0 e'e,en! a"" /&a!e5 I&!h &! &n a '&n()&"!&/ "&(n. Th&" !he0 e'e,en! &" (ene0a''1 - a , 0e ab"!0a/! @&n5: !he / n/e4! . (Sa)"")0e 188.> 66L Sa)"")0e 1874> 66! "aussure was focusing on the linguistic sign (such as a word! an5 he C4h n /en!0&/a''1C 40&?&'e(e5 !he spoken word> referring specifically to the image acousti+ue (.sound-image. or .sound pattern.!, seeing writing as a separate, secondary, dependent but comparable sign system (Sa)"")0e 188.> 12> +4-+2> 117L Sa)"")0e 1874> 12> 16> +.-+4> 118$. @ sign is a recogni&able combination of a signifier with a particular signified. )he same signifier (the word .open.! could stand for a different signified (and thus be a different sign! if it were on a push-button inside a lift (.push to open door.!. "imilarly, many signifiers could stand for the concept .open. (for instance, on top of a pac$ing carton, a small outline of a bo with an open flap for .open this end.! - again, with each uni/ue pairing constituting a different sign. )he a0b&!0a01 aspect of signs does help to account for the scope for their interpretation (and the importance of conte t!. )here is no one-to-one lin$ between signifier and signified5 signs have multiple rather than single meanings. 0ithin a single language, one signifier may refer to many signifieds (e.g. puns! and one signified may be referred to by many signifiers (e.g. synonyms!. "ome commentators are critical of the stance that the relationship of the signifier to the signified, even in language, is always completely arbitrary (e.g. LeI&" 1881> +8!. Bnomatopoeic words are often mentioned in this conte t, though some semioticians retort that this hardly accounts for the variability between different languages in their words for the same sounds (notably the sounds made by familiar animals! (Sa)"")0e 188.> 68L Sa)"")0e 1874> 68.MMMMMMMMM C&!e5 &n Chan5'e0C" DSe,& !&/" : 0 ;e(&nne0"D> In!0 5)/!& n. . )hus, "aussure shows that the meaning or signification of signs is established by their relation to each other. )he relation of signs to each other forms the
21 structure of language. "ynchronic reality is found in the structure of language at a given point in time. ?iachronic reality is found in changes of language over a period of time. "aussure views language as having an inner 5)a'&!1, which is manifested by the interaction of the synchronic and diachronic, the syntagmatic and associative, the signifier and signifiedMMMMMMMMMMMMM :e05&nan5 5e Sa)"")0e> Course in General Linguistics> e5&!e5 b1 Cha0'e0 ;a''1 an5 A'be0! Se/heha1e &n / ''ab 0a!& n I&!h A'be0! =&e5'&n(e0> !0an"'a!e5 b1 %a5e ;a"@&n #NeI Y 0@: M/G0aI-3&'' ; 1866$ 44. 68-7.. @ C ,4an1>
#10$: C n/')"& n
%n early 1Rth century many semioticians described theory that language as semiotic system. *harles pierce and Verdinand de "aussure also generator of this theory but saussurre is considered to be V@)7(4 of modern linguistics. he described language as semiotic system in his boo$. 7is concept of language as semiotic system is based on structuralism, which was his famous theory based on language structure. %n describing language as semiotic system, he described characteristics of language as arbitrariness, duality etc.7e has paved way for new researches in linguistics.
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J3ON LYONS> LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS AN
INT=ODUCTION. MA=IE EMMITT> J3ON 6OLLOCN> LINDA NOMESA=O::> IN LANGUAGE AND LEA=NING !h&05 e5&!& n A- 05 40e"".
Dan&e' /han5'e0> "e,& !&/" - 0 be(&nne0" &n!0 5)/!& n. :e05&nan5 5 Sa)"")0e> / )0"e &n (ene0a' '&n()&"!&/"> e5&!e5 b1 Cha0'e" ;a''1 an5 A'be0!Se/heha1e &n / ''ab 0a!& n I&!h A'be0! =&e5'&n(e0> !0an"'a!e5 b1 Ia5e ba"@&n#neI 1 0@:M/ G0aI-3&'' ; @ C ,4an1>1886$44.68-7.. %&@&4e5&a> -0ee en/1/' 4e5&a.