alumina, or silica, respectively.

In more recent years, there have been developments in applying so-called

alloy coatings, for example, the use of MCRAL !metal, chromium, aluminum, and yttrium" on steels or

other high-temperature alloy substrates. #fforts have also continued in $eld overlay $or%, $here a strong

base

metal can support a corrosion-resistant surface-coated layer. Applications & In considering materials options, a thorough %no$ledge of the service applications !stressbearing service' cyclic loading or not' fre(uency of cycling' impact or erosion effects' thermal expansion and contraction" is needed. )ifferent high-temperature corrosion processes are simultaneously involved in many common service applications. *ome of these are synergistic, $hich creates a formidable challenge for users and alloy producers. *ome examples of the forms associated $ith various applications are given in +able , (3, 4).

distortion and crac%ing, and magnetism in $hat $as -rst a nonmagnetic !e.g., austenitic" matrix. )amage varies signi-cantly based upon the environment, and $ill be most severe $hen a material.s oxidation limits are exceeded, notably $hen an alloy sustains brea%a$ay attac% by oxygen/sulfur, halogen/oxygen, lo$-melting 0uxing salts, molten glasses, or molten metals, especially after -res.

&y#rocrackers heaters Coke ca!cining recuperators Cat cracking regenerators F!are*stack tips

%%0'$00C )1%C To )00C +%0' 1,0)0C )%0C -%0'%00C +00C +00C To 1,000C 3%0*')00C 3%0'+%0C ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (

( (

( (

Types of hightemperature corrosion +here are certain distinguishing features about the morphology of hightemperature corrosion that aid in deciding upon the cause of damage. *ome typical indications include thic% scales, grossly thinned metal, burnt !blac%ened" or charred surfaces, molten phases, deposits of various colors,

CS2 furnace tubes ,e!amine/urea reactors .eactors in Ti pro#uction /itric aci# cata!yst gri#s 1inings for 2! Oxidation pyrohy#ro!ysis Many industrial processes involve /uc!ear processing oxidation, i.e., a metal reacts in air to reactors &T4.5 6gas*coo!e#7 form and sustain a protective oxide. reactors 76 www.aiche.org/cep/ February 2001 8i!*9re# CEP boi!ers/superheaters Table 1. Typical process conditions causing 4as*turbine b!a#es Process or Temperature Components ;aste incinerators Steam reforming tubes Steam cracking tubes ethy!ene "iny! ch!ori#e crackers To 1,000C To 1,000C $%0C F!ui#i<e#*be# combustors 4!ass recuperators &ot*#ip ga!>ani<ing

corrosion.
+%0:C -30'%00C =$00C 1,0+0C -%%C

)%0'+00C

( ( ( ( (

5 &T4. is high*temperature gas reactor.

+here can be several oxide products, some of $hich are less desirable, for example, $ustite, a defective oxide of iron that forms rapidly at about 1234C !,,33345" on steel. Most high-temperature alloys are oxidation resistant, so price, availability, experience, and the type of application usually dictate choice. +here are no signi-cant problems up to 2334C !61345", fe$ up to 6134C !,,78345", but the choice of successful alloys becomes some$hat limited above about 8334C !,,26345". *imple iron-chromium !or ironchromium-molybdenum" alloys become less useful as service temperatures increase, $hich is $here the +ype 733 series austenitic stainless steels, !732, 739, 7,3, 7,2, 773, 777, etc." and certain ferritic stainless steels !2,3 and 22:" -nd many applications. 5or more arduous service conditions at higher temperatures, these alloys are surpassed by nic%el-or cobalt-based formulations, including many of the more robust alloys that are mechanically alloyed to improve

strength and to control !that is, minimi;e" grain gro$th at elevated temperatures. Certain alloys !usually those $ith rare earth additions" are more resilient to oxidation under thermal cycling !shoc%" conditions. *ome applications do not allo$ an alloy to fully develop its steady-state condition, thus, performance is dictated by the transient !not-so-protective" surface scales. +ransient effects $ill become apparent should failure analysis be performed. Caution should be given to ironchromium-nic%el alloys that can be prone to sigma-phase formation bet$een 123<8334C !,,333<,,26345", $hich results in premature brittle failure. Molybdenum-containing alloys !+ypes 7,: and 7,6 stainless steels and the :=-Mo alloys" can be prone to catastrophic oxidation above about :834C !,,>1:45".

ul!dation
*ulfurous gases are common to many applications, including fuel

combustion atmospheres, petrochemical processing, gas turbines, and coal gasi-cation. *ul-des !e.g., sulfur vapor, hydrogen sul-de" can be very damaging, because metal sul-des form at faster rates than do metal oxides. *ul-des have lo$ melting points and produce voluminous scales !scale spallation". ?ith mixed corrodant environments !oxygen and sulfur", alloy performance is based upon a subtle interplay bet$een oxide and sul-de formation. @xides are more stable' sul-des form more rapidly !due to %inetics". +hus, oxides, sul-des, or both may form. If deposits are also present, then conditions at the metal surfaces are reducing compared to areas external to the deposits. )amage can be extensive. Mixed sulfur-and-oxygen gases can invo%e very high corrosion rates due to brea%a$ay attac%, typically above about :334C !,,,,345" for nic%elbased alloys, 9>34C !,,:8845" for cobalt-based, and 9234C !,6>245" for iron-based formulations. Area%-

CEP February 2001 www.aiche.org/cep/

77

,ateria!s

2bo>e

Tube fai!ure #ue

to !oca! o>erheating. 1eft ?urst tube wa!!s #ue to o>erheating.

a$ay attac% is commonly associated $ith sulfur and excess air. @nce the -rst-formed oxide is lost or destroyed, sul-des can invade the chromiumdepleted substrate, thus, causing accelerated attac% to occur. *tainless steels and iron-based alloys are preferred over high-nic%el alloys, because nic%el is prone to forming the lo$-melting nic%el-nic%el sul-de eutectic, Bi-Bi * , $hich melts at :714C !,,,6145". #utectics of cobalt and iron occur at higher temperatures, 8834C !,,:,:45" and 9814C !,,83145", respectively. Alloys can be $ea%ened by internal corrosion, most noticeably $hen mobile species are present, such as
7 >

lo$-melting sul-des, $hich are typi-ed by locali;ed dull uniform gray phases $ithin the alloy matrix. At times, li(uid-appearing phases are found in the metallurgy. Alloys containing aluminum, silicon, and cobalt are useful in sul-di;ing environments. Many alloys classi-ed as candidates for sul-dation do $ell only if oxides are -rst able to form. Creoxidation can be of value.

"alogenation Dalogen attac% is commonly manifested as a combination of scale spallation $ith internal alloy damage including voids that form as a result of highly volatile species (5). Material performance is dictated by the uni(ue

properties of the halides, including high vapor pressures, high volatility !vapori;ation", lo$ melting points, mismatched expansion coefficients $ith metal substrates, and the effects of displacement reactions $hereby oxide or sul-de are thermodynamically favored over the halides. Alloy performance is greatly affected by oxidi;ing or reducing conditions. 5or oxidi;ing atmospheres or for vapors Eointly present $ith oxygen !or air", there is an opportunity for reduced corrosion rates !%inetics" associated $ith oxide formation, although the scale may later be disrupted by the volatile halides, especially if iron-based alloys are used. Bic%el alloys are generally favored for halogen atmospheres, since iron-based alloys are more vulnerable, due to their volatile products, e.g., 5eCl . *ilicon additions are useful if oxidi;ing environments prevail, but not for reducing conditions. Creoxidation is not normally a bene-t for reducing halogen attac%. ?hat ma%es halogens different from other oxidants is their high mobility and diffusivity into a metal, resulting in internal damage of the alloy matrix. 5luorine can penetrate t$ice the distance of chlorides, $hich means that the predominant mode of damage in 0uorine-containing gases is by means of internal attac%. Dalide products are also hygroscopic (3), so it is not unusual to discover local protrusions on a metal that have
7

been removed during service. In laboratory studies, it is common to -nd that a surface apparently free from chlorides !removed during metallographic preparation" is later found to sho$ them. +his is because the chlorides have been leached out from deep under the voided areas in the metal.

Carburi#ation *everal environments are synonymous $ith carburi;ation, including pyrolysis and gas-crac%ing processes, reforming plants, and heat-treating facilities that involve carbon monoxide, methane, and hydrocarbon gases. )amage is usually manifested as internal carbides, notably in grain boundaries and is generally $orst above ,,3134C !,,9>>45". ?hen carburi;ing conditions alternate $ith oxidi;ing ones, carbides can become oxidi;ed to oxides, $hich yields carbon monoxide that can $ea%en the grain boundaries in an alloy. *uch an alloy fails by Fgreen rot,G a name that describes the green fractured surface that results !chromium oxide". *trongly carburi;ing atmospheres !i.e., those that have a carbon activity H," can cause a metal to form co%eli%e layers, often of a dusty form. +his form of attac%, termed metal dusting, commonly occurs bet$een 2>1< 8334C !693<,,26345" and can be very rapid !in days not months". )amage is either general or locali;ed !pitting", as dictated by the ability of the alloy to form a surface oxide (6). 7$ www.aiche.org/cep/ February 2001
CEP

. *ul-des !e.g., sulfur vapor, hydrogen sul-de" can be very damaging, because metal sul-des form at faster rates than do metal oxides. *ul-des have lo$ melting points and produce voluminous scales !scale spallation". ?ith mixed corrodant environments

!oxygen and sulfur", alloy performance is based upon a subtle interplay bet$een oxide and sul-de formation. @xides are more stable' sul-des form more rapidly !due to %inetics". +hus, oxides, sul-des, or both may form. If deposits are also present, then conditions at the metal surfaces are reducing compared to areas

external to the deposits. )amage can be extensive. Mixed sulfur-and-oxygen gases can invo%e very high corrosion rates due to brea%a$ay attac%, typically above about :334C !,,,,345" for nic%elbased alloys, 9>34C !,,:8845" for cobalt-based, and 9234C !,6>245" for iron-based formulations. Area%-

CEP February 2001 www.aiche.org/cep/

77

,ateria!s

2bo>e

Tube fai!ure #ue

to !oca! o>erheating. 1eft ?urst tube wa!!s #ue to o>erheating.

a$ay attac% is commonly associated $ith sulfur and excess air. @nce the -rstformed oxide is lost or destroyed, sul-des can invade the chromium-depleted substrate, thus, causing accelerated attac% to occur. *tainless steels and iron-based alloys are preferred over high-nic%el alloys, because nic%el is prone to forming the lo$-melting nic%el-nic%el sul-de eutectic, Bi-Bi * , $hich melts at :714C !,,,6145". #utectics of cobalt and iron occur at higher temperatures, 8834C !,,:,:45" and 9814C !,,83145", respectively. Alloys can be $ea%ened by internal corrosion, most noticeably $hen mobile species are present, such as lo$-melting sul-des, $hich are typi-ed by locali;ed dull uniform gray phases $ithin the alloy matrix. At times, li(uid-appearing phases are found in the metallurgy. Alloys containing aluminum, silicon, and cobalt are useful in sul-di;ing environments. Many alloys classi-ed as candidates for sul-dation do $ell only if oxides are -rst able to form. Creoxidation can be of value.
7 >

"alogenation Dalogen attac% is commonly manifested as a combination of scale spallation $ith internal alloy damage including voids that form as a result of highly volatile species (5). Material performance is dictated by the uni(ue properties of the

halides, including high vapor pressures, high volatility !vapori;ation", lo$ melting points, mismatched expansion coefficients $ith metal substrates, and the effects of displacement reactions $hereby oxide or sul-de are thermodynamically favored over the halides. Alloy performance is greatly affected by oxidi;ing or reducing conditions. 5or oxidi;ing atmospheres or for vapors Eointly present $ith oxygen !or air", there is an opportunity for reduced corrosion rates !%inetics" associated $ith oxide formation, although the scale may later be disrupted by the volatile halides, especially if iron-based alloys are used. Bic%el alloys are generally favored for halogen atmospheres, since iron-based alloys are more vulnerable, due to their volatile products, e.g., 5eCl . *ilicon additions are useful if oxidi;ing environments prevail, but not for reducing conditions. Creoxidation is not normally a bene-t for reducing halogen attac%. ?hat ma%es halogens different from other oxidants is their high mobility and diffusivity into a metal, resulting in internal damage of the alloy matrix. 5luorine can penetrate t$ice the distance of chlorides, $hich means that the predominant mode of damage in 0uorine-containing gases is by means of internal attac%. Dalide products are also hygroscopic (3), so it is not unusual to discover local protrusions on a metal that have
7

been removed during service. In laboratory studies, it is common to -nd that a surface apparently free from chlorides !removed during metallographic preparation" is later found to sho$ them. +his is because the chlorides have been leached out from deep under the voided areas in the metal.

Carburi#ation *everal environments are synonymous $ith carburi;ation, including pyrolysis and gas-crac%ing processes, reforming plants, and heat-treating facilities that involve carbon monoxide, methane, and hydrocarbon gases. )amage is usually manifested as internal carbides, notably in grain boundaries and is generally $orst above ,,3134C !,,9>>45". ?hen carburi;ing conditions alternate $ith oxidi;ing ones, carbides can become oxidi;ed to oxides, $hich yields carbon monoxide that can $ea%en the grain boundaries in an alloy. *uch an alloy fails by Fgreen rot,G a name that describes the green fractured surface that results !chromium oxide". *trongly carburi;ing atmospheres !i.e., those that have a carbon activity H," can cause a metal to form co%e-li%e layers, often of a dusty form. +his form of attac%, termed metal dusting, commonly occurs bet$een 2>1<8334C !693< ,,26345" and can be very rapid !in days not months". )amage is either general or locali;ed !pitting", as dictated by the ability of the alloy to form a surface oxide (6). 7$ www.aiche.org/cep/ February 2001 CEP

2bo>e Therma! fatigue crack in boi!er tube.

Carbon steels and alloy steels are normally uniformly thinned by metal dusting' more highly alloyed materials usually display local outgro$ths of co%e emerging through small pits that broaden $ith time. Cast iron-nic%el-chromium alloys are $idely used for carburi;ing applications, including the more recent alloys containing ,<>= silicon and ,.1= niobium !the DC Mod alloys" !4, 6). Digh-nic%el alloys !$ith lo$ solubility for carbon" -nd many applications for carburi;ing conditions. *tronger nic%el-based alloys $ith high chromium and silicon contents are useful in more demanding environments. Dighly alloyed ferritic stainless steels !that are able to more rapidly form a thin oxide -lm" tend to outperform austenitic steels.

%itriding Relatively little is reported about nitridation other than material performance is $ea%ened !embrittlement" as a result of the formation of internal nitrides in the alloy (4). It is common to expect damage $ith nitrides at 633<9334C !,,>93<,,:1345". Bitrides appear generally as needle-li%e precipitates in the alloy matrix. Bic%el- and cobalt-rich alloys appear to be -rst-choice candidates for resisting nitride attac%, because of the lo$ solubility of nitrogen in these
Top Tube fou!ing in an incinerator p!ant #ue to carryo>er of #eposits. ?ottom Through*meta! perforation in tubing from a carbon b!ack p!ant.

base metals. Iron tends to be detrimental, as do aluminum and titanium in lo$ concentrations. *ilicon forms a brittle intermetallic compound $ith nitrogen and can contribute to scale spallation, especially in applications at lo$ oxygen concentrations !potentials", $here thin oxides can form, and during thermal cycling.

&olten products )eposits are a common product in many high-temperature applications, including boilers, $aste incinerators, 0uidi;ed-bed combustors, and gas turbines. A $hole series of reactions is possible should deposits become molten and no single mechanism can be applied generally to characteri;e such damage (7). +he mechanisms of molten product corrosion are complex. +he types of damage include fuel-ash corrosion & sulfates, including acid and basic 0uxing reactions (8), and vanadic slag attac% (9) & molten salt corrosion !chlorides, nitrates, and carbonates" (4), and molten glass corrosion. Li(uid metal attac% is yet another special category (4). Fuel-ash or ash/salt-deposit cor rosion stems from high-temperature corrosion processes associated $ith fuel combustion products in boilers, $aste incinerators, and gas turbines. +hus, products can include various deposits !oxidi;ing or reducing" $ith active contributions from oxygen, sulfur, halogens, carbon, and nitrogen (4, 7). +ypically, alloy matrices display intergranular attac% !oxides and chlorides" beneath disturbed oxide layers possibly fused $ith molten deposits and internal sul-des $ithin the alloy-affected ;one. ot corrosion is generally regarded as attac% in the Eoint presence of sulfur and oxygen. +ypically, attac% is considered to be triggered by molten al%ali metal salts that melt above 6334C !,,>9345". *odium sulfate, $ith a melting point of ?ottom
Through*meta! perforation in tubing from a carbon b!ack p!ant.

base metals. Iron tends to be detrimental, as do aluminum and titanium in lo$ concentrations. *ilicon forms a brittle intermetallic compound $ith nitrogen and can contribute to scale spallation, especially in applications at lo$ oxygen concentrations !potentials", $here thin oxides can form, and during thermal cycling.

&olten products )eposits are a common product in many high-temperature applications, including boilers, $aste incinerators, 0uidi;ed-bed

combustors, and gas turbines. A $hole series of reactions is possible should deposits become molten and no single mechanism can be applied generally to characteri;e such damage (7). +he mechanisms of molten product corrosion are complex. +he types of damage include fuel-ash corrosion & sulfates, including acid and basic 0uxing reactions (8), and vanadic slag attac% (9) & molten salt corrosion !chlorides, nitrates, and carbonates" (4), and molten glass corrosion. Li(uid metal attac% is yet another special category (4). Fuel-ash or ash/salt-deposit cor rosion stems from high-temperature corrosion processes associated $ith fuel combustion products in boilers, $aste incinerators, and gas turbines. +hus, products can include various deposits !oxidi;ing or reducing" $ith active contributions from oxygen, sulfur, halogens, carbon, and nitrogen (4, 7). +ypically, alloy matrices display intergranular attac% !oxides and chlorides" beneath disturbed oxide layers possibly fused $ith molten deposits and internal sul-des $ithin the alloy-affected ;one. ot corrosion is generally regarded as attac% in the Eoint presence of sulfur and oxygen. +ypically, attac% is considered to be triggered by molten al%ali metal salts that melt above 6334C !,,>9345". *odium sulfate, $ith a melting point of ?ottom
Through*meta! perforation in tubing from a carbon b!ack p!ant.

base metals. Iron tends to be detrimental, as do aluminum and titanium in lo$ concentrations. *ilicon forms a brittle intermetallic compound $ith nitrogen and can contribute to scale spallation, especially in applications at lo$ oxygen concentrations !potentials", $here thin oxides can form, and during thermal cycling.

&olten products )eposits are a common product in many high-temperature applications, including boilers, $aste incinerators, 0uidi;ed-bed combustors, and gas turbines. A $hole series of reactions is possible should deposits become molten and no single mechanism can be applied generally to characteri;e such damage (7). +he mechanisms of molten product corrosion are complex. +he types of damage include fuel-ash corrosion & sulfates, including acid and basic 0uxing reactions (8), and vanadic slag attac% (9) & molten salt corrosion !chlorides, nitrates, and carbonates" (4), and molten glass corrosion. Li(uid metal attac% is yet another special category (4). Fuel-ash or ash/salt-deposit cor rosion stems from high-temperature corrosion processes associated $ith fuel combustion products in boilers, $aste incinerators, and gas turbines. +hus, products can include various deposits !oxidi;ing or reducing" $ith active contributions from oxygen, sulfur, halogens, carbon, and nitrogen (4, 7). +ypically, alloy matrices display intergranular attac% !oxides and chlorides" beneath disturbed oxide layers possibly fused $ith molten deposits and internal sul-des $ithin the alloy-affected ;one. ot corrosion is generally regarded as attac% in the Eoint presence of sulfur and oxygen. +ypically, attac% is considered to be triggered by molten al%ali metal salts that melt above 6334C !,,>9345". *odium sulfate, $ith a melting point of ?ottom
Through*meta! perforation in tubing from a carbon b!ack p!ant.

base metals. Iron tends to be detrimental, as do aluminum and titanium in lo$ concentrations. *ilicon forms a brittle intermetallic compound $ith nitrogen and can contribute to scale spallation, especially in applications at lo$ oxygen concentrations !potentials", $here thin oxides can form, and during thermal cycling.

&olten products )eposits are a common product in many high-temperature applications, including boilers, $aste incinerators, 0uidi;ed-bed combustors, and gas turbines. A $hole series of reactions is possible should deposits become molten and no single mechanism can be applied generally to characteri;e such damage (7). +he mechanisms of molten product corrosion are complex. +he types of damage include fuel-ash corrosion & sulfates, including acid and basic 0uxing reactions (8), and vanadic slag attac% (9) & molten salt corrosion !chlorides, nitrates, and carbonates" (4), and molten glass corrosion. Li(uid metal attac% is yet another special category (4). Fuel-ash or ash/salt-deposit cor rosion stems from high-temperature corrosion processes associated $ith fuel combustion products in boilers, $aste incinerators, and gas turbines. +hus, products can include various deposits !oxidi;ing or reducing" $ith active contributions from oxygen, sulfur, halogens, carbon, and nitrogen (4, 7). +ypically, alloy matrices display intergranular attac% !oxides and chlorides" beneath disturbed oxide layers possibly fused $ith molten deposits and internal sul-des $ithin the alloy-affected ;one. ot corrosion is generally regarded as attac% in the Eoint presence of sulfur and oxygen. +ypically, attac% is considered to be triggered by molten al%ali metal salts that melt above 6334C !,,>9345". *odium sulfate, $ith a melting point of ?ottom
Through*meta! perforation in tubing from a carbon b!ack p!ant.

base metals. Iron tends to be detrimental, as do aluminum and titanium in lo$ concentrations. *ilicon forms a brittle intermetallic compound $ith nitrogen and can contribute to scale spallation, especially in applications at lo$ oxygen concentrations !potentials", $here thin oxides can form, and during thermal cycling.

&olten products )eposits are a common product in many high-temperature applications, including boilers, $aste incinerators, 0uidi;ed-bed combustors, and gas turbines. A $hole series of reactions is possible should deposits become molten and no single mechanism can be applied generally to characteri;e such damage (7). +he mechanisms of molten product corrosion are complex. +he types of damage include fuel-ash corrosion & sulfates, including acid and basic 0uxing reactions (8), and vanadic slag attac% (9) & molten salt corrosion !chlorides, nitrates, and carbonates" (4), and molten glass corrosion. Li(uid metal attac% is yet another special category (4). Fuel-ash or ash/salt-deposit cor rosion stems from high-temperature corrosion processes associated $ith fuel combustion products in boilers, $aste incinerators, and gas turbines. +hus, products can include various deposits !oxidi;ing or reducing" $ith active contributions from oxygen, sulfur, halogens, carbon, and nitrogen (4, 7). +ypically, alloy matrices display intergranular attac% !oxides and chlorides" beneath disturbed oxide layers possibly fused $ith molten deposits and internal sul-des $ithin the alloy-affected ;one. ot corrosion is generally regarded as attac% in the Eoint presence of sulfur and oxygen. +ypically, attac% is considered to be triggered by molten al%ali metal salts that melt above 6334C !,,>9345". *odium sulfate, $ith a melting point of ?ottom
Through*meta! perforation in tubing from a carbon b!ack p!ant.

base metals. Iron tends to be detrimental, as do aluminum and titanium in lo$ concentrations. *ilicon forms a brittle intermetallic compound $ith nitrogen and can contribute to scale spallation, especially in applications at lo$ oxygen concentrations !potentials", $here thin oxides can form, and during thermal cycling.

&olten products )eposits are a common product in many high-temperature applications, including boilers, $aste incinerators, 0uidi;ed-bed combustors, and gas turbines. A $hole series of reactions is possible should deposits become molten and no single mechanism can be applied generally to characteri;e such damage (7). +he mechanisms of molten product corrosion are complex. +he types of damage include fuel-ash corrosion & sulfates, including acid and basic 0uxing reactions (8), and vanadic slag attac% (9) & molten salt corrosion !chlorides, nitrates, and carbonates" (4), and molten glass corrosion. Li(uid metal attac% is yet another special category (4). Fuel-ash or ash/salt-deposit cor rosion stems from high-temperature corrosion processes associated $ith fuel combustion products in boilers, $aste incinerators, and gas turbines. +hus, products can include various deposits !oxidi;ing or reducing" $ith active contributions from oxygen, sulfur, halogens, carbon, and nitrogen (4, 7). +ypically, alloy matrices display intergranular attac% !oxides and chlorides" beneath disturbed oxide layers possibly fused $ith molten deposits and internal sul-des $ithin the alloy-affected ;one. ot corrosion is generally regarded as attac% in the Eoint presence of sulfur and oxygen. +ypically, attac% is considered to be triggered by molten al%ali metal salts that melt above 6334C !,,>9345". *odium sulfate, $ith a melting point of ?ottom
Through*meta! perforation in tubing from a carbon b!ack p!ant.

base metals. Iron tends to be detrimental, as do aluminum and titanium in lo$ concentrations. *ilicon forms a brittle intermetallic compound $ith nitrogen and can contribute to scale spallation, especially in applications at lo$ oxygen concentrations !potentials", $here thin oxides can form, and during thermal cycling.

&olten products )eposits are a common product in many high-temperature applications, including boilers, $aste incinerators, 0uidi;ed-bed combustors, and gas turbines. A $hole series of reactions is possible should deposits become molten and no single mechanism can be applied generally to characteri;e such damage (7). +he mechanisms of molten product corrosion are complex. +he types of damage include fuel-ash corrosion & sulfates, including acid and basic 0uxing reactions (8), and vanadic slag attac% (9) & molten salt corrosion !chlorides, nitrates, and carbonates" (4), and molten glass corrosion. Li(uid metal attac% is yet another special category (4). Fuel-ash or ash/salt-deposit cor rosion stems from high-temperature corrosion processes associated $ith fuel combustion products in boilers, $aste incinerators, and gas turbines. +hus, products can include various deposits !oxidi;ing or reducing" $ith active contributions from oxygen, sulfur, halogens, carbon, and nitrogen (4, 7). +ypically, alloy matrices display intergranular

attac% !oxides and chlorides" beneath disturbed oxide layers possibly fused $ith molten deposits and internal sul-des $ithin the alloy-affected ;one. ot corrosion is generally regarded as attac% in the Eoint presence of sulfur and oxygen. +ypically, attac% is considered to be triggered by molten al%ali metal salts that melt above 6334C !,,>9345". *odium sulfate, $ith a melting point of ?ottom
Through*meta! perforation in tubing from a carbon b!ack p!ant.

base metals. Iron tends to be detrimental, as do aluminum and titanium in lo$ concentrations. *ilicon forms a brittle intermetallic compound $ith nitrogen and can contribute to scale spallation, especially in applications at lo$ oxygen concentrations !potentials", $here thin oxides can form, and during thermal cycling.

&olten products )eposits are a common product in many high-temperature applications, including boilers, $aste incinerators, 0uidi;ed-bed combustors, and gas turbines. A $hole series of reactions is possible should deposits become molten and no single mechanism can be applied generally to characteri;e such damage (7). +he mechanisms of molten product corrosion are complex. +he types of damage include fuel-ash corrosion & sulfates, including acid and basic 0uxing reactions (8), and vanadic slag attac% (9) & molten salt corrosion !chlorides, nitrates, and carbonates" (4), and molten glass corrosion. Li(uid metal attac% is yet another special category (4). Fuel-ash or ash/salt-deposit cor rosion stems from high-temperature corrosion processes associated $ith fuel combustion products in boilers, $aste incinerators, and gas turbines. +hus, products can include various deposits !oxidi;ing or reducing" $ith active contributions from oxygen, sulfur, halogens, carbon, and nitrogen (4, 7). +ypically, alloy matrices display intergranular attac% !oxides and chlorides" beneath disturbed oxide layers possibly fused $ith molten deposits and internal sul-des $ithin the alloy-affected ;one. ot corrosion is generally regarded as attac% in the Eoint presence of sulfur and oxygen. +ypically, attac% is considered to be triggered by molten al%ali metal salts that melt above 6334C !,,>9345". *odium sulfate, $ith a melting point of ?ottom
Through*meta! perforation in tubing from a carbon b!ack p!ant.

base metals. Iron tends to be detrimental, as do aluminum and titanium in lo$ concentrations. *ilicon forms a brittle intermetallic compound $ith nitrogen and can contribute to scale spallation, especially in applications at lo$ oxygen concentrations !potentials", $here thin oxides can form, and during thermal cycling.

&olten products )eposits are a common product in many high-temperature applications, including boilers, $aste incinerators, 0uidi;ed-bed combustors, and gas turbines. A $hole series of reactions is possible should deposits become molten and no single mechanism can be applied generally to characteri;e such damage (7). +he mechanisms of molten product corrosion are complex. +he types of damage include fuel-ash corrosion & sulfates, including acid and basic 0uxing reactions (8), and vanadic slag attac% (9) & molten salt corrosion !chlorides, nitrates, and carbonates" (4), and molten glass corrosion. Li(uid metal attac% is yet another special category (4). Fuel-ash or ash/salt-deposit cor rosion stems from high-temperature corrosion processes associated $ith fuel combustion products in boilers, $aste incinerators, and gas turbines. +hus, products can include various deposits !oxidi;ing or reducing" $ith active contributions from oxygen, sulfur, halogens, carbon, and nitrogen (4, 7). +ypically, alloy matrices display intergranular attac% !oxides and chlorides" beneath disturbed oxide layers possibly fused $ith molten deposits and internal sul-des $ithin the alloy-affected ;one. ot corrosion is generally regarded as attac% in the Eoint presence of sulfur and oxygen. +ypically, attac% is considered to be triggered by molten al%ali metal salts that melt above 6334C !,,>9345". *odium sulfate, $ith a melting point of ?ottom
Through*meta! perforation in tubing from a carbon b!ack p!ant.

base metals. Iron tends to be detrimental, as do aluminum and titanium in lo$ concentrations. *ilicon forms a brittle intermetallic compound $ith nitrogen and can contribute to scale spallation, especially in applications at lo$ oxygen concentrations !potentials", $here thin oxides can form, and during thermal cycling.

&olten products )eposits are a common product in many high-temperature applications, including boilers, $aste incinerators, 0uidi;ed-bed combustors, and gas turbines. A $hole series of reactions is possible should deposits become molten and no single mechanism can be applied generally to characteri;e such damage (7).

+he mechanisms of molten product corrosion are complex. +he types of damage include fuel-ash corrosion & sulfates, including acid and basic 0uxing reactions (8), and vanadic slag attac% (9) & molten salt corrosion !chlorides, nitrates, and carbonates" (4), and molten glass corrosion. Li(uid metal attac% is yet another special category (4). Fuel-ash or ash/salt-deposit cor rosion stems from high-temperature corrosion processes associated $ith fuel combustion products in boilers, $aste incinerators, and gas turbines. +hus, products can include various deposits !oxidi;ing or reducing" $ith active contributions from oxygen, sulfur, halogens, carbon, and nitrogen (4, 7). +ypically, alloy matrices display intergranular attac% !oxides and chlorides" beneath disturbed oxide layers possibly fused $ith molten deposits and internal sul-des $ithin the alloy-affected ;one. ot corrosion is generally regarded as attac% in the Eoint presence of sulfur and oxygen. +ypically, attac% is considered to be triggered by molten al%ali metal salts that melt above 6334C !,,>9345". *odium sulfate, $ith a melting point of ?ottom
Through*meta! perforation in tubing from a carbon b!ack p!ant.

base metals. Iron tends to be detrimental, as do aluminum and titanium in lo$ concentrations. *ilicon forms a brittle intermetallic compound $ith nitrogen and can contribute to scale spallation, especially in applications at lo$ oxygen concentrations !potentials", $here thin oxides can form, and during thermal cycling.

&olten products )eposits are a common product in many high-temperature applications, including boilers, $aste incinerators, 0uidi;ed-bed combustors, and gas turbines. A $hole series of reactions is possible should deposits become molten and no single mechanism can be applied generally to characteri;e such damage (7). +he mechanisms of molten product corrosion are complex. +he types of damage include fuel-ash corrosion & sulfates, including acid and basic 0uxing reactions (8), and vanadic slag attac% (9) & molten salt corrosion !chlorides, nitrates, and carbonates" (4), and molten glass corrosion. Li(uid metal attac% is yet another special category (4). Fuel-ash or ash/salt-deposit cor rosion stems from high-temperature corrosion processes associated $ith fuel combustion products in boilers, $aste incinerators, and gas turbines. +hus, products can include various deposits !oxidi;ing or reducing" $ith active contributions from oxygen, sulfur, halogens, carbon, and nitrogen (4, 7). +ypically, alloy matrices display intergranular attac% !oxides and chlorides" beneath disturbed oxide layers possibly fused $ith molten deposits and internal sul-des $ithin the alloy-affected ;one. ot corrosion is generally regarded as attac% in the Eoint presence of sulfur and oxygen. +ypically, attac% is considered to be triggered by molten al%ali metal salts that melt above 6334C !,,>9345". *odium sulfate, $ith a melting point of ?ottom
Through*meta! perforation in tubing from a carbon b!ack p!ant.

base metals. Iron tends to be detrimental, as do aluminum and titanium in lo$ concentrations. *ilicon forms a brittle intermetallic compound $ith nitrogen and can contribute to scale spallation, especially in applications at lo$ oxygen concentrations !potentials", $here thin oxides can form, and during thermal cycling.

&olten products )eposits are a common product in many high-temperature applications, including boilers, $aste incinerators, 0uidi;ed-bed combustors, and gas turbines. A $hole series of reactions is possible should deposits become molten and no single mechanism can be applied generally to characteri;e such damage (7). +he mechanisms of molten product corrosion are complex. +he types of damage include fuel-ash corrosion & sulfates, including acid and basic 0uxing reactions (8), and vanadic slag attac% (9) & molten salt corrosion !chlorides, nitrates, and carbonates" (4), and molten glass corrosion. Li(uid metal attac% is yet another special category (4). Fuel-ash or ash/salt-deposit cor rosion stems from high-temperature corrosion processes associated $ith fuel combustion products in boilers, $aste incinerators, and gas turbines. +hus, products can include various deposits !oxidi;ing or reducing" $ith active contributions from oxygen, sulfur, halogens, carbon, and nitrogen (4, 7). +ypically, alloy matrices display intergranular attac% !oxides and chlorides" beneath disturbed oxide layers possibly fused $ith molten deposits and internal sul-des $ithin the alloy-affected ;one. ot corrosion is generally regarded as attac% in the Eoint presence of sulfur and oxygen. +ypically, attac% is considered to be triggered by molten al%ali metal salts that melt above 6334C !,,>9345". *odium sulfate, $ith a melting point of 8824C !,,:>345", derived from sodium chloride and sulfur from the fuel, is considered to be closely involved in the mechanism of hot corrosion (8). +his mechanism is considered to have four stagesI oxidation !incubation"' mild sul-dation' oxide failure' and catastrophic attac% !internal sul-des via a porous voluminous complex oxide/deposit layer". Dot corrosion is an irreversible autocatalytic process.

CEP February 2001 www.aiche.org/cep/

7'

,ateria!s

Table (. )uide to candidate materials.

Corrosion &ode Oxidation *asic +lloy Types Fe*/i*6Co7 =20@ 600@7 Cr. Stabi!i<e# to minimi<e sensiti<ation. 2!, Si bene9cia!. .are earth a##itions ai# sca!e retention. Candidates, 00-, 021,00+, 010, )006&T7, )00, -00, --$,&.120, 000, )%&, 000, $00, $0164C7, $02C2, $13, $2%, 2%0,2, 0%0,2, BS, 21-, ,2+%$, ,23%-, C, etc. %otes and Cautions ;i#e choice #ictate# by app!ication an# functionA ,echanica! propertiesA Therma! cyc!e 6shock7A Transient >s. stea#y stateA Dnterna! oEi#es. ?eware FA ;, ,o G catastrophic oEi#ation. Su!fur >apor, &2S, etc. G no oEi#es. ?eware of /i//i0S2 eutecticA coatings can he!p. S82, S80 , etc. G risk of breakaway attack with oEi#es an# su!9#esA 2! coatings. 6See hot corrosion.7 Dnterna! carbi#es with intergranu!ar attackA Cast tubes bene9t from smooth D.B. surfaces. ,eta! #usting 6at !ower temperatures7. 4reen rot 6with intermittent 82*C7. %itridation /i*a!!oys rather than Fe. 2>oi# high Cr !e>e!s. Jse !ow 2! an# !ow Ti !e>e!s 6nitri#e formers7. Si promotes sca!e spa!!ing. /i a!!oys genera!!y better than Fe. ?ene9ts Cr 6not &F7, 2!, Si 6with oEygen7. HreoEi#ation not bene9cia!. FeCr,o a!!oys at !ower temperaturesA C.2sK for S, 8, C G subLect to app!ication. 00+, 010, )006&T7, $00, $01, $02C2, $2%, )2%, 2%0,2, 0%0,2, ,23%-, ,23%), ,2+%$, D/$%3, $31, 00+, )006&T7, 000, --$, 1)), 200, $00, $02C2, $2%, 2%0,2, etc. Dnterna! nitri#es 6e.g., 2!/7 can weaken a!!oyA Thin oEi#e at !ow oEygen partia! pressure re#uces nitri#ation. )00&, 000, 200, 201, 203, $00, $01, $02C2, 21-, /, &2-2, ?0, etc. "o!ati!e pro#uctsA Dnterna! attack with >oi#sA &ygroscopic pro#ucts 6e.g., ch!ori#es7A Sca!e spa!!ation. 2pp!ications #ictate a!!oy, or coating 4as turbines 6strong : C.2K7A >ana#ic

ul!dation -.educing gases no oxides/

Fe* with high Cr 62!7 a!!oys.

+'12@Cr stee!s 00+, 010, 000, )006&T7, )00, &.120, )%&, 2%0,2, 0%0,2, ,2+%$, --$, $31, $?, 1)), etc.

ul!dation -Oxidi#ing gases/

Fe*Cr*base# a!!oys. 8Ei#e formation a bene9t. HreoEi#i<ation may he!p.

2s abo>e with 1%0,2, $01, &.1$0, ,23%-, ,2+%$, 000, %%$, etc.

Carburi#atio n

;i#e use of cast a!!oys. For worse con#itions, use high*/i a!!oys with Cr, Si. 61ow so!ubi!ity of C in /i is bene9t for /i a!!oys.7

&&, &I, &H,o#, 00+, 010, 000, 000, )%&, )006&T7, )00, BS, &.1$0, $00, $01, 2%0,2, $02C2, $13, $2%, $+0, ,23%-, ,2+%$, C, %%$, 30$, 31), 3%0, etc.

"alogenatio n0 chlorination 1 2uorination1 etc. 3uel ash corrosion

&igh Cr, 2!, Si usefu! 6a!so as coatings7. &olten salts /i a!!oys genera!!y fa>ore#A some high*Cr a!!oysA /iCr,o; a!!oys for mo!ten ch!ori#es. &olten glass /i* or some Co*/high*Cr a!!oysA Some refractories.

etc.

s!ag 6high*Cr : Si7. Dntergranu!ar attack, interna! >oi#s, an# probab!e embritt!ement.

2s with ha!ogens, su!9#ation #epen#s on nature of sa!ts 6aci#ic/basic7.

$00, $01, $02C2, $31, $+0, ,23%), etc.

Comp!eE MuEing reactionsA oEi#ationA su!9#ationA ch!orinationA Muorination, etc. Bisso!ution or a!!oying effectsA Dntergranu!ar attackA Bepen#s on system.

4i5uid metals

Fe*a!!oys with Cr, 2!, Si usua! 9rst choices 6subLect to !iNui# meta!, e.g,. 1iN. /a, I, mo!ten On, Hb, etc.7 Synergy of processes.

00+, 010, )%&, 2%0,2, etc.

Complex En6ironmen ts

C.2sK or coatings

Seek input from supp!iersA Consi#er on!ine tests/monitoring.

/ote This is a genera!, not eEhausti>e, gui#e. 5 /ot in any preferre# or#er. K C.2s are corrosion*resistant a!!oys.

$7

www.aiche.org/cep/ February 2001 CEP

!anadic slag corrosion occurs follo$ing combustion of certain lo$grade or residual fuel oils that are of high vanadium, sulfur, and al%ali metals. +he molten sodium vanadyl vanadates typically 0ux a$ay protective oxides and then rapidly dissolve the metal. Many high-temperature alloys cannot survive ,33 h at 9334C !,,:1>45" in vanadic slags (9). Janadic attac% can be managed by lo$ering temperatures !if possible", using fueloil additives !such as magnesium and calcium oxides", or by specifying high-chromium alloys. *ilicon-rich coatings are bene-cial and appear to complement the role of chromium (9). "olten glass typically induces intergranular attac% $ith voids !from volatile halides" and sul-des. @xides are generally fused into the glass. Attac% is commonly rapid, and high chromium-nic%el-based alloys are usually employed. Iron-rich alloys can be prone to severe attac% due to their ability to form lo$-melting halides !e.g., 5eCl ". "olten salts, used for heat treating applications, nuclear engineering, solar cells, and metal extraction, generally promote intergranular attac% in alloys, often $ith voids and internal lo$-melting products !halides". A common feature in most hightemperature aggressive environments is the synergy of the reactants one $ith each other !+able ,". ?astage can be easily measured, but the mechanism!s" are not as easy to determine. As a minimum, a rigorous study and analysis of the morphologies should help to establish the rate-controlling process, $hich should help to better de-ne the type of alloy that could be considered as a candidate. +he broad expertise of the material suppliers should be fully explored in the (uest for a suitable choice. Monitoring trials using test spools are recommended $herever they can be used.
7

sel. As might be expected, there are many candidates, yet, from these the choice is often reduced to one of t$o, once the total range of properties is fully explored. 5actors to be considered include mechanical properties !strength, 0exibility, fatigue life", physical properties !expansion and contraction, re0ectivity, magnetism, etc.", availability !shape and form", and price !economic decision based on overall costs and fabrication, etc.". As a convenience, some generally

for various high-temperature environments are summari;ed in +able >. +his table is intended only as a guide' no order of merit is to be interpreted from the se(uence of listings !or omissions" in this table. Also, the alloy lists are not meant to be inclusive, but, rather, merely typical examples of $hat has $or%ed in the -eld.

4iterature Cited
1. Rothman, M. F., ed., FDigh +emperature Croperty )ataI 5errous Alloys,G A*M International, Metals Car%, @D, p. 9.>: !,989". 2. Agarwal, D. C., and U. Brill, FMaterial )egradation Croblems in Digh +emperature #nvironments,G #ndustrial eating, p. 1: !@ct. ,992".

1. 2. 0.

Elliott, P., FCractical Kuide to Digh+emperature Alloys,G "aterials $er%or&ance, 29 !2", p. 16 !Apr. ,989". Lai, G. A., FDigh-+emperature Corrosion of #ngineering Alloys,G A*M International, Metals Car%, @D !,993". !""ain, M. #., FAspects of Dot Corrosion Attac% on Digh-+emperature Materials,G Ch) thesis, Lniversity of Manchester !,982"' C. $. %&reman, F+he Digh +emperature Corrosion of Metals and Alloys in D5-containing #nvironments,G Ch) thesis, Lniversity of Manchester !,98:". Gra'(e, . $., FCarburi;ation & A Digh +emperature Corrosion Chenomenon,G Cublication Bo 1>, Materials +echnology Institute of the Chemical Crocess Industries, Inc., *t. Louis !,998". Elliott, P., FMaterials Cerformance in Digh +emperature ?aste Combustion *ystems,G "aterials $er%or&ance, )) !>", p. 8> !,997". Goe'el, $. A., et al., FMechanism for Dot Corrosion of Bic%el Aase Alloys,G "et. 'rans., * !,", p. >:, !,967". Elliott P., and %. $. %a&lor, F*ome Aspects of *ilicon Coatings Lnder Janadic Attac%,G in FMaterials and Coatings to Resist Digh +emperature @xidation and Corrosion,G A. Rahmel and ). R. Dolmes, eds., Applied *cience Cublishers, London, p. 717 !,968".

To sum up Ideally, the material choice is based on %no$n data and experience, $hich implies communication bet$een a user and a supplier. A better %no$ledge of anticipated component re(uirements in addition to corrosion behavior provides for a better choice and the expectation of more reliable service. Croper identi-cation and recording of damage from prior systems is a positive bene-t in deciding upon an alternative alloy or coated system. ?herever possible, and certainly for ne$ and complex environments, testing is to be recommended. P
P. E448OTT is presi#ent of Corrosion Q ,ateria!s Consu!tancy, Dnc., Co!ts /eck, /R 663027 000*0%0)A FaE 63027 000*0%+1A S*mai! pe!!iottTmonmouth.com7. The company pro>i#es professiona! engineering ser>ices, notab!y in materia!s uti!i<ation an# corrosion contro!. CQ,C offers a wi#e range of technica! support, inc!u#ing meta!!urgica!, ana!ytica!, corrosion testing, an# e>a!uation ser>ices. S!!iott has 00 yearsU eEperience as a corrosion an# materia!s engineer, especia!!y in troub!eshooting an# fai!ure ana!ysis. &e is the author of o>er +0 technica! papers #ea!ing with materia!s performance, high*temperature corrosion, en>ironmenta! corrosion, risk assessment, an# techno!ogy transfer. &e is a /2CS Dnternationa! Fe!!ow an# Corrosion Specia!ist, an# ser>es on se>era! /2CS committeesA he a!so presents a /2CS seminar on high* temperature corrosion. &e is a Fe!!ow an# past chairman of the Dnstitute of Corrosion, a Fe!!ow of the Dnstitute of ,ateria!s, a chartere# engineer, an# a member of 2S, Dnternationa!. &e has a!so presente# o>er 100 !ectures to internationa! conferences an# professiona! societies. S!!iott ho!#s a ?Sc in meta!!urgy, an# an ,Sc an# HhB in chemica! meta!!urgy from the Jni>ersity of ,anchester, J.I.

-.

%. $. 3.

Candidate alloys Choice should be based on careful considerations, including, primarily, the function of the component or ves-

recommended alloys and alloy types

CEP February 2001 www.aiche.org/cep/

$1

,ateria!s

Peter Elliott1 Corrosion Q ,ateria!s Consu!tancy, Dnc.

&igh temperatures, stresses, an# the presence of e!ements such as oEygen, su!fur, or the ha!ogens can a## up to troub!e. &ere is how to screen can#i#ate a!!oys for such ser>ice.

,
aterials are selected on the basis of service re(uirements, notably strength, so corrosion resistance !stability" may not be the primary design consideration. Assemblies need to be strong and resilient to the uni(ue loads and stresses imparted on them, $hich can include signi-cant temperature changes and thermal gradients for many high-temperature applications. In ma%ing a choice, it is necessary to %no$ $hat materials are available and to $hat extent they are suited to the speci -c application. +he decision is (uite involved and the choice is signi-cantly affected by the environment and the intended use, be it a reactor vessel, tubes, supports, shields, springs, or others. *ome problems may occur because of distortion and crac%ing caused by thermal expansion/contraction' typically, a high-temperature alloy might change - in./ft from ambient to ,,3334C !,,87>45". +he user or designer needs to properly understand that the environment dictates the materials selection process at all stages of the process or application. 5or example, an alloy that performs $ell at the service temperature may corrode because of a(ueous !de$ point" corrosion at lo$er temperatures during off-load periods, or through some lac% of design detail or poor maintenance procedures that introduce local air draughts that cool the system !e.g., at access doors, inspection ports, etc.". +o provide as optimum performance as possible, it is necessary for a supplier to be a$are of the application, and for the user to be a$are of the general range of available materials. @ther$ise, severe problems can result. 5or CEP February 2001 www.aiche.org/cep/ 79

,ateria!s

posits that can foul tubes in a heat exchanger.

tions to about 9334C !,,:1345" in continuous service, or 8214C !,,11345" in intermittent !temperature cycling" service ((). +he failure occurred because of overheating $ith contributions from sul-dation !hot corrosion". +he true cause of failure $as a material mix-up, because +ype 732 $as not speci-ed, but $as inadvertently used.

&echanical limits of materials In considering traditional alloys, it is important for the designer and user to be fully a$are of the mechanical limits of a material. 5or example, the A*M# Cressure Jessel Codes advise that the maximum allo$able stress shall not exceed $hichever is the lo$est ofI !i" ,33= of the average stress to produce a creep rate of 3.3,= in ,,333 h' !ii" :6= of the average stress to cause rupture after ,33,333 h' and !iii" 83= of the minimum stress to cause rupture after ,33,333 h. +hese recommendations may be better appreciated by extracting typical data for +ype 732 intended for use in a pressure vessel up to 8,14C !,,13345". Aased upon A*M# tables, for a load of ,6 MCa !>.1 %si" at 6:34C !,,23345", the expected design life $ould be >2 yr' at 6884C !,,21345", the life falls to 6 yr' and at 8,14C !,,13345", it is only >.> yr. +hus, a short-term temperature excursion can have a signi-cant effect on e(uipment life. Also to be noted is that a small increase in loading, for example, from >.1 to 7 %si at 6:34C !,,23345", can mar%edly reduce the life expectancy, here, from >2 to 9 yr. @verheating is the most common cause of high-temperature corrosion failure, but the temperature in0uence on mechanical properties is of e(ual or even more signi-cance in that many failures occur because of creep deformation !creep voids" and thermal fatigue. @verheating can arise for various reasons, including an unexpected accumulation of tenacious de-

"ightemperature alloys and uses Digh-temperature alloys are typically iron-, nic%el- or cobalt-based alloys containing H>3= chromium !or 73= for cobalt", $hich is sufficient to form a protective oxide against further oxidation. +he basic alloys include various additional elements that aid in corrosion resistance, notably aluminum !typically H2= to develop an alumina scale", silicon !up to 1= to develop an amorphous !glass-li%e" scale that is complementary to chromia", and rare earth elements !typically M,=, e.g., yttrium, cerium, and lanthanum, that improve scale adhesion". @ther additions, such as the reactive metals, the refractory metals, and carbon, primarily improve mechanical properties. +he bene-cial and detrimental roles of common alloying elements on the anticipated performance of alloys at high-temperatures is covered by Agar$al and Arill ()). *e%ractor+ &etals & Molybdenum, $hich is a bene-cial addition for resisting a(ueous chloride-induced pitting corrosion !found in +ypes 7,: and 7,6 stainless steels, and the :=Mo alloys", is prone to catastrophic oxidation as temperatures exceed about 6334C !,,>9>45", the point above $hich Mo@ forms eutectic mixtures $ith iron, nic%el, and chromium oxides. +he oxide Mo@ melts at 6914C !,,2:>454". Catastrophic oxidation rapidly renders a metal into a useless po$dery oxide. )amage is $orse in stagnant conditions and appears to be exacerbated $hen sodium oxide is present !e.g., from insulation". All of the refractory metals !tungsten, tantalum, niobium, and molybdenum" may experience catastrophic oxidation. *ilicide coatings have sho$n some to offer some resistance to this catastrophic !FpestG" oxidation. ,oatings & Digh-temperature coatings or surface modi-cations are generally based on chromium, aluminum, or silicon, $hich, at high
7

temperatures, form protective oxides rich in chromia, alumina, or silica, respectively. In more recent years, there have been developments in applying so-called alloy coatings, for example, the use of MCRAL !metal, chromium, aluminum, and yttrium" on steels or other high-temperature alloy substrates. #fforts have also continued in $eld overlay $or%, $here a strong base metal can support a corrosionresistant surface-coated layer. Applications & In considering materials options, a thorough %no$ledge of the service applications !stress-bearing service' cyclic loading or not' fre(uency of cycling' impact or erosion effects' thermal expansion and contraction" is needed. )ifferent high-temperature corrosion processes are simultaneously involved in many common service applications. *ome of these are synergistic, $hich creates a formidable challenge for users and alloy producers. *ome examples of the forms associated $ith various applications are given in +able , (3, 4).

Types of hightemperature corrosion +here are certain distinguishing features about the morphology of high-temperature corrosion that aid in deciding upon the cause of damage. *ome typical indications include thic% scales, grossly thinned metal, burnt !blac%ened" or charred surfaces, molten phases, deposits of various colors, distortion and crac%ing, and magnetism in $hat $as -rst a nonmagnetic !e.g., austenitic" matrix. )amage varies signi-cantly based upon the environment, and $ill be most severe $hen a material.s oxidation limits are exceeded, notably $hen an alloy sustains brea%a$ay attac% by oxygen/sulfur, halogen/oxygen, lo$-melting 0uxing salts, molten glasses, or molten metals, especially after -res. Oxidation Many industrial processes involve oxidation, i.e., a metal reacts in air to form and sustain a protective oxide. 76 www.aiche.org/cep/ February 2001
CEP

Process or pro#uction Table 1. Typical process conditions causing corrosion. Temperature Components

Steam reforming tubes Steam cracking tubes ethy!ene "iny! ch!ori#e crackers &y#rocrackers heaters Coke ca!cining recuperators Cat cracking regenerators F!are*stack tips CS2 furnace tubes ,e!amine/urea reactors .eactors in Ti

To 1,000C To 1,000C $%0C %%0'$00C )1%C To )00C +%0' 1,0)0C )%0C -%0'%00C +00C

/itric aci# cata!yst gri#s 1inings for 2! pyrohy#ro!ysis /uc!ear processing reactors &T4.5 6gas*coo!e#7 reactors 8i!*9re# boi!ers/superheaters 4as*turbine b!a#es ;aste incinerators F!ui#i<e#*be# combustors 4!ass recuperators &ot*#ip ga!>ani<ing

+00C To 1,000C 3%0*')00C 3%0'+%0C )%0'+00C +%0:C -30'%00C =$00C 1,0+0C -%%C

( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( (

( ( ( ( (

5 &T4. is high*temperature gas reactor.

+here can be several oxide products, some of $hich are less desirable, for example, $ustite, a defective oxide of iron that forms rapidly at about 1234C !,,33345" on steel. Most high-temperature alloys are oxidation resistant, so price, availability, experience, and the type of application usually dictate choice. +here are no signi-cant problems up to 2334C !61345", fe$ up to 6134C !,,78345", but the choice of successful alloys becomes some$hat limited above about 8334C !,,26345". *imple iron-chromium !or ironchromium-molybdenum" alloys become less useful as service temperatures increase, $hich is $here the +ype 733 series austenitic stainless steels, !732, 739, 7,3, 7,2, 773, 777, etc." and certain ferritic stainless steels !2,3 and 22:" -nd many applications. 5or more arduous service conditions at higher temperatures, these alloys are surpassed by nic%el-or cobalt-based formulations, including many of the more robust alloys that are mechanically alloyed to improve

strength and to control !that is, minimi;e" grain gro$th at elevated temperatures. Certain alloys !usually those $ith rare earth additions" are more resilient to oxidation under thermal cycling !shoc%" conditions. *ome applications do not allo$ an alloy to fully develop its steady-state condition, thus, performance is dictated by the transient !not-so-protective" surface scales. +ransient effects $ill become apparent should failure analysis be performed. Caution should be given to ironchromium-nic%el alloys that can be prone to sigma-phase formation bet$een 123<8334C !,,333<,,26345", $hich results in premature brittle failure. Molybdenum-containing alloys !+ypes 7,: and 7,6 stainless steels and the :=-Mo alloys" can be prone to catastrophic oxidation above about :834C !,,>1:45".

ul!dation
*ulfurous gases are common to many applications, including fuel

combustion atmospheres, petrochemical processing, gas turbines, and coal gasi-cation. *ul-des !e.g., sulfur vapor, hydrogen sul-de" can be very damaging, because metal sul-des form at faster rates than do metal oxides. *ul-des have lo$ melting points and produce voluminous scales !scale spallation". ?ith mixed corrodant environments !oxygen and sulfur", alloy performance is based upon a subtle interplay bet$een oxide and sul-de formation. @xides are more stable' sul-des form more rapidly !due to %inetics". +hus, oxides, sul-des, or both may form. If deposits are also present, then conditions at the metal surfaces are reducing compared to areas external to the deposits. )amage can be extensive. Mixed sulfur-and-oxygen gases can invo%e very high corrosion rates due to brea%a$ay attac%, typically above about :334C !,,,,345" for nic%elbased alloys, 9>34C !,,:8845" for cobalt-based, and 9234C !,6>245" for iron-based formulations. Area%-

CEP February 2001 www.aiche.org/cep/

77

,ateria!s

2bo>e

Tube fai!ure #ue

to !oca! o>erheating. 1eft ?urst tube wa!!s #ue to o>erheating.

a$ay attac% is commonly associated $ith sulfur and excess air. @nce the -rstformed oxide is lost or destroyed, sul-des can invade the chromium-depleted substrate, thus, causing accelerated attac% to occur. *tainless steels and iron-based alloys are preferred over high-nic%el alloys, because nic%el is prone to forming the lo$-melting nic%el-nic%el sul-de eutectic, Bi-Bi * , $hich melts at :714C !,,,6145". #utectics of cobalt and iron occur at higher temperatures, 8834C !,,:,:45" and 9814C !,,83145", respectively. Alloys can be $ea%ened by internal corrosion, most noticeably $hen mobile species are present, such as lo$-melting sul-des, $hich are typi-ed by locali;ed dull uniform gray phases $ithin the alloy matrix. At times, li(uid-appearing phases are found in the metallurgy. Alloys containing aluminum, silicon, and cobalt are useful in sul-di;ing environments. Many alloys classi-ed as candidates for sul-dation do $ell only if oxides are -rst able to form. Creoxidation can be of value.
7 >

"alogenation Dalogen attac% is commonly manifested as a combination of scale spallation $ith internal alloy damage including voids that form as a result of highly volatile species (5). Material performance is dictated by the uni(ue properties of the

halides, including high vapor pressures, high volatility !vapori;ation", lo$ melting points, mismatched expansion coefficients $ith metal substrates, and the effects of displacement reactions $hereby oxide or sul-de are thermodynamically favored over the halides. Alloy performance is greatly affected by oxidi;ing or reducing conditions. 5or oxidi;ing atmospheres or for vapors Eointly present $ith oxygen !or air", there is an opportunity for reduced corrosion rates !%inetics" associated $ith oxide formation, although the scale may later be disrupted by the volatile halides, especially if iron-based alloys are used. Bic%el alloys are generally favored for halogen atmospheres, since iron-based alloys are more vulnerable, due to their volatile products, e.g., 5eCl . *ilicon additions are useful if oxidi;ing environments prevail, but not for reducing conditions. Creoxidation is not normally a bene-t for reducing halogen attac%. ?hat ma%es halogens different from other oxidants is their high mobility and diffusivity into a metal, resulting in internal damage of the alloy matrix. 5luorine can penetrate t$ice the distance of chlorides, $hich means that the predominant mode of damage in 0uorine-containing gases is by means of internal attac%. Dalide products are also hygroscopic (3), so it is not unusual to discover local protrusions on a metal that have
7

been removed during service. In laboratory studies, it is common to -nd that a surface apparently free from chlorides !removed during metallographic preparation" is later found to sho$ them. +his is because the chlorides have been leached out from deep under the voided areas in the metal.

Carburi#ation *everal environments are synonymous $ith carburi;ation, including pyrolysis and gas-crac%ing processes, reforming plants, and heat-treating facilities that involve carbon monoxide, methane, and hydrocarbon gases. )amage is usually manifested as internal carbides, notably in grain boundaries and is generally $orst above ,,3134C !,,9>>45". ?hen carburi;ing conditions alternate $ith oxidi;ing ones, carbides can become oxidi;ed to oxides, $hich yields carbon monoxide that can $ea%en the grain boundaries in an alloy. *uch an alloy fails by Fgreen rot,G a name that describes the green fractured surface that results !chromium oxide". *trongly carburi;ing atmospheres !i.e., those that have a carbon activity H," can cause a metal to form co%e-li%e layers, often of a dusty form. +his form of attac%, termed metal dusting, commonly occurs bet$een 2>1<8334C !693< ,,26345" and can be very rapid !in days not months". )amage is either general or locali;ed !pitting", as dictated by the ability of the alloy to form a surface oxide (6). 7$ www.aiche.org/cep/ February 2001 CEP

2bo>e Therma! fatigue crack in boi!er tube.

Carbon steels and alloy steels are normally uniformly thinned by metal dusting' more highly alloyed materials usually display local outgro$ths of co%e emerging through small pits that broaden $ith time. Cast iron-nic%el-chromium alloys are $idely used for carburi;ing applications, including the more recent alloys containing ,<>= silicon and ,.1= niobium !the DC Mod alloys" !4, 6). Digh-nic%el alloys !$ith lo$ solubility for carbon" -nd many applications for carburi;ing conditions. *tronger nic%el-based alloys $ith high chromium and silicon contents are useful in more demanding environments. Dighly alloyed ferritic stainless steels !that are able to more rapidly form a thin oxide -lm" tend to outperform austenitic steels.

%itriding Relatively little is reported about nitridation other than material performance is $ea%ened !embrittlement" as a result of the formation of internal nitrides in the alloy (4). It is common to expect damage $ith nitrides at 633<9334C !,,>93<,,:1345". Bitrides appear generally as needle-li%e precipitates in the alloy matrix. Bic%el- and cobalt-rich alloys appear to be -rst-choice candidates for resisting nitride attac%, because of the lo$ solubility of nitrogen in these
Top Tube fou!ing in an incinerator p!ant #ue to carryo>er of #eposits. ?ottom Through*meta! perforation in tubing from a carbon b!ack p!ant.

base metals. Iron tends to be detrimental, as do aluminum and titanium in lo$ concentrations. *ilicon forms a brittle intermetallic compound $ith nitrogen and can contribute to scale spallation, especially in applications at lo$ oxygen concentrations !potentials", $here thin oxides can form, and during thermal cycling.

&olten products )eposits are a common product in many high-temperature applications, including boilers, $aste incinerators, 0uidi;ed-bed combustors, and gas turbines. A $hole series of reactions is possible should deposits become molten and no single mechanism can be applied generally to characteri;e such damage (7). +he mechanisms of molten product corrosion are complex. +he types of damage include fuel-ash corrosion & sulfates, including acid and basic 0uxing reactions (8), and vanadic slag attac% (9) & molten salt corrosion !chlorides, nitrates, and carbonates" (4), and molten glass corrosion. Li(uid metal attac% is yet another special category (4). Fuel-ash or ash/salt-deposit cor rosion stems from high-temperature corrosion processes associated $ith fuel combustion products in boilers, $aste incinerators, and gas turbines. +hus, products can include various deposits !oxidi;ing or reducing" $ith active contributions from oxygen, sulfur, halogens, carbon, and nitrogen (4, 7). +ypically, alloy matrices display intergranular attac% !oxides and chlorides" beneath disturbed oxide layers possibly fused $ith molten deposits and internal sul-des $ithin the alloy-affected ;one. ot corrosion is generally regarded as attac% in the Eoint presence of sulfur and oxygen. +ypically, attac% is considered to be triggered by molten al%ali metal salts that melt above 6334C !,,>9345". *odium sulfate, $ith a melting point of 8824C !,,:>345", derived from sodium chloride and sulfur from the fuel, is considered to be closely involved in the mechanism of hot corrosion (8). +his mechanism is considered to have four stagesI oxidation !incubation"' mild sul-dation' oxide failure' and catastrophic attac% !internal sul-des via a porous voluminous complex oxide/deposit layer". Dot corrosion is an irreversible autocatalytic process.

CEP February 2001 www.aiche.org/cep/

7'

,ateria!s

Table (. )uide to candidate materials.

Corrosion &ode Oxidation *asic +lloy Types Fe*/i*6Co7 =20@ 600@7 Cr. Stabi!i<e# to minimi<e sensiti<ation. 2!, Si bene9cia!. .are earth a##itions ai# sca!e retention. Candidates, 00-, 021,00+, 010, )006&T7, )00, -00, --$,&.120, 000, )%&, 000, $00, $0164C7, $02C2, $13, $2%, 2%0,2, 0%0,2, BS, 21-, ,2+%$, ,23%-, C, etc. %otes and Cautions ;i#e choice #ictate# by app!ication an# functionA ,echanica! propertiesA Therma! cyc!e 6shock7A Transient >s. stea#y stateA Dnterna! oEi#es. ?eware FA ;, ,o G catastrophic oEi#ation. Su!fur >apor, &2S, etc. G no oEi#es. ?eware of /i//i0S2 eutecticA coatings can he!p. S82, S80 , etc. G risk of breakaway attack with oEi#es an# su!9#esA 2! coatings. 6See hot corrosion.7 Dnterna! carbi#es with intergranu!ar attackA Cast tubes bene9t from smooth D.B. surfaces. ,eta! #usting 6at !ower temperatures7. 4reen rot 6with intermittent 82*C7. %itridation /i*a!!oys rather than Fe. 2>oi# high Cr !e>e!s. Jse !ow 2! an# !ow Ti !e>e!s 6nitri#e formers7. Si promotes sca!e spa!!ing. /i a!!oys genera!!y better than Fe. ?ene9ts Cr 6not &F7, 2!, Si 6with oEygen7. HreoEi#ation not bene9cia!. FeCr,o a!!oys at !ower temperaturesA C.2sK for S, 8, C G subLect to app!ication. 00+, 010, )006&T7, $00, $01, $02C2, $2%, )2%, 2%0,2, 0%0,2, ,23%-, ,23%), ,2+%$, D/$%3, $31, 00+, )006&T7, 000, --$, 1)), 200, $00, $02C2, $2%, 2%0,2, etc. Dnterna! nitri#es 6e.g., 2!/7 can weaken a!!oyA Thin oEi#e at !ow oEygen partia! pressure re#uces nitri#ation. )00&, 000, 200, 201, 203, $00, $01, $02C2, 21-, /, &2-2, ?0, etc. "o!ati!e pro#uctsA Dnterna! attack with >oi#sA &ygroscopic pro#ucts 6e.g., ch!ori#es7A Sca!e spa!!ation. 2pp!ications #ictate a!!oy, or coating 4as turbines 6strong : C.2K7A >ana#ic

ul!dation -.educing gases no oxides/

Fe* with high Cr 62!7 a!!oys.

+'12@Cr stee!s 00+, 010, 000, )006&T7, )00, &.120, )%&, 2%0,2, 0%0,2, ,2+%$, --$, $31, $?, 1)), etc.

ul!dation -Oxidi#ing gases/

Fe*Cr*base# a!!oys. 8Ei#e formation a bene9t. HreoEi#i<ation may he!p.

2s abo>e with 1%0,2, $01, &.1$0, ,23%-, ,2+%$, 000, %%$, etc.

Carburi#atio n

;i#e use of cast a!!oys. For worse con#itions, use high*/i a!!oys with Cr, Si. 61ow so!ubi!ity of C in /i is bene9t for /i a!!oys.7

&&, &I, &H,o#, 00+, 010, 000, 000, )%&, )006&T7, )00, BS, &.1$0, $00, $01, 2%0,2, $02C2, $13, $2%, $+0, ,23%-, ,2+%$, C, %%$, 30$, 31), 3%0, etc.

"alogenatio n0 chlorination 1 2uorination1 etc. 3uel ash corrosion

&igh Cr, 2!, Si usefu! 6a!so as coatings7. &olten salts /i a!!oys genera!!y fa>ore#A some high*Cr a!!oysA /iCr,o; a!!oys for mo!ten ch!ori#es. &olten glass /i* or some Co*/high*Cr a!!oysA Some refractories.

etc.

s!ag 6high*Cr : Si7. Dntergranu!ar attack, interna! >oi#s, an# probab!e embritt!ement.

2s with ha!ogens, su!9#ation #epen#s on nature of sa!ts 6aci#ic/basic7.

$00, $01, $02C2, $31, $+0, ,23%), etc.

Comp!eE MuEing reactionsA oEi#ationA su!9#ationA ch!orinationA Muorination, etc. Bisso!ution or a!!oying effectsA Dntergranu!ar attackA Bepen#s on system.

4i5uid metals

Fe*a!!oys with Cr, 2!, Si usua! 9rst choices 6subLect to !iNui# meta!, e.g,. 1iN. /a, I, mo!ten On, Hb, etc.7 Synergy of processes.

00+, 010, )%&, 2%0,2, etc.

Complex En6ironmen ts

C.2sK or coatings

Seek input from supp!iersA Consi#er on!ine tests/monitoring.

/ote This is a genera!, not eEhausti>e, gui#e. 5 /ot in any preferre# or#er. K C.2s are corrosion*resistant a!!oys.

$7

www.aiche.org/cep/ February 2001 CEP

!anadic slag corrosion occurs follo$ing combustion of certain lo$grade or residual fuel oils that are of high vanadium, sulfur, and al%ali metals. +he molten sodium vanadyl vanadates typically 0ux a$ay protective oxides and then rapidly dissolve the metal. Many high-temperature alloys cannot survive ,33 h at 9334C !,,:1>45" in vanadic slags (9). Janadic attac% can be managed by lo$ering temperatures !if possible", using fueloil additives !such as magnesium and calcium oxides", or by specifying high-chromium alloys. *ilicon-rich coatings are bene-cial and appear to complement the role of chromium (9). "olten glass typically induces intergranular attac% $ith voids !from volatile halides" and sul-des. @xides are generally fused into the glass. Attac% is commonly rapid, and high chromium-nic%el-based alloys are usually employed. Iron-rich alloys can be prone to severe attac% due to their ability to form lo$-melting halides !e.g., 5eCl ". "olten salts, used for heat treating applications, nuclear engineering, solar cells, and metal extraction, generally promote intergranular attac% in alloys, often $ith voids and internal lo$-melting products !halides". A common feature in most hightemperature aggressive environments is the synergy of the reactants one $ith each other !+able ,". ?astage can be easily measured, but the mechanism!s" are not as easy to determine. As a minimum, a rigorous study and analysis of the morphologies should help to establish the rate-controlling process, $hich should help to better de-ne the type of alloy that could be considered as a candidate. +he broad expertise of the material suppliers should be fully explored in the (uest for a suitable choice. Monitoring trials using test spools are recommended $herever they can be used.
7

sel. As might be expected, there are many candidates, yet, from these the choice is often reduced to one of t$o, once the total range of properties is fully explored. 5actors to be considered include mechanical properties !strength, 0exibility, fatigue life", physical properties !expansion and contraction, re0ectivity, magnetism, etc.", availability !shape and form", and price !economic decision based on overall costs and fabrication, etc.". As a convenience, some generally

for various high-temperature environments are summari;ed in +able >. +his table is intended only as a guide' no order of merit is to be interpreted from the se(uence of listings !or omissions" in this table. Also, the alloy lists are not meant to be inclusive, but, rather, merely typical examples of $hat has $or%ed in the -eld.

4iterature Cited
1. Rothman, M. F., ed., FDigh +emperature Croperty )ataI 5errous Alloys,G A*M International, Metals Car%, @D, p. 9.>: !,989". 2. Agarwal, D. C., and U. Brill, FMaterial )egradation Croblems in Digh +emperature #nvironments,G #ndustrial eating, p. 1: !@ct. ,992".

). +.

Elliott, P., FCractical Kuide to Digh+emperature Alloys,G "aterials $er%or&ance, 29 !2", p. 16 !Apr. ,989". Lai, G. A., FDigh-+emperature Corrosion of #ngineering Alloys,G A*M International, Metals Car%, @D !,993". !""ain, M. #., FAspects of Dot Corrosion Attac% on Digh-+emperature Materials,G Ch) thesis, Lniversity of Manchester !,982"' C. $. %&reman, F+he Digh +emperature Corrosion of Metals and Alloys in D5-containing #nvironments,G Ch) thesis, Lniversity of Manchester !,98:". Gra'(e, . $., FCarburi;ation & A Digh +emperature Corrosion Chenomenon,G Cublication Bo 1>, Materials +echnology Institute of the Chemical Crocess Industries, Inc., *t. Louis !,998". Elliott, P., FMaterials Cerformance in Digh +emperature ?aste Combustion *ystems,G "aterials $er%or&ance, )) !>", p. 8> !,997". Goe'el, $. A., et al., FMechanism for Dot Corrosion of Bic%el Aase Alloys,G "et. 'rans., * !,", p. >:, !,967". Elliott P., and %. $. %a&lor, F*ome Aspects of *ilicon Coatings Lnder Janadic Attac%,G in FMaterials and Coatings to Resist Digh +emperature @xidation and Corrosion,G A. Rahmel and ). R. Dolmes, eds., Applied *cience Cublishers, London, p. 717 !,968".

To sum up Ideally, the material choice is based on %no$n data and experience, $hich implies communication bet$een a user and a supplier. A better %no$ledge of anticipated component re(uirements in addition to corrosion behavior provides for a better choice and the expectation of more reliable service. Croper identi-cation and recording of damage from prior systems is a positive bene-t in deciding upon an alternative alloy or coated system. ?herever possible, and certainly for ne$ and complex environments, testing is to be recommended. P
P. E448OTT is presi#ent of Corrosion Q ,ateria!s Consu!tancy, Dnc., Co!ts /eck, /R 663027 000*0%0)A FaE 63027 000*0%+1A S*mai! pe!!iottTmonmouth.com7. The company pro>i#es professiona! engineering ser>ices, notab!y in materia!s uti!i<ation an# corrosion contro!. CQ,C offers a wi#e range of technica! support, inc!u#ing meta!!urgica!, ana!ytica!, corrosion testing, an# e>a!uation ser>ices. S!!iott has 00 yearsU eEperience as a corrosion an# materia!s engineer, especia!!y in troub!eshooting an# fai!ure ana!ysis. &e is the author of o>er +0 technica! papers #ea!ing with materia!s performance, high*temperature corrosion, en>ironmenta! corrosion, risk assessment, an# techno!ogy transfer. &e is a /2CS Dnternationa! Fe!!ow an# Corrosion Specia!ist, an# ser>es on se>era! /2CS committeesA he a!so presents a /2CS seminar on high* temperature corrosion. &e is a Fe!!ow an# past chairman of the Dnstitute of Corrosion, a Fe!!ow of the Dnstitute of ,ateria!s, a chartere# engineer, an# a member of 2S, Dnternationa!. &e has a!so presente# o>er 100 !ectures to internationa! conferences an# professiona! societies. S!!iott ho!#s a ?Sc in meta!!urgy, an# an ,Sc an# HhB in chemica! meta!!urgy from the Jni>ersity of ,anchester, J.I.

10.

11.

12. 10. 1-.

Candidate alloys Choice should be based on careful considerations, including, primarily, the function of the component or ves-

recommended alloys and alloy types

CEP February 2001 www.aiche.org/cep/

$1