Chapter 1 Introduction

1.0 Introduction of Suspended Solid The term solids is generally used when referring to any material suspended or dissolved in wastewater that can be physically isolated either through filtration or through evaporation. Solids can be classified as either filterable or non-filterable. Filterable solids may either be settleable or non-settleable. Solids can also be classified as organic or inorganic. Filterable solids are so small that they will pass through a standard laboratory filter, while non-filterable solids are large enough to be captured on a standard filter pad. The nonfilterable solids are termed settleable if the solids settle out in a standard laboratory settling container within a specified period of time. They are called non-settleable if they fail to settle out within that time period. If solids are organic, the material is carbon-based and will burn. Inorganic solids, on the other hand, are mineral based and generally will not burn. Any

material that was at one time living (for example: body wastes, starches, sugars, wood, bacteria and cotton) are all organic while limestone, iron and calcium are inorganic.

The amount of solids in wastewater is frequently used to describe the strength of the waste. The more solids present in a particular wastewater, the stronger that wastewater will be. If the solids in wastewater are mostly organic, the impact on a treatment plant is greater than if the solids are mostly inorganic.

Normal domestic wastewater contains a very small amount of solids when compared to the amount of water that carries it, generally less than 0.1%. This can be misleading, however, because it may take only a very small amount of organic residue to create large pollution problems. The number and severity of pollution problems will depend on the type of solids that are involved.

As a general rule, large quantities of organic solids will create more pollution problems than will the same quantity of inorganic solids. Therefore, not only is it important to know how much solids are present in the waste, but also the type of solids that are present. The test procedures for solids provide essential information about the level and type of solids coming into the treatment plant and whether the solids are actually being removed in the plant processes.

Figure 1: Wastewater Sample undergoing filtration process

Samples are filtered through a glass fiber filter. The filters are dried and weighed to determine the amount of total suspended solids in mg/l of sample. Total Suspended Solids (TSS) are the amount of filterable solids in a water sample. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) are those solids that pass through a filter with a pore size of 2.0 micron. or smaller. They are said to be non-filterable. After filtration the filtrate (liquid) is dried and the remaining residue is weighed and calculated as mg/l of Total Dissolved Solids.

Filtration: Removal of suspended matter by passing a sample through a porous matrix (such as a filter pad) that prevents particles from getting through.

Fixed Solids: Those solids (total, suspended or dissolved) which remain after ignition for 15-20 minutes at 550 +/-50C. These are also commonly referred to as ash. In general, fixed solids are made up of inorganic material.

Settleable Slids: The term applied to the material settling out of a sample within a one hour period. Settleable solids may include floating material depending on the technique used in the test.

Supernatant: Liquid removal from settled sludge. Supernatant commonly refers to the liquid between the sludge on the bottom and the scum on the surface of a settling beaker.

Volatile solids: Those solids which are lost during ignition (by burning) for 15-20 minutes at 550 +/-50C. In general, volatile solids are made up of organic material.

i.

Total Solid Determination

The term applied to the material left in a dish after evaporation of a sample and its subsequent drying in an oven at a defined temperature. Total Solids (TS) are the total of all solids in a water sample. If the levels of total solids are too high or too low, it can impact the health of the stream and the organisms that live there. High levels of total solids will reduce the clarity of the water. This decreases the amount of sunlight able to penetrate the water, thereby decreasing the photosynthetic rate. They include the total suspended solids and total dissolved solids. Total solids include Total Suspended Solids and Total Dissolved Solids.

ii.

Total Suspended Solid

Total suspended solids is a water quality measurement usually abbreviated TSS. This parameter was at one time called non-filterable residue (NFR), a term that refers to the identical measurement: the dry-weight of particles trapped by a filter, typically of a specified pore size. However, the term "non-filterable" suffered from an odd (for science) condition of usage: in

some circles (Oceanography, for example) "filterable" meant the material retained on a filter, so non-filterable would be the water and particulates that passed through the filter. In other disciplines (Chemistry and Microbiology for examples) and dictionary definitions, "filterable" means just the opposite: the material passed by a filter, usually called "Total dissolved solids" or TDS. Thus in chemistry the non-filterable solids are the retained material called the residue. Those solids which will not pass through a standard glass fiber filter. This includes both those solids that will settle or float in the clarifier and the lighter non-settleable (colloidal) solids.

iii.

Total Dissolved Solid This term refers to those solids which will pass through a standard glass fiber filter. Total Dissolved Solids (often abbreviated TDS) is a measure of the combined content of all inorganic and organic substances contained in a liquid in molecular, ionized or microgranular (colloidal sol) suspended form. Generally the operational definition is that the solids must be small enough to survive filtration through a filter with two-micrometer (nominal size, or smaller) pores. Total dissolved solids are normally discussed only for freshwater systems, as salinity comprises some of the ions constituting the definition of TDS. The principal application of TDS is in the study of water

quality for streams, rivers andlakes, although TDS is not generally considered a primary pollutant (e.g. it is not deemed to be associated with health effects) it is used as an indication of aesthetic characteristics of drinking water and as an aggregate indicator of the presence of a broad array of chemical contaminants.

Primary sources for TDS in receiving waters are agricultural and residential runoff, leaching of soil contamination and point source water pollution discharge from industrial or sewage treatment plants. The most common chemical which constituents are found

are calcium, phosphates, nitrates, sodium, potassium and chloride,

in nutrient runoff, general stormwater runoff and runoff from snowy climates where road de-icing salts are applied. The chemicals may be cations, anions, molecules or

agglomerations on the order of one thousand or fewer molecules, so long as a soluble micro-granule is formed. More exotic and harmful elements of TDS are pesticides arising from surface runoff. Certain naturally occurring total dissolved solids arise from the weathering and dissolution of rocks and soils. The United States has established a secondary water quality standard of 500 mg/l to provide for palatability of drinking water.

Total dissolved solids are differentiated from total suspended solids (TSS), in that the latter cannot pass through a sieve of two micrometers and yet are indefinitely suspended in solution. The term "settleable solids" refers to material of any size that will not remain suspended or dissolved in a holding tank not subject to motion, and excludes both TDS and TSS.Settleable solids may include larger particulate matter or insoluble molecules.

1.1 Introduction of Turbidity

Turbidity is

the

cloudiness

or haziness of

a fluid caused

by

individual particles (suspended solids) that are generally invisible to the naked eye, similar to smoke in air. The measurement of turbidity is a key test of water quality. Fluids can contain suspended solid matter consisting of particles of many different sizes. While some suspended material will be large enough and heavy enough to settle rapidly to the bottom of the container if a liquid sample is left to stand (the settable solids), very small particles will settle only very slowly or not at all if the sample is regularly agitated or the particles are colloidal. These small solid particles cause the liquid to appear turbid. Turbidity (or haze) is also applied to transparent solids such as glass or plastic. In plastic production haze is defined as the percentage of light that is deflected more than 2.5 from the incoming light direction. The most widely used measurement unit for turbidity is the FTU (Formazin Turbidity Unit). ISO refers to its units as FNU (Formazin Nephelometric Units). There are several practical ways of checking water quality, the most direct being some measure of attenuation (that is, reduction in strength) of light as it passes through a

sample column of water. The alternatively used Jackson Candle method (units: Jackson Turbidity Unit or JTU) is essentially the inverse measure of the length of a column of water needed to completely obscure a candle flame viewed through it. The more water needed (the longer the water column), the clearer the water. Of course water alone produces some attenuation, and any substances dissolved in the water that produce color can attenuate some wavelengths. Modern instruments do not use candles, but this approach of attenuation of a light beam through a column of water should be calibrated and reported in JTUs. A property of the particlesthat they will scatter a light beam focused on themis considered a more meaningful measure of turbidity in water. Turbidity measured this way uses an instrument called a nephelometer with the detector setup to the side of the light beam. More light reaches the detector if there are lots of small particles scattering the source beam than if there are few. The units of turbidity from a calibrated nephelometer are called Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU). To some extent, how much light reflects for a given amount of particulates is dependent upon properties of the particles like their shape, color, and reflectivity. For this reason (and the reason that heavier particles settle quickly and do not contribute to a turbidity reading), a correlation between turbidity and total suspended solids (TSS) is somewhat unique for each location or situation. Turbidity in lakes, reservoirs, channels, and the ocean can be measured using a Secchi disk. This black and white disk is lowered into the water until it can no longer be seen; the depth (Secchi depth) is then recorded as a measure of the transparency of the water (inversely related to turbidity). The Secchi disk has the advantages of integrating turbidity over depth (where variable turbidity layers are present), being quick and easy to use, and inexpensive. It can provide a rough indication of the depth of the euphotic zone with a 3-fold division of the Secchi depth, however this cannot be used in shallow waters where the disk can still be seen on the bottom. An additional device, which may help measuring turbidity in shallow waters is the turbidity tube. The turbidity tube condenses water in a graded tube which allows

determination of turbidity based on a contrast disk in its bottom, being analogous to the Secchi disk. Turbidity in air, which causes solar attenuation, is used as a measure of pollution. To model the attenuation of beam irradiance, several turbidity parameters have been introduced, including the Linke turbidity factor (TL).

1.2 Introduction to Colour Measurement

Colour in water may result from the presence of natural metallic ions(iron and manganense),humus and peat materials, plankton, weeds, and industrial wastes. Colour is removed to make a water suitable for general and industrial applications. Colored industrial wastewaters may require colour removal before discharging into watercourses. The term colour is used here to mean true colour, that is, the colour of water from which turbidity has been removed. The term apparent colour includes not only colour due to substances in solution, but also that due to suspended matter. Apparent colour is determined on the original sample without filtration or centrifugation. In some highly colored industrial wastewaters colour is contributed principally by colloidal or suspended material. In such cases both true colour and apparent colour should be determined.

1.3 Importance of Determine Suspended Solid

The concentration of total suspended solids (TSS) is important to both river and lake ecosystems for ecological and water quality reasons. Inorganic suspended solids attenuate light, primarily through the process of scattering. High concentrations of suspended solids degrade optical water quality by reducing water clarity and decreasing light available to support photosynthesis. Suspended solids have been shown to alter predatorprey relationships (for example turbid water might make it difficult for fish to see their prey (e.g., insects)). Suspended solids also influence metabolic activity and provide

surface area for the sorption and transport of an array of constituents. Deposited solids alter streambed properties and aquatic habitat for fish, macrophytes, and benthic organisms. Deposited sediment may be available for resuspension and subsequent transport during periods of increased stream discharge Suspended solids in most

freshwater systems originate from watershed sources, pollutant point sources, and sediment resuspension. More rarely other sources, such as hydrogeologic structures can be important. High stream total suspended solids can impact water quality and deposition in downstream lakes and reservoirs.

1.4 Importance of Determine Turbidity

Turbidity is a principal physical characteristic of water and is an expression of the optical property that causes light to be scattered and absorbed by particles and molecules rather than transmitted in straight lines through a water sample. It is caused by suspended matter or impurities that interfere with the clarity of the water. These impurities may include clay, silt, finely divided inorganic and organic matter, soluble colored organic compounds, and plankton and other microscopic organisms. Typical sources of turbidity in drinking water Waste discharges; Runoff from watersheds, especially those that are disturbed or eroding; Algae or aquatic weeds and products of their breakdown in water reservoirs, rivers, or lakes; Humic acids and other organic compounds resulting from decay of plants, leaves, etc. in water sources; and High iron concentrations which give waters a rust-red coloration (mainly in ground water and ground water under the direct influence of surface water).Air bubbles and particles from the treatment process (e.g., hydroxides, lime softening)

Turbidity is the measure of relative clarity of a liquid. Clarity is important when producing drinking water for human consumption and in many manufacturing uses.

Once considered as a mostly aesthetic characteristic of drinking water, significant evidence exists that controlling turbidity is a competent safeguard against pathogens in drinking water.

1.5 Importance of Colour Measurement

Accurate documentation of water color is important as it indicates source of water and pollutants. Water color is referred as apparent color and true color based on the type of solid material present in it. Apparent color is the color of the whole water sample, and consists of color due to both dissolved and suspended components. True color is measured by filtering the water sample to remove all suspended material, and measuring the color of the filtered water, which represents color due to dissolved components.

Chapter 2

Literature Review

1.0 Water Quality

Water quality refers to the chemical, physical and biological characteristics of water.[1] It is a measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements of one or more biotic species and or to any human need or purpose.[2] It is most frequently used by reference to a set of standards against which compliance can be assessed. The most common standards used to assess water quality relate to health of ecosystems, safety of human contact and drinking water. In the setting of standards, agencies make political and technical/scientific decisions about how the water will be used.[3] In the case of natural water bodies, they also make some reasonable estimate of pristine conditions. Different uses raise different concerns and therefore different standards are considered. Natural water bodies will vary in response to environmental conditions.Environmental scientists work to understand how these systems function, which in turn helps to identify the sources and fates of contaminants. Environmental lawyers and policymakers work to define legislation with the intention that water is maintained at an appropriate quality for its identified use. The vast majority of surface water on the planet is neither potable nor toxic. This remains true when seawater in the oceans (which is too salty to drink) is not counted. Another general perception of water quality is that of a simple property that tells whether water is polluted or not. In fact, water quality is a complex subject, in part because water is a complex medium intrinsically tied to theecology of the Earth. Industrial and commercial activities

(e.g. manufacturing, mining, construction, transport) are a major cause of water pollution as are runoff from agricultural areas, urban runoffand discharge of treated and untreated sewage. The parameters for water quality are determined by the intended use. Work in the area of water quality tends to be focused on water that is treated for human consumption, industrial use, or in the environment.

1.2 Human consumption

Contaminants that may be in untreated water include microorganisms such as viruses, protozoa and bacteria; inorganic contaminants such as salts and metals; organic chemical contaminants from industrial processes

and petroleum use; pesticides and herbicides; and radioactive contaminants. Water quality depends on the local geology and ecosystem, as well as human uses such as sewage dispersion, industrial pollution, use of water bodies as a heat sink, and overuse (which may lower the level of the water). The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) limits the amounts of certain contaminants in tap water provided by US public water systems. The Safe Drinking Water Act authorizes EPA to issue two types of standards: primary standards regulate substances that potentially affect human health, and secondary standards prescribe aesthetic qualities, those that affect taste, odor, or appearance. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations establish limits for contaminants in bottled water that must provide the same protection for public health. Drinking water, including bottled water, may reasonably be expected to contain at least small amounts of some contaminants. The presence of these contaminants does not necessarily indicate that the water poses a health risk. In urbanized areas around the world, water purification technology is used in municipal water systems to remove contaminants from the source water (surface water or groundwater) before it is distributed to homes, businesses, schools and other

users. Water drawn directly from a stream, lake, or aquifer and that has no treatment will be of uncertain quality.

1.3 Industrial and Domestic Use

Dissolved minerals may affect suitability of water for a range of industrial and domestic purposes. The most familiar of these is probably the presence of ions of calcium and magnesium which interfere with the cleaning action of soap, and can form hard sulfate and soft carbonate deposits in water heaters or boilers.[4] Hard water may be softened to remove
[5]

these

ions.

The

softening

process

often

substitutes sodium cations.

Hard water may be preferable to soft water for human

consumption, since health problems have been associated with excess sodium and with calcium and magnesium deficiencies. Softening decreases nutrition and may increase cleaning effectiveness.[6]

1.4 Drinking Water Indicators The following is a list of indicators often measured by situational category:

Alkalinity Color of water pH Taste and odor (geosmin, 2-Methylisoborneol (MIB), etc.) Dissolved metals and salts (sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, manganese, magnesium) Microorganisms such as fecal coliform bacteria (Escherichia coli), Cryptosporidium, and Giardia lamblia; see Bacteriological water analysis Dissolved metals and metalloids (lead, mercury, arsenic, etc.) Dissolved organics: colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM), dissolved organic carbon (DOC) Radon Heavy metals Pharmaceuticals

Hormone analogs

1.5 Drinking water quality standards

Describes the quality parameters set for drinking water. Despite the truism that every human on this planet needs drinking water to survive and that water may contain many harmful constituents, there are no universally recognized and accepted international standards for drinking water.[7] Even where standards do exist, and are applied, the permitted concentration of individual constituents may vary by as much as ten times from one set of standards to another. Many developed countries specify standards to be applied in their own country. In Europe, this includes the European Drinking Water Directive[8] and in

the USA the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) establishes standards as required by the Safe Drinking Water Act. For countries without a legislative or administrative framework for such standards, the World Health Organisation publishes guidelines on the standards that should be achieved.[9] China adopted its own drinking water standard GB3838-2002 (Type II) enacted by Ministry of Environmental Protection in 2002. [10] Where drinking water quality standards do exist, most are expressed as guidelines or targets rather than requirements, and very few water standards have any legal basis or, are subject to enforcement.[11] Two exceptions are the European Drinking Water Directive and the Safe Drinking Water Act in the USA, which require legal compliance with specific standards. In Europe, this includes a requirement for member states to enact appropriate local legislation to mandate the directive in each country. Routine inspection and, where required, enforcement is enacted by means of penalties imposed by the European Commission on non-compliant nations.

Countries with guideline values as their standards include Canada, which has guideline values for a relatively small suite of parameters, New Zealand, where there is a legislative basis, but water providers have to make "best endeavours" to comply with the standards,[12] and Australia.

Figure 2: Comparison of Parametric Values

1.6 Water Quality Index (WQI)

In an attempt to simplify the extensive amount of data collected coherent to the parameters listed in the INWQS, an indexing system was introduced. A Water Quality Index (WQI) ascribes quality value to an aggregate set of measured parameters. It usually consists of sub-index values assigned

to each pre-identified parameter by comparing its measurement with a parameter-specific rating curve, optionally weighted, and combined into the final index. The purpose of a WQI is to summarise large amounts of water quality data for a specific river into simple terms (i.e. one number and a statement such as good). This makes it easily understandable for communities in the river basin and for river basin management

Figure 2.1: Parameters for WQI

References 1. Diersing, Nancy (2009). "Water Quality: Frequently Asked Questions." Florida Brooks National Marine Sanctuary, Key West, FL. 2. Johnson, D.L., S.H. Ambrose, T.J. Bassett, M.L. Bowen, D.E. Crummey, J.S. Isaacson, D.N. Johnson, P. Lamb, M. Saul, and A.E. Winter-Nelson (1997). "Meanings of environmental terms." Journal of Environmental Quality. 26: 581589. doi:10.2134/jeq1997.00472425002600030002x 3. United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Washington, DC. "Water Quality Standards Review and Revision." 2006. 4. Babbitt, Harold E. & Doland, James J. Water Supply Engineering (1949) McGraw-Hill p.388 5. Linsley, Ray K. & Franzini, Joseph B. Water-Resources Engineering (1972) McGrawHill ISBN 0-07-037959-9pp.454-456 6. World Health Organization (2004). "Consensus of the Meeting: Nutrient minerals in drinking-water and the potential health consequences of long-term consumption of demineralized and remineralized and altered mineral content drinking-waters." Rolling Revision of the WHO 7. Shmueli, Deborah F. (1999). "Water quality in international river basins". Political Geography 18: 437476. 8. European Drinking Water Directive 9. Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, Fourth Edition; World Health Organisation; 2011 10. "Environmental quality standards for surface water". 11. Safe Drinking Water (Canada)- What is the Purpose of Drinking Water Quality Guidelines/Regulations? 12. Drinking water for New Zealand 13. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_suspended_solids 14. -http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_dissolved_solids 15. http://shamsalamin.files.wordpress.com/2012/02/determination-of-total-solids-dissolvedsolids-and-suspended-solids-in-water2.pdf 16. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbidity 17. http://www.ourlake.org/html/tss_loading.html 18. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_quality