Earthquake Engineering

Introduction
Whenever the earth is disturbed, vibrations are produced which is in all directions from the place of their origin. Whenever this vibrations travel, an earthquake is said to have taken place.

Earthquake Engineering

These vibrations are more intense near their source, and as the distance increases, these become feeble and slowly die out. Some earthquakes can be very destructive and result in collapse of the structures, and resulting in heavy loss of life and damage to the buildings. 2

Thus it is necessary to study the earthquake in detail and take every precautionary measure and protection to minimize the loss of life and property. Earthquake is defined as the shaking of earths surface due to any reason which, results in release of large amount of energy. The size and severity of an earthquake is estimated by two important parameters-Magnitude and Intensity. Hence Seismology or Earthquake Engineering is defined as the branch of science which deals with the study of earthquakes.

Structure of Earth / Earth Interior

The earth is conceived to be composed of a sequence of shells or layers called geosphere. The various geospheres that constitute the earth are:

BARYSPEHERE: Know as the CORE, the inner most part of the earth Compose of the inner and outer cores Is mainly liquid zone, and has Nickel and Iron The inner core, 1221 km in radius, is mainly composed of Nickel and Iron Its density is 1600 kg/m3 and behave like a solid The outer core surrounding the inner core is 2259 km thick and is composed of Nickel and Iron alloyed with silica The outer core exists as a liquid of density 12000 kg/m3 The temperature at the core is about 2500 C and the pressure is about 4*106 atm.
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ASTHENOSPHERE: Known as MANTLE 2685 km thick surrounding the core The outer mantle extend upto 660 km and inner mantle upto 2900 km. Is in semi-solid state and the approximate temperature inside the mantle is 3000 C with density of 5000-6000 kg/m3 LITHOSPHERE: Known as the CRUST thinnest outer solid shell 100 km thick with density of 1500 kg/m3 The temperature of the crust is about 25 C and the pressure within it is 1 atm
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Convection Currents
The earth crust consists of a number of large rigid blocks called crustal plates. According to this theory, a long time ago, large amount of material masses joined together to from the earth. Large amount of heat generated during this fusion. As the earth cooled down, the heavier material sank to the center and lighter ones towards the top.
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The upper part formed is called as crust and the inner part is called as core. The high temperature and pressure difference between the crust and the core results in the convection currents. These currents result in circulation of the earths mass from crust to core and vice-versa. This sliding of the earths mass takes place in portions called Tectonic plates.

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Plate Tectonic Theory

The surface of earth consists of seven major tectonic plates and may small plates. These plates move in different directions and at different speeds. Thus, resulting in rising and sinking of the continents ie formation of mountains and valleys. The relative motion of crustal plates gives rise to three kinds of plate boundaries or marginal zones.

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Zones of Divergence (Constructive Margin) As plates move apart at a divergent plate boundary, the release of pressure produces partial melting of the underlying mantle. This molten material, known as magma. As a result, it wells up from below and cools close to the surface to generate new crust. Because new crust is formed, divergent margins are also called constructive margins.

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Zones of Convergence (Destructive Margin) Given that Earth is constant in volume, the continuous formation of new crust produces an excess that must be balanced by destruction of crust elsewhere. This is accomplished at convergent plate boundaries, also known as destructive plate boundaries, where one plate descends at an anglethat is, is subductedbeneath the other. Where two oceanic plates meet, the older, denser plate is preferentially subducted beneath the younger, warmer one.

Where one of the plate margins is oceanic and the other is continental, the greater buoyancy of continental crust prevents it from sinking, and the oceanic plate is preferentially subducted. Continents are preferentially preserved in this manner relative to oceanic crust, which is continuously recycled into the mantle. Where two plates carrying continental crust collide, neither is subducted. Instead, towering mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas, are created.

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Zones of Convergence (Destructive Margin) Oceanic Crust Continental Crust

Features Subduction Zone Trench Volcanic Mountain Arc

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Subduction zone: At a convergent boundary where continental crust pushes against oceanic crust, the oceanic crust which is thinner and more dense than the continental crust, sinks below the continental crust. This is called a Subduction Zone. The oceanic crust descends into the mantle at a rate of centimetres per year. This oceanic crust is called the Subducting Slab
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When the subducting slab reaches a depth of around 100 kilometres, it dehydrates and releases water into the overlying mantle wedge The addition of water into the mantle wedge changes the melting point of the molten material there forming new melt which rises up into the overlying continental crust forming volcanoes. Subduction is a way of recycling the oceanic crust. Eventually the subducting slab sinks down into the mantle to be recycled. It is for this reason that the oceanic crust is much younger than the continental crust which is not recycled.
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Trenches: When two oceanic plates converge, because they are dense, one runs over the top of the other causing it to sink into the mantle and a subduction zone is formed. The subducting plate is bent down into the mantle to form a deep depression in the seafloor called a trench. Trenches are the deepest parts of the ocean and remain largely unexplored.

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Continental Crust Continental Crust

Features Folded Mountains

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When continental crust pushes against continental crust both sides of the convergent boundary have the same properties (i.e. thick and buoyant). Neither side of the boundary wants to sink beneath the other side, and as a result the two plates push against each other and the crust buckles and cracks, pushing up (and down into the mantle) high mountain ranges. For example, the European Alps and Himalayas formed this way.

Oceanic Crust Oceanic Crust

Features Subduction Zone Trench Island Arc

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Island Arc: When the downgoing slab reaches a depth of about 100 km (60 miles), it gets sufficiently warm to drive off its most volatile components, thereby stimulating partial melting of mantle in the plate above the subduction zone. Melting in the mantle wedge produces magma. This magma rises to the surface and gives birth to a line of volcanoes in the overriding plate, known as a volcanic arc. If both plates are oceanic, such as in the modern western Pacific Ocean, the volcanoes form a curved line of islands, known as an island arc.
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Fractures Zones (Conservative Margin) Are also known as transformed faults. The lithosphere plate slides past each other without any creation or destruction. The edges of the two plates scrapes each other closely, creating tension along the boundaries . This boundary is also called as a Parallel or transform Fault Boundary.

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Elastic Rebound Theory

Stress builds up on a fault till it breaks. This is known as the elastic rebound theory. Rocks bend elastically until the strength of the rock is exceeded Rupture occurs and the rocks quickly rebound to nearly an undeformed shape

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Faults
A fault is a break in the Earths crust along which the blocks of the crust slide relative to one another Earthquakes occur along faults because of the sliding

Energy is released in several types of waves that radiate outward from the fault at different speeds
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Terminology of Faults

Fault Plane: The plane splitting the rock into two blocks along which movement occurs. It may be horizontal or vertical. Hanging Wall and Foot Wall: in the case of an inclined fault plane, the block which rests over the other is called as hanging wall and the underlying block is called as foot wall. Slip of the Fault: The relative displacement of two points which where initially against each other is know as slip of a fault.

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Types of Faults
The sudden slip of fault produces vibrations in the earths crust causing earthquakes. On the basis of slip of fault, there are three types of faults: 1. Dip Slip Faults 2. Strike Slip Faults 3. Oblique Slip Faults
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Dip Slip Faults:

A fault on which the movement is in the direction of the dip of the fault. The displacement along the dip of the fault is called as dip slip.

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Strike Slip Faults

Fault along lateral direction is known as strike slip fault.

Oblique Slip Faults

Those in which slip is neither along dip nor along strike of the fault, rather it is oblique. Suggest both normal faulting and strike slip faulting. It is caused by combination of shearing and tension of compression forces.

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Seismic Waves
Wave Type (and names) P, Compressional, Primary, Longitudinal

Seismic Body Waves

Particle Motion Alternating compressions (pushes) and dilations (pulls) which are directed in the same direction as the wave is propagating (along the raypath); and therefore, perpendicular to the wavefront. Alternating transverse motions (perpendicular to the direction of propagation, and the raypath); commonly approximately polarized such that particle motion is in vertical or horizontal planes. Other Characteristics P motion travels fastest in materials, so the P-wave is the firstarriving energy on a seismogram. Generally smaller and higher frequency than the S and Surfacewaves. P waves in a liquid or gas are pressure waves, including sound waves. S-waves do not travel through fluids, so do not exist in Earths outer core (inferred to be primarily liquid iron) or in air or water or molten rock (magma). S waves travel slower than P waves in a solid and, therefore, arrive after the P wave.

S, Shear, Secondary, Transverse

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Compressional Wave (P-Wave) Animation

Shear Wave (S-Wave) Animation

Deformation propagates. Particle motion consists of alternating compression and dilation. Particle motion is parallel to the direction of propagation (longitudinal). Material returns to its original shape after wave passes.

Deformation propagates. Particle motion consists of alternating transverse motion. Particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of propagation (transverse). Transverse particle motion shown here is vertical but can be in any direction. However, Earths layers tend to cause mostly vertical (SV; in the vertical plane) or horizontal (SH) shear motions. Material returns to its original shape after wave passes.

Seismic Surface Waves

Wave Type (and names) L, Love, Surface waves, Long waves Particle Motion Transverse horizontal motion, perpendicular to the direction of propagation and generally parallel to the Earths surface. Other Characteristics Love waves exist because of the Earths surface. They are largest at the surface and decrease in amplitude with depth. Love waves are dispersive, that is, the wave velocity is dependent on frequency, generally with low frequencies propagating at higher velocity. Rayleigh waves are also dispersive and the amplitudes generally decrease with depth in the Earth. Appearance and particle motion are similar to water waves. Depth of penetration of the Rayleigh waves is also dependent on frequency, with lower frequencies penetrating to greater depth. Generally, Rayleigh waves travel slightly slower than Love waves.

Love Wave (L-Wave) Animation

R, Rayleigh, Surface waves, Long waves, Ground roll

Motion is both in the direction of propagation and perpendicular (in a vertical plane), and phased so that the motion is generally elliptical either prograde or retrograde.

Deformation propagates. Particle motion consists of alternating transverse motions. Particle motion is horizontal and perpendicular to the direction of propagation (transverse). To aid in seeing that the particle motion is purely horizontal, focus on the Y axis (red line) as the wave propagates through it. Amplitude decreases with depth. Material returns to its original shape after wave passes.

Rayleigh Wave (R-Wave) Animation

Magnitude
Magnitude measures the energy released at the source of the earthquake. Magnitude is determined from measurements on seismographs.

Intensity
Intensity measures the strength of shaking produced by the earthquake at a certain location.
Deformation propagates. Particle motion consists of elliptical motions (generally retrograde elliptical) in the vertical plane and parallel to the direction of propagation. Amplitude decreases with depth. Material returns to its original shape after wave passes.

Intensity is determined from effects on people, human structures, and the natural environment.
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Seismic Zones in India Seismograph

The instrument that measures earthquake shaking. It has three components(i) Sensor (ii) Recorder (iii) Timer Earthquake tips No: 4

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Seismic Effects of Structures

Inertia Forces in Structures Que: lighter buildings sustain the earthquake shaking better. How?????

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Effect of Deformations in Structures The larger is the relative horizontal displacement u between the top and bottom of the column, the larger this internal force in columns. Also, the stiffer the columns are (i.e., bigger is the column size), larger is this force. For this reason, these internal forces in the columns are called stiffness forces. In fact, the stiffness force in a column is the column stiffness times the relative displacement between its ends.

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Torsion (IS 1893:2002)

Due to Eccentricity in the mass and stiffness distribution Due to accidental causes, including the rotational component of ground motion about a vertical axis Difference between assumed and actual stiffness and mass Uncertain live load distribution, uncertainties in dead load due to variation in workmanship and materials
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