J Adult Dev (2013) 20:6375 DOI 10.

1007/s10804-013-9157-7

Successful Aging in Late Midlife: The Role of Personality Among College-Educated Women
H. Shellae Versey Abigail J. Stewart Lauren E. Duncan

Published online: 15 February 2013 Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013

Abstract Aging is characterized both by developmental maturity, as well as beliefs and ideas about growing older. This study examines relationships between successful aging, as dened by Rowe and Kahn (Science 237(4811):143149, 1987), and two aspects of personality that are particularly salient in late midlifegenerativity and concerns about agingin three samples of college-educated women in their early sixties. Relationships between generativity and successful aging and concerns about aging and successful aging are assessed cross-sectionally and over time using multiple linear modeling. Concerns about aging and generativity are associated within time with successful aging; in addition, increased concerns about aging are associated with decreased successful aging, while increased generativity is associated with increased successful aging over time. Our ndings highlight the value of examining changes in adult personality developmental preoccupations as a potential contributor to successful aging. Keywords Successful aging Personality Generativity Aging concerns Health
H. S. Versey (&) Institute for Health, Health Care Policy and Aging Research, Rutgers University, 112 Paterson Street, New Brunswick, NJ 80901, USA e-mail: shellae.versey@rutgers.edu A. J. Stewart Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, 530 Church Street, 3265 East Hall, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA e-mail: abbystew@umich.edu L. E. Duncan Department of Psychology, Smith College, Bass Hall 407, Northampton, MA 01063, USA e-mail: lduncan@email.smith.edu

Introduction The successful aging construct represents a culmination of biomedical and psychosocial research seeking to highlight positive responses to aging, marked primarily by lifestyle choices and individual responsibility for ones health. Early longitudinal studies of aging made important contributions, examining cognitive outcomes in older veteran men (Spiro et al. 1995), adult development in socially advantaged and inner city men (Vaillant and Vaillant 1990; Vaillant and Mukamal 2001), personality development in women (Helson et al. 1984; Lippa et al. 2000; Stewart et al. 2001), and factors that promote resiliency among the oldest old (Baltes and Smith 1997). Rowe and Kahn (1987; 1997) distinguished between usual aging, characterized by normal decline in physical, social, and cognitive functioning, and successful aging, in which functional loss is minimized. They suggested that three criteria must be met for successful aging: (a) absence of disease, disability, and risk factors for disease; (b) maintenance of physical and mental functioning; and (c) active engagement with life. These three criteria can be assessed at any given time in the aging process and indicate that at that particular moment, the individual is meeting the demands of aging successfully. Since its inception, the construct of successful aging has undergone several criticisms and subsequent transformations. While the discussion of those transformations are beyond the scope of this paper, we note that the use of successful aging in this study reects one method of evaluating positive aging outcomes and allows researchers to examine an important aspect of heterogeneity among aging adults. This paper rst operationalizes Rowe and Kahns (1987) denition to create a measure of successful aging dened by health, life satisfaction, and active

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involvement. We then examine two potential personality correlates of successful aging measured twice (in early and late middle age) that are particularly relevant for this periodgenerativity and concerns about agingamong college-educated women. Personality variables and traits have been identied as important factors in predicting health behaviors and the manner in which individuals manage life events. Yet current knowledge about personality and healthy aging has narrowly focused on the importance of maintaining good health behaviors and lifestyle, perhaps because of the dominance of the trait framework in personality and health research (Hooker and McAdams 2003). Hooker and McAdams (2003) noted that there are benets to be gained by understanding personality in the context of lifespan development. Equally, there are benets to be gained by understanding successful aging in the context of personality strengths and concerns. Personality in Middle Age Personality researchers often examine traits that are relatively stable over the life course (extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness; McCrae and Costa 1997; McCrae and Costa 2003; Terracciano et al. 2010). They also examine traits that are conceived to change in the course of adulthood, such as intimacy preoccupations (which decline after early adulthood; Karney and Bradbury 1995) and executive personality or condent power (which increase; Helson and Wink 1992; Neugarten 1968). Two personality dimensions that are especially salient in middle age are generativity (or the concern with passing on a legacy of value to the next generation) and anxiety about aging and death. Generativity is recognized as a personality feature that can be a stable characteristic of an individual (a trait; see McAdams et al. 1998) and also is a particular preoccupation of most people during middle age (McAdams and de St. Aubin 1998). Building on the elements of generativity that were employed by Erikson when he introduced the concept (Erikson 1950, 1980; Erikson et al. 1986), McAdams, Hart, and Maruna drew together a model, according to which generativity includes a desire or motive (a need to be needed), a concern (for the next generation), beliefs and commitments (all internal to the person), as well as cultural demands (especially in middle age) and actions (taken in response to both the social and internal promptings). Whether conceived as a stable motive, or a culturally prompted concern in middle age, generativity is dened by a focus on developing and maintaining resources for future generations (Erikson 1980; Erikson et al. 1986; Ryff and Migdal 1984). This focus includes caring for others, particularly caring for and cultivating younger people (Erikson 1950). Fried et al. (1997) suggested that generative acts benet the individual as well as the greater

community and create a sense of satisfaction with lifes work. In a qualitative study where older adults were asked to describe what successful aging meant to them, Fisher (1995) also found that mentions of making a contribution or possessing a sense of purpose were particularly salient. Similarly, Vaillant (1993) has shown that women who achieved generativity at age 60 were more likely to demonstrate better adaptation to old age than those who had not achieved generativity. Taken together, having goals for the future and paying it forward in this way may be predictive of successful aging. Due to its emphasis on activity and productivity, it is likely that generativity would be positively associated with traditional indices of successful aging. While some studies have noted positive relationships between various aspects of generativity (generative concern, generative behavior) and physical and mental health (Ackerman et al. 2000; de St. Aubin and McAdams 1995; Gruenewald et al. 2012; Keyes and Ryff 1998; McAdams and de St. Aubin 1992; McAdams et al. 1993; Peterson et al. 1997; Stewart et al. 2001; Vaillant 2004), few have explored the relationship between generativity and successful aging. Thus, the current study seeks to examine whether generativity is associated with successful aging within and across time. We expect that throughout middle age, including during the transition from midlife to older age, people remain generative and that generativity will be positively associated with successful aging. At the same time, we assess the relationship between concerns about aging and successful aging, based upon previous research that indicates that anxiety and worry impede health (Baruch and Brooks-Gunn 1984; Beekman et al. 2000) and that anxiety about aging increases by late middle age (Benton et al. 2007; Lasher and Faulkender 1993). In general, images and myths about older age may be fostered throughout midlife and center on two primary themes. First, concerns that are likely to prompt excessive worries during midlife and beyond may stem from life events, such as job loss, nancial insecurity, or physical illnesses (Lachman and Bertrand 2001; Lachman 2004). While these events can occur at any time across the lifespan, they carry particular signicance as people reach and pass their peak earning period and worry about lacking adequate resources for their old age. Signicant changes or turning points in life (such as reaching retirement age) may also cause re-evaluation of life goals and potentially trigger anxieties related to missed opportunities or transition in general, similar to a midlife crisis (Jacques 1965; Oldham and Liebert 1989; Rosenberg et al. 1999; Wethington et al. 2004). As suggested by Torges et al. (2008) and others (Wrosch et al. 2005), if people fail to nd meaning in their lives or see their lived experiences as a series of missed opportunities, they may experience more regret, increased concern about aging, and a lower likelihood of coping

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successfully with the aging process. Second, many people associate the beginning of old age with negative characteristics, such as declining health, changes in physical appearance, and death (Barrett and Robbins 2008; Benton et al. 2007). Therefore, the process of aging may provoke anxiety and stress in individuals who wish to avoid these outcomes. We expect that aging concerns will increase over time and will be inversely associated with successful aging both within and over time. Specically, the following research hypotheses will be addressed: (a) generativity will be a positive correlate and predictor of successful aging and (b) concern about aging will be a negative correlate and predictor of successful aging. In testing these hypotheses, we focus on a particular cohort of women who came of age during the era that included the civil rights movement, the womens movement, and the Vietnam war and protests against it. A subset of the larger Baby Boomer generation, this group is the leading edge of the current population of women entering older age. It is important that we understand how features of personality might inuence the likelihood of successful aging at different times across the lifespan. Therefore, this research is distinctive in its focus on the experience of successfully aging adults from relatively early in the process (e.g., at midlife). The women in all three samples examined in these two studies are highly educated and middle to upper-middle class. However, there is heterogeneity across the samples, since one of them includes a substantial number of women who are African-American and a substantial number of both African-American and White women in that sample come from non-middle-class family backgrounds. In short, we examine the relationship between two personality indicators and successful aging. We expect generativity to facilitate successful aging during this period and increased anxiety or worry about aging to compromise it. Our hypotheses will be tested in all three samples.

Radcliffe College, classes of 1964). Specically, these two studies examine associations between personality (generativity and concerns about aging) and successful aging within and over time. Participants Participants in all studies embody several elements of aging successfully, including low levels of disease and disability, high cognitive and physical functioning, and active engagement with life. Thus, the data permit us to examine relationships between personality and successful aging in three relatively healthy and active groups of women in their early sixties. Multiple linear regression models were used to analyze cross-sectional and longitudinal relationships. Although the use of longitudinal datasets presents the opportunity for some attrition over time, analyses of these data indicate that no signicant loss to follow-up effects or sampling biases were detected across the various waves of data from all three samples (unpublished data, Versey 2011). The purpose of this study is to evaluate whether generativity and concerns about aging, considered hallmarks of later life, are correlates of successful aging. Hypotheses one and two are examined using measures of generativity, concerns about aging, and successful aging in all three samples. Data Analyses We conceive of successful aging in two ways consistent with the literature: (a) it is an outcome assessed at a particular moment in time (2008 in this case); (b) it is a process of aging indicated by relative increases (or decreases) on the indicator over time assessed in terms of the outcome (2008), controlling for prior level of the outcome (in 1992). We examine results both ways; thus, relationships between potential correlates and successful aging were examined in 2008 using multivariate regression models that did and did not control for prior level of successful aging. Because not controlling for baseline successful aging yielded similar signicant results between indicator variables and outcome, only reports with the control variable are presented.

General Method Overview This paper draws on data from three samples of collegeeducated women in their early sixties. Study 1 is a crosssectional analysis of the relationship between personality and successful aging in a group of women who graduated from the University of Michigan between the years 19671973 (the Womens Life Paths Study, or WLPS) (Tangri 1969). Study 2 includes identical analyses with longitudinal data and attempts to replicate relationships between personality and successful aging from Study 1 in two similar groups of alumnae (Smith College and

Study 1 Sample and Participant Selection The Womens Life Paths Study (WLPS) is a longitudinal study of women who graduated from the University of Michigan between 1967 and 1973 (Tangri 1969). During the most recent wave of data collection in 2008, surveys were sent to all women originally recruited for the

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longitudinal study at any time. For this study, analyses include participants in any of these recruitment efforts who participated in 1992 and 2008. Two hundred and forty-four women responded to the 2008 survey. Of these, 155 had also participated in the 1992 survey. Respondents from both 1992 and 2008 were similar on demographic variables. Sixty-ve percent of those responding in 2008 identied themselves as White/ Caucasian, 33 % as Black/African-American, and 2 % as other (bi-racial, Latina, Native American). Most reported that they were in good, very good, or excellent health. Thirty percent of respondents had yearly household incomes between $50,000 and $100,000, followed by 21 % of respondents who reported annual incomes of $100,000 $150,000. Analyses indicated that the Black and White women were comparable on most demographic variables. Measures All variables were measured in 2008, except those contributing to the assessment of successful aging in 1992, used as a control. We constructed a global measure of successful aging that included indices that reect positive aspects of aging. Successful Aging at Age 61 In the current study, successful aging was assessed in three domains that are equally weighted: (a) perceived general health, (b) life satisfaction, and (c) active involvement. Perceived General Health Perceived general health was assessed with two items that asked respondents to rate their current state of health in the past year and compare their health with others they knew. Each item was measured on a 5-point scale that ranged from 1(poor) to 5 (excellent). The combined mean score for both items was 4.17 (SD = 1.10), and the internal consistency was .75. Life Satisfaction Life satisfaction was assessed by asking participants, Overall, how satised are you with the way your life has turned out so far? Responses ranged from 1 (not at all satised) to 5 (extremely satised). This singleitem measure has high reliability and validity (Gurin et al. 1960). On average, respondents in this sample indicated a moderate degree of life satisfaction; the sample mean was 3.91 (SD = .82). Active Involvement Active involvement was assessed by the ve-item Community Involvement subscale developed by Fendrich and Lovoy (1988), and respondents were asked to indicate their participation in community activities. Sample items were Worked with others on local

problems and Informed others in my community about politics. Respondents could indicate their level of involvement on a 0 (never) to 3 (regularly) scale. The summed score range for this measure was between 0 and 15 and the mean was 5.12 (SD = .42); the internal consistency for this measure was .74. Scores on each of these three indicators were standardized and combined to create an aggregate measure of successful aging, with equal weighting of the three. The successful aging score was internally consistent (Cronbachs alpha = .75). Data about successful aging collected at the nal wave (2008) when the participants averaged 61 years of age provided the material for the key outcomes. The mean for the 2008 measure was 4.08 (SD = .83) on a 5-point scale. Identical data about successful aging collected in 1992 were used as a baseline control. The mean for the 1992 measure was 4.18 (SD = .97) on a 5-point scale. Generativity The generativity scale is a subscale of the Feelings about Life Scale created by Helson and Moane (1987; see also Helson and Wink 1992). It reects a sense of contributing to the next generation and connecting with the world beyond the self. This measure of generativity was developed to tap into feelings about generativity or generativity desires and concerns, not generative action, as some other research has done (McAdams 1993). While it is narrower in focus, Stewart et al. (2001) previously reported signicant correlations of this scale with Loyola generativity, and generativity q-sort scores scale has been found to have both high internal consistency and testretest reliability (Stewart et al. 2001). It includes eight self-rated statements on a 3-point Likert-scale; responses ranged from 1 (not at all descriptive) to 3 (very descriptive). Sample items included, I feel a new level of productivity or effectiveness, I have interest in new things beyond my family, and I have a wider perspective on life. The mean score was 2.41 (SD = .40); the Cronbachs alpha was .69. Concerns About Aging The concerns about aging subscale (Stewart et al. 2001) assessed feelings about growing older. The ve-item scale included self-rated statements on a 3-point Likert-scale; responses ranged from 1 (not at all descriptive) to 3 (very descriptive). Sample items included I think a lot about death and I feel the limits of what I will be able to accomplish. Stewart et al. (2001) reported a signicant correlation of this scale with negative feelings about getting older. The internal consistency of this measure was .73 and the mean was 1.81 (SD = .83).

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67 Table 1 Multiple linear regression analyses predicting successful aging (2008) from generativity and concerns about aging (N = 149) Variable Years WLPS alumnae sample Association with 2008 successful aging (Total R2 = .16*) r Baseline successful aging Race/ethnicity Concerns about aging Generativity Generativity*race CAA*race Generativity*SEP CAA*SEP NS interactions ***p \ .001 by race/ethnicity. *p \ 0.05, 1992 2008 2008 2008 .32*** -.07 -.21*** .15* b .29*** .19 -.38* .42* -.19 -.18 -.03 .17 **p \ 0.01,

Race Race was self-reported by respondents who indicated membership in one of nine racial-ethnic categories. Participation in this study was limited to respondents who indicated they were either White/Caucasian or Black/ African-American (98 %). SEP Socioeconomic position (SEP) refers to a cumulative measure of social and economic factors that inuence ones social position and groups held in society (Krieger 2001; Krieger et al. 1997; Lynch and Kaplan 2000). Therefore, SEP represents a combined measure of early life factors as well as current socioeconomic standing that captures situational position better than commonly used measures. In the current study, although most women in this sample had a moderate or high level of education and income in 2008 (i.e., either middle or upper-middle class), the respondents vary in terms of early life socioeconomic indicators such as level of parental education and occupation. Therefore, socioeconomic position was assessed by self-reports of parental (both mother and father) education and occupation combined with the respondents current occupation, as has been suggested for examining the effect of SEP in health outcomes research (Galobardes et al. 2007; Krieger et al. 1997). Combining these indicators yielded a relatively small number of women whose overall position was low or moderate (N = 22) and a larger group of women whose overall position was high (N = 127). Data Analysis Multiple regression models were constructed to examine the cross-sectional relationship between indicator variables and successful aging. To assess potential differences by race and socioeconomic position, product terms were added to the nal model to probe interactions (Aiken and West 1991).

CAA Concerns about Aging; SEP Socioeconomic Position

Bivariate correlations showed signicant relationships between generativity and concerns about aging and the outcome, successful aging (see Table 2). As predicted, regression analysis indicated that concerns about aging at 61 (in 2008) were negatively associated with successful aging, while in contrast, feelings of generativity at 61 were positively associated with successful aging at 61. To assess whether the relationships between generativity, concerns about aging, and successful aging held for all women or differed according to class or race-ethnicity, potential interactions between these variables were examined. Inclusion of product terms in the multivariate model indicated no signicant interactions with race or class.

Discussion of the Results In this study, generativity was positively correlated with successful aging, and concerns about aging were negatively correlated with successful aging in a diverse sample of college-educated women at age 61. These relationships held in a multiple regression model, both with and without a control for successful aging at age 45. Although the data available for this sample only permitted examination of within-time relationships, it is signicant that support was found for both hypotheses at a time when the women in this sample were just beginning to transition to older age. In 2008, the mean age reported was 61. Interaction effects were examined for race and class; yet, no evidence for differences between race-ethnic or class groups was found.

Results To test the hypotheses about the relationships of generativity and concerns about aging to successful aging, we conducted multiple regression analyses. A multivariate model controlled for baseline successful aging (1992) and assessed the relationship between 2008 measures of generativity and successful aging and concerns about aging and successful aging (see Table 1). Correlations among variables are shown in Table 2.

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68 Table 2 Bivariate correlations among variables for study 1 (WLPS) Successful aging 1992 Successful aging 1992 Concerns about aging 2008 Generativity 2008 Successful aging 2008 Race SEP -.059 .106 .318*** -.070 -.129 Concerns about aging 2008 -.059 -.121 -.207*** -.117 .081 Generativity 2008 .106 -.121 .147* .178** .014 -.061 .025 Successful aging 2008 .318*** -.207*** .147* Race -.070 -.117

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SEP -.129 .081 .014 .025 -.432***

.178** -.06 -.432

* p \ 0.05; ** p \ 0.01; *** p \ .001

The cross-sectional nature of this study provided the basis for exploring longitudinal relationships between the same variables in two separate samples.

Study 2 Sample and Participant Selection Smith College Alumnae The Smith sample included women who graduated in 1964 from Smith College. The women participated in a 1996 survey about their college experiences, spiritual and political beliefs, family and career goals, and overall health and well-being (see Duncan 1999; Duncan et al. 2002; and Stewart et al. 2001, for more information regarding sampling and procedures). Ninety-seven percent of the sample was White, and 95 % identied themselves as heterosexual. In 2005, these women were contacted again, and 81 women returned surveys (57 % response rate). Data from both 1996 and 2005 were used, when the women were 52 and 62 years old, respectively. In 2005, 73 % were currently married; over 40 % had been divorced at some time. Most women reported above average to excellent physical health and household incomes of $100,000 $200,000. Radcliffe College Alumnae The women in this sample participated in a longitudinal study of Radcliffe College graduates (Stewart 1974, 1978, 1980; Stewart and Vandewater 1993). In 1996, 118 women in the class of 1964 at Radcliffe College participated in a follow-up of an ongoing longitudinal study of women college graduates. During this follow-up, the women were asked questions similar to those asked of the Smith College sample and completed a survey consisting of personality, adult development, and health measures. Similar to the Smith sample, over 95 % of the Radcliffe sample was

White, and 98 % identied themselves as heterosexual. Most of the graduates were currently married (67 %) and had children (87 %). In 2005, these women were contacted again for follow-up. Data collected in both 1996 and 2005 were used, when the women were 53 and 62 years of age, respectively. Seventy-nine women participated in both 1996 and 2005. In 2005, 61 % were currently married; 44 % had been divorced at some time. Most reported above average to excellent health and household incomes between $100,000 and $200,000. Measures The Smith and Radcliffe College samples include identical measures of generativity and concerns about aging as those used in Study 1. However, the successful aging measure for this study includes a different scale of involvement from that used in Study 1. The construction of the successful aging scale for both the Smith and Radcliffe samples will be described here. Otherwise, the procedures, scale construction, and data analysis for all other variables were the same for both samples and identical to measures used in Study 1. Successful Aging at Age 62 As in Study 1, in the current study, successful aging was assessed in three domains that were equally weighted in the aggregate score: (a) perceived general health, (b) life satisfaction, and (c) active involvement. Perceived General Health General health was assessed with two items that asked respondents to rate their current state of health and energy in the past year on a 5-point scale that ranged from 1 (poor) to 5 (excellent). In a prior wave of the Radcliffe sample, this 2-item measure was correlated with other measures of health and well-being (Stewart and Vandewater 1999). Combined mean scores for both items were 4.20 (SD = 21.7) for Smith graduates and 4.11 (SD = 21.7) for Radcliffe graduates.

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Life Satisfaction Life satisfaction was assessed by Gurins (1960) single-item measure, Overall, how satised are you with the way your life has turned out so far? Responses ranged from 1 (not at all satised) to 5 (extremely satised). This item has high reliability and validity (Gurin et al. 1960). Mean scores were 4.01 (SD = .88) and 3.76 (SD = 1.07) for Smith and Radcliffe women, respectively. Active Involvement Active involvement in the current study was assessed by calculating the total number of professional and religious organization memberships in the past year. Fifty-eight percent of Smith women were involved in at least one professional organization (M = 1.88, SD = .51) and 37 % were involved in at least one religious organization (M = 1.07, SD = 1.03). Fortysix percent of Radcliffe women were involved in at least one professional organization (M = 1.76, SD = .69), while 40 % were involved in at least one religious organization (M = 2.10, SD = .75). Involvement in either type of organization or both was counted to create a summed variable. Scores on the three indicators were standardized and combined to create an aggregate measure of successful aging; analyses were based on the mean (Smith sample alpha = .77; Radcliffe sample Cronbachs alpha = .73). Data Analyses Previous research has found that some aspects of personality change in adulthood (Helson and Stewart 1994; Jones et al. 2003). Using methods described by Mroczek et al. (2006) and Streiner and Norman (2008), this study examines mean-level shifts in personality over a 10-year period examine whether these shifts are associated with change in successful aging over time (i.e., residualized change). We use residualized change analysis to examine these relationships as we are constrained by the use of two timepoints. While ideally, change over time would be assessed by three or more points of measurement, this approach

offers advantages in measuring change over time when data for only two time points are available.

Results Consistent with the results for Study 1, bivariate correlations in both samples indicated that concerns about aging at both times were negatively correlated with successful aging in 2005, and generativity was positively related to successful aging. Bivariate correlations among all variables are shown in Tables 3 and 4. Assuming personality is assessed at different ages, then increases, decreases, or no change in score are important to note and indicate whether individuals are changing with respect to a particular personality characteristic (Caspi and Roberts 1999). In the current study, mean-level shifts between 1996 and 2005 were examined in both samples. There was a signicant increase in concerns about aging for Smith women from 1996 to 2005 and a trend (p = .09) mean increase during the same time (19962005) for Radcliffe respondents. Successful aging signicantly increased for Radcliffe women over time; however, there was not a signicant increase in successful aging for Smith women. Changes in generativity did increase over time, but did not reach signicance for Smith or Radcliffe women. Relationships Between Personality and Successful Aging Over Time To test hypotheses about the relationships of successful aging with generativity and concerns about aging, we conducted regression analyses. First assessing individuallevel change and second individual-level differences in change, if they exist. Therefore, personality measures were entered into models to predict the variance in successful aging that is not stable from 1996 to 2005, in other words, the change (or residual change) in successful aging from 1996 to 2005. Table 5 presents the two regressions.

Table 3 Bivariate correlations among variables for Smith (N = 81) sample Successful aging 1996 Successful aging 1996 Concerns about aging 1996 Generativity 1996 Successful aging 2005 Concerns about aging 2005 Generativity 2005 -.421*** .358** .508*** -.280** .224* Concerns about aging 1996 -.421*** .129 -.310** .586*** .087 Generativity 1996 .358** .129 .230* .027 .517*** Successful aging 2005 .508*** -.310** .230* -.335** .323** .029 Concerns about aging 2005 -.280** .586** .027 -.335** Generativity 2005 .224* .087 .517*** .323** .029

* p \ 0.05; ** p \ 0.01; *** p \ .001

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70 Table 4 Bivariate correlations among variables for Radcliffe (N = 79) sample Successful aging 1996 Successful aging 1996 Concerns about aging 1996 Generativity 1996 Successful aging 2005 Concerns about aging 2005 Generativity 2005 -.404*** .356* .454*** -.292** .224* Concerns about aging 1996 -.404*** .126 -.259* .576*** .076 Generativity 1996 .356** .129 .339** .031 .507*** Successful aging 2005 .454*** -.259* .339** -.247* .418** .029

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Concerns about aging 2005 -.292** .576*** .031 -.247*

Generativity 2005 .224* .076 .507*** .418*** .029

* p \ 0.05; ** p \ 0.01; *** p \ .001

Table 5 Multiple regression analyses predicting successful aging (2005) from generativity and concerns about aging

Variable

Years

Smith alumnae sample Association with 2005 successful aging (N = 81; R2 = .49*) D R2 b

Radcliffe alumnae sample Association with 2005 successful aging (N = 79, R2 = .52**) D R2 .27*** b

Step 1 Baseline successful aging Concerns about aging Generativity Step 2 Successful aging Concerns about aging Generativity Concerns about aging * p \ 0.05; ** p \ 0.01; *** p \ .001 Generativity 1996 1996 1996 2005 2005 1996 1996 1996

.35*** .34*** -.19 .15 .04* .31** -.03 .05 -.31* .34*

.30** -.27 .49* .04* .27* -.15 .16 -.27 .57**

Predicting Successful Aging Among Smith Alumnae Analyses indicated that women in the sample showed increased concerns about aging over the nearly 10-year period; and this change was associated with declines in successful aging. Similarly, change in generativity between 1996 and 2005 was positively associated with increased successful aging. Predicting Successful Aging Among Radcliffe Alumnae Analyses indicated that increases in generativity between 1996 and 2005 were positively associated with increases in successful aging but increased concerns about aging were not signicantly associated with changes in successful aging. Discussion of the Results The relationships between generativity, concerns about aging, and successful aging were assessed in two samples

of women at ages 52 and 62. There were several consistencies across both samples, and the results generally support the ndings of Study 1. Among both the Smith and Radcliffe women, concerns about aging and generativity at age 52 and age 62 were associated with successful aging at 62. In addition, among Smith alumnae, increased concerns about aging over time were associated with decreased successful aging, and increased generativity over time was associated with increased successful aging. Among Radcliffe alumnae, increased generativity over time was also associated with increased successful aging. While increased concerns about aging did not reach statistical signicance among Radcliffe alumnae, the bivariate correlations are equivalent for both samples and the magnitude of the beta estimate is similar to that for Smith respondents (p = .13), suggesting an equally important relationship between aging concerns and successful aging for Radcliffe respondents. The difference in signicance in multivariate analyses between samples may be attributed to the fact that the relationship between generativity and successful aging is stronger for Radcliffe women, compared to Smith women.

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Summary and Concluding Discussion This research demonstrated several important relationships between features of personality and successful aging in three samples of women. The rst study examined the relationship between successful aging and personality indicators relevant to late middle age: generativity and concerns about aging. Evidence supported the hypotheses that both before and after controlling for baseline successful aging, generativity positively correlated, and concerns about aging negatively correlated, with successful aging. These relationships did not differ by race or class in a sample of women that included both Black and White college-educated women from varying class backgrounds. Taken together, these ndings support previous research and particularly the work of Stewart et al. (2001), who found that generativity was positively related to well-being in college-educated women. The use of a broader agerelated outcome, successful aging, is useful in linking this study to the literature on successful aging. Future research is required to understand the long-term effects of generativity and aging concerns on subsequent aging. The second study examined the same hypotheses that changes over time in generativity and concerns about aging would be related to successful aging over time in two samples of predominantly White college-educated women. Results indicated that increased generativity was associated with increased successful aging over time. Increased aging concerns hindered successful aging over a 10-year period in at least one sample, as hypothesized. This nding conrms, as previous research has found, not only that worry and anxiety about aging perceptions were intensied with age, but that they interfered with overall successful aging among Smith respondents. The same relationship was observed among Radcliffe alumnae, although to a lesser, non-signicant degree. It is possible that statistical variation accounts for this difference. Additional research may clarify the implications of various types of aging concerns as well as identify possible mechanisms (personality traits, coping mechanisms) by which aging concerns affect mental and physical health outcomes and engagement with life. These two studies examined relationships between two aspects of adult personalitygenerativity and concerns about agingand successful aging and broaden our knowledge about the ways in which personality may contribute to successful aging among older adults. We chose these dimensions because of their salience and relevance to the period of middle age in adulthood and might help integrate our understanding of personality change over the lifespan with our understanding of successful aging.

Concerns About Aging At the core, a notion of successful aging should include not only the ability to live longer, but the ability to enjoy a certain quality of life as well. For this reason, our indicator of successful aging includes both psychological well-being and active involvement. Previous research has suggested that it is the emotional and psychological burden of aging that may take the greatest toll (Carstensen et al. 1999; Charles et al. 2003). These studies found that increased concerns about aging hinder opportunities for successful aging. Previous research has also shown that midlife review and corrections are central to womens aging experience in such a way that formulating positive thoughts and feelings about lived experiences can be benecial for later life outcomes (Stewart and Ostrove 1998; Stewart and Vandewater 1999). It is important in future research to examine the origins of aging concerns and whether they have similar or different outcomes for different groups of aging adults. For example, people who are concerned about aging due to particular concerns (fear of health decline, nancial problems or mortality) may experience different behavioral patterns and psychological effects than people who are generally pessimistic and express global concerns about growing older. In a similar vein, consistently high levels of worry or concern regarding aging may lead to beliefs about ones perceived power (or lack thereof) to overcome the challenges associated with aging (Kubzansky et al. 1998). The psychological effects of rumination, preoccupation, worry, and anxiety could inhibit enjoying the activities of everyday life, thereby limiting exposure to physical movement and social interaction. Further research is needed to conrm these ndings and determine directionality in larger samples and determine whether attitudes and concerns about aging differences result in variant ways of understanding and caring for ones health. At the very least, these ndings indicate that concern about growing older is sometimes present during late midlife and is negatively associated with successful aging, as dened by subjective health, life satisfaction, and engagement with life. Generativity The nding that generativity is associated with successful aging may be related to behavior as well as the psychological maturity that describes this stage of development. McAdams et al. (1996, p. 346) and others have argued that the possession of agentic characteristics is necessary for the individual to achieve generativity. Thus, human agency, dened as encompassing a wide range of motivational

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ideas, including the concepts of strength, power, expansion, mastery, control, dominance, achievement, autonomy, separation, and independence, may be important for understanding how generativity can relate to health-promoting behaviors. Generativity is associated with successful aging, and therefore, a focus on the next generation may encourage specic types of involvement and engagement that offers well-being. Because generativity is based on concern for future generations as well as situating the self in a larger context, generative people may be more physically active and more involved in group organizations tied to social networks (Ackerman et al. 2000; Grossbaum and Bates 2002; House et al. 1988; Huta and Zuroff 2007; Keyes and Ryff 1998; McAdams et al. 1993). It is also possible that individuals high in generativity experience some health benet from helping others, as is suggested by several studies of volunteering, philanthropy, and community involvement (Gottlieb and Gillespie 2008; Harris and Thoresen 2005; Morrow-Howell et al. 2003; Musick et al. 1999; Musick and Wilson 2003; Oman 2007; Thoits and Hewitt 2001). While generativity is not assessed in the current studies in terms of particular actions, generativity may be important in integrated models attempting to understand the ways in which personality inuences health (see Hooker and McAdams 2003 for one example). Strengths and Limitations These studies were based on longitudinal samples with data on successful aging at two middle ages, and (in two of them) data on generativity and aging concerns at the same ages. They provided an unusual opportunity to examine the relationship between personality and successful aging over time. In addition, although the data collected were not designed to assess successful aging, composite indicators could be created that assessed three important aspects of successful aging according to Rowe and Kahn (1987): physical health, mental health, and active involvement. Of course, these strengths must be contextualized by the studies limitations. All three samples used for this research were of modest size (n \ 150) and thus effects needed to be fairly robust in order to be detected. In spite of the limited sample sizes, however, the ndings present strong evidence for the relationship between personality variables and successful aging; in that, similar relationships were found among all women who participated (WLPS, Smith and Radcliffe). Second, the composite indicators of successful aging, while guided by Rowe and Kahns criteria, are not identical to some other operationalized variables in the literature; data across the three samples used in this study were not originally collected to study aging outcomes, so the

construction of the outcome measure was limited by what was available. Equally, the analyses in this study were based entirely on self-reported observations, which are subject to certain biases. Regarding the study participants, it has been noted throughout that respondents in all three samples are college-educated women just entering older age in their early sixties. Therefore, ndings from this research may not generalize either to older women, to men, or to less-educated samples. Finally, the longitudinal analysis presented in this study is somewhat limited in that the availability of data suitable for examining the research questions is only present for two waves. Advanced statistical techniques that would allow for stronger evidence about causal direction require time-measures for three or more data points.

Conclusion The ndings from this research support the notion that personality plays an important role in the aging process. While the effects of personality traits on health and certain health behaviors are recognized, it may be time to go beyond the trait-health model to consider other ways in which personality and unique person-characteristicssuch as the feelings, goals and concernscontribute to health and wellness within a particular age group. An integrative framework of positive aging that considers both sociostructural and personality factors in a meaningful way could advance current theory and research. Some theorists (Dillaway and Byrnes 2009; Minkler and Fadem 2002; Ryff 1989; Ryff and Singer 1998; Scheidt et al. 1999; Schulz and Heckhausen 1996; Smith and Spiro 2002) have, in fact, argued for an expanded denition of successful aging. While it is important to acknowledge variation in aging outcomes, as the successful aging literature does, it is equally important to recognize individual differences in psychological characteristics that may facilitate (or hinder) the ability to age optimally. Thus, psychologists, gerontologists, and public health practitioners should continue to aim to understand the ways in which older adults reconcile past life experiences and challenges associated with aging to maintain satisfaction with life and overall well-being.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the University of Michigan Center for Statistical Consultation and Research (CSCAR), members of the Gender and Personality in Context lab, David G. Winter and anonymous reviewers for providing feedback on previous drafts of this manuscript. This work was supported by several contributions. Collection of the 1996 wave of data for the Radcliffe Study was supported by a grant to Abigail J. Stewart from the Ofce of the Vice President for Research at the University of Michigan. Collection of the 2005 wave of data was supported by research funds provided by the College of Literature, Science and the

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Personality Correlates of Successful Aging Arts associated with Stewarts Distinguished University Professorship and from the University of Michigans Psychology Department. The Smith College alumnae data collections were supported by grants from the University of Michigan; the Henry A. Murray Center at Radcliffe College; and the Louise B. and Edmund J. Kahn Liberal Arts Institute at Smith College. Portions of this manuscript were presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Ontario, August 2008.

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