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INDEX
0 law of thermodynamics . 2 1st law power version ................ 5 unit-mass version........... 6 1st law of thermodynamics. 2, 5 2nd law of thermodynamics. 2 adiabatic ......................10, 20 air standard assumptions....14 area sphere ...........................19 atmospheric pressure .......... 4 b time constant..................18 Bernoili equation ................ 6 Bi Biot number .................17 Biot number.......................17 blackbody ..........................18 Boltzmann relation ............. 9 boundary work...............5, 14 Btu ...................................... 2 Carnot cycle.......................10 characteristic length...........17 chemical energy.................20 Clausius inequality ............. 8 Clausius statement .............. 2 closed system...................4, 5 complex conjugate.............19 complex numbers...............19 composite wall...................17 compressed liquid............... 3 compression ratio...............13 compressor.......................6, 9 conduction ...................14, 16 conductivity thermal .........................14 conjugate complex........................19 conservation of energy.....2, 5 constants ............................. 4 contact resistance...............15 control volume.................... 4 convection .............14, 15, 16 convection heat transfer coefficient ........................15 COP coefficient of performance...................... 7 Cp specific heat .................. 7 critical point...................4, 20 critical radius .....................17 cutoff ratio .........................13 Cv specific heat .................. 7 cylinder conduction ...........15 density ................................ 2 Diesel cycle .......................11 diffuser ............................6, 9 dissipation..........................17 duct ..................................5, 9 e specific energy ................ 3 EER energy efficiency rating .......................................... 7 efficiency Tom Penick
th
COP................................7 EER................................7 thermal ...........................7 emissivity ..........................18 energy..................................2 gain/loss .....................5, 6 internal .....................2, 20 kinetic.............................2 latent...............................2 potential .........................2 sensible...........................2 enthalpy .....................3, 6, 20 enthalpy of vaporization ......3 entropy.................3, 9, 10, 20 total ................................8 entropy balance ...................8 entropy generation...........8, 9 entropy in solids ..................9 entropy per unit mass ..........9 Euler's equation .................19 extensive..............................8 extensive properties.............3 force ....................................2 Fouriers law of heat conduction .......................16 g heat generation ..............17 gas constant .....................3, 4 gas-turbine...................12, 13 general math ......................19 glossary .............................20 H enthalpy ....................6, 20 h specific enthalpy 3, 5, 6, 20 hconv convection heat transfer coefficient........................15 heat capacity......................15 heat dissipation..................17 heat engine ........................20 heat engines .......................10 heat exchanger.................5, 9 heat flux.............................17 heat generation ..................17 heat pump efficiency ...........7 heat transfer ...............2, 4, 14 pipe...............................16 heat transfer limit.................8 heat transfer rate ................16 hfg enthalpy of vaporization 3 horsepower ..........................2 hrad radiation heat transfer coefficient........................16 hyperbolic functions ..........19 ideal gas equation ................4 increase of entropy principle9 independent property ...........2 intensive properties..............3 internal energy...................20 international system of units2 irreversible process............20 isentropic .....................10, 20 isentropic relations ............13 isothermal..........................20
jet-propulsion cycle .....12, 13 joule.....................................2 k specific heat ratio.............7 k thermal conductivity......14 Kelvin-Planck statement .....2 kinetic energy ......................2 latent energy......................20 Lc characteristic length .....17 liter ......................................2 lumped system analysis.....18 m mass flow rate.................6 magnitude..........................19 mass flow rate .....................6 mass to volume relationship 4 mean effective pressure .....14 MEP mean effective pressure ...........................14 methalpy..............................6 mixture chamber..................5 moving boundary ..............14 net work ............................10 newton.................................2 nozzle ..............................6, 9 nuclear energy ...................20 open system.........................5 Otto cycle ..........................11 p thermodynamic probability ...........................................9 Pa ........................................2 pascal.............................2, 20 path function ...............14, 20 phase .................................19 phases of water....................3 phasor notation ..................19 pipe......................................9 heat transfer..................16 thermal resistance.........15 piston-cylinder.....................5 point function ....................20 polytropic process .............13 potential energy...................2 pressure ...............................2 properties of saturated phases ...........................................3 propulsive efficiency ...12, 13 pure substance ...................20 q heat flux.........................17 Q heat transfer rate ...........16 QL heat transfer...................7 quality .............................3, 4 r compression ratio...........13 R gas constant.................3, 4 R thermal resistance .........15 radiation ......................14, 16 radiation heat transfer coefficient........................16 Rankin cycle......................12 rate of entropy generation....9 Rc contact resistance.........15 rc cutoff ratio ....................13 rcr critical radius ...............17
refrigeration efficiency........ 7 resistance contact.......................... 15 thermal ................... 15, 17 resistive wire ..................... 17 reversible process.............. 20 Rt thermal resistance......... 15 R-value .............................. 15 s entropy....................... 3, 20 s entropy per unit mass....... 9 S total entropy .................... 8 saturated liquid.................... 3 saturated liquid/vapor mixture .............................. 3 saturated state...................... 4 saturated vapor .................... 3 sensible energy.................. 20 series ................................. 19 Sgen entropy generation....... 8 sgen entropy generation per unit mass ........................... 9 SI units ................................ 2 single-stream ....................... 5 specific enthalpy ....... 3, 6, 20 specific heat ........................ 7 specific heat ratio ................ 7 specific internal energy ....... 3 specific properties ............... 3 specific volume ................... 3 sphere ................................ 19 state postulate...................... 2 steady flow system .......... 5, 6 steady flow work............... 10 steam-turbine..................... 12 Stephan-Boltzmann law .... 18 superheated vapor ............... 3 surface temperature ........... 17 system ................................. 4 temperature ......................... 2 temperature gradient ......... 16 thermal conductivity ......... 14 thermal diffusivity............. 15 thermal efficiency ............... 7 carnot ........................... 10 diesel............................ 11 otto............................... 11 Rankin.......................... 12 thermal equilibrium............. 2 thermal radiation ......... 14, 16 thermal resistance........ 15, 17 thermal time constant ........ 18 thermodynamic probability . 9 thermodynamic properties... 3 time constant ..................... 18 total entropy ........................ 8 transfer phenomena ........... 14 turbine ............................. 6, 9 turbine engine.............. 12, 13 u internal energy........... 3, 20 unit-mass relation................ 6 units..................................... 2 Page 1 of 1
SI 2 universal gas constant......... 4 V average flow velocity..5, 6 volume sphere ...........................19 volume to mass relationship 4 W minimum power requirement....................... 7
watt......................................2 Wb boundary work ........5, 14 wire resistive ........................17 wnet net work.....................10 Wnet,in net work input ..........7 Wnet,out net work ................10 work ..............................2, 14
wrev steady flow work .......10 x quality..........................3, 4 E energy gain/loss .....................5, 6 s change in entropy per unit mass...................................9 S entropy change..............9 thermal diffusivity ........15
emissivity ...................... 18 th thermal efficiency ......... 7 specific volume ........... 3, 4 methalpy.......................... 6 Cp heat capacity ............. 15
BASIC THERMODYNAMICS
0TH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Two bodies which are each in thermal equilibrium with a third body are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
UNITS
Energy, work, heat transfer: [J]
C2 J (joule) = N m = V C = W s = AV s = F V 2 = F
1 kJ = 0.94782 Btu 1 Btu = 1.055056 kJ Rate of energy, work or heat transfer: [J/s or W]
2 W (watt) = J = N m = C V = V A = F V = 1 HP
s s s 746 2 2 Pressure: [Pa or N/m or kg/ms ] Pa (pascal) = N = kg = J = W s = 1.4503810-4 psi m 2 ms 2 m3 m3 Density: [kg/m3] Force: [N or kgm/s2] N (newton) = kg m = J = C V = W s s2 m m m Temperature: [C or K] 0C = 273.15K Volume: [m3] = 1000 liters
Note: In this class, we typically use units of KJ, KPa, and KW.
ENERGY [J]
Tom Penick
Page 2 of 2
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
Thermodynamic properties are related to the energy of the system, i.e. temperature, pressure, mass, volume. Extensive properties depend on the size or extent of the system, e.g. volume, mass, total energy. Intensive properties are independent of size, e.g. temperature, pressure, entropy, density, specific volume.
PROPERTIES OF WATER
Compressed liquid: Properties for compressed liquid are insensitive to pressure. For a given temperature use the f subscripted values from tables A-4 and A-5, e.g. v v f , u u f , etc. However, in the case of enthalpy, h h f + ( P Psat ) v . Saturated phases: Properties for the saturated phases of water are determined using tables A-4 and A-5 in the back of the book and the formulas below. Note that the fg subscript stands for the difference between the g subscripted quantity and the f subscripted quantity, e.g. ug-uf = ufg, and is provided for convenience. Specific volume v = (1 x ) v f + xvg [m3/kg] Internal energy u = (1 x ) u f + xu g = u f + xu fg [kJ/kg] Enthalpy Entropy Quality
SPECIFIC PROPERTIES
Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties. Specific volume v =
h = (1 x ) h f + xhg = h f + xh fg s = (1 x ) s f + xsg = s f + xs fg
x= v vf vg v f
[no units]
[kJ/kg] [kJ/(kgK)]
Superheated vapor: Properties for superheated vapor are read directly from table A-6 in the back of the book.
PHASES OF WATER
The different states in which water exists are its phases. We are only concerned with the liquid and vapor states.
compressed liquid purely liquid, at less than saturation temperature (boiling point at pressure), v < vf saturated liquid purely liquid, but at the saturation temperature (any additional heat will cause some vaporization), v = vf saturated liquid/vapor mixture a mixture of liquid and vapor at the temperature (and pressure) of saturation, v f < v < vg saturated vapor purely vapor, but at the saturation temperature (any loss of heat will cause some condensation to occur), v = vg superheated vapor purely vapor, above the saturation temperature, v > vg
Tom Penick
Page 3 of 3
x QUALITY
The quality is a value from 0 to 1 describing the ratio of vapor mass to total mass of a pure substance. It is only applicable at saturation temperature. A quality of 0 denotes a saturated liquid and a quality of 1 denotes saturated vapor.
CONSTANTS
Atmospheric pressure: 101.33 kPa Boltzmann constant: 1.38065810-23 kJ/(kmolK) Critical point, water 22 Mpa, 374C Gas constant R = Ru/M where M is molecular weight (R = 287 J/(kgK) for air) Temperature in Kelvin: C + 273.15 Universal gas constant: Ru = 8.314 kJ/(kmolK)
x=
mg mg + m f
V = V f + Vg = m f v f + mg vg
V = total volume [m3] Vf = volume of the fluid (liquid) [m3] Vg = volume of the gas [m3] mf = mass of the fluid (liquid) [kg] vf = volume density of the fluid (liquid) [m3/kg] mg = mass of the gas [kg] vg = volume density of the gas [m3/kg]
heat transfer
work
P = RT
or
PV = mRT
PV PV 1 1 = 2 2 T1 T2
P = pressure [kPa] = V/m specific volume [m3/kg] V = volume [m3] m = mass [kg] R = gas constant (0.287 for air) [kJ/(kgK)] T = absolute temperature [K] (C + 273.15)
Tom Penick
Page 4 of 4
E
+
Differentiation of the 1st Law of Thermodynamics with respect to time yields the power version. Used for mixture chamber, heat exchanger, heater in a duct problems.
Q W = E = H + KE + PE
H = m ( h2 h1 ) = mC p , avg (T2 T1 )
Q W = E = U + KE + PE
h2 h1 = C p , avg (T2 T1 )
& Q
= net heat transfer per unit time across system boundaries, positive when flowing inward [kW or kJ/s]
(Closed System means that mass does not enter or leave the system.)
KE =
m ( V2 V1
2
2000
),
PE = mg ( z2 z1 )
NOTE: Since the piston-cylinder is a closed system, we normally use the Closed System version of the law. An exception occurs when the piston is allowed to move as the gas expands under constant pressure. In this case, there is boundary work Wb, which can be included on the right-hand side of the equation by using the Open Systems version since U + Wb = H.
= net work done per unit time in all forms, positive when flowing outward [kW or kJ/s] & = mass flow rate through the control volume [kg/s] m Note that to obtain this value, typically the ideal gas equation (p4) and the mass flow rate (p6) formulas will be used. h = net change in enthalpy [kJ/kg] ke = net change in the kinetic energy per unit mass [kJ/kg] pe = net change in the potential energy per unit mass
& W
Q = net heat transfer across system boundaries, positive when flowing inward [kJ] W = net work done in all forms, positive when flowing outward [kJ] E = net change in the total energy of the system [kJ] U = net change in the internal energy of the system [kJ] KE = net change in the kinetic energy of the system [kJ] PE = net change in the potential energy of the system [kJ] m = mass [kg] u = internal energy [kJ/kg] h = enthalpy [kJ/kg] Cp,avg = specific heat at constant pressure, averaged for the two temperatures [kJ/(kgC)] Cv,avg = specific heat at constant volume, averaged for the two temperatures [kJ/(kgC)]
[kJ/kg] V = average flow velocity (note 1 kJ/kg = 1000 m2/s2) [m/s] g = acceleration of gravity 9.807 m/s2 z = elevation to some reference point [m] Cp,avg = specific heat at constant pressure, averaged for the two temperatures [kJ/(kgC)] T1, T2 = temperature of the fluid at the inlet and outlet respectively [C or K]
Tom Penick
Page 5 of 5
q w = h + ke + pe
2 2
h = u + P
incompressible substance
g ( z2 z1 ) V V1 q w = h2 h1 + 2 + 2 (1000 ) 1000
where
h = C p ( T ) dT
2 1
C p , avg T
ideal gas
ideal gas
h = u + RT
h2 h1 = C p , avg (T2 T1 )
Closed Systems:
q w = u + ke + pe
q w = u2 u1 +
where
V2 2 V1 2 g ( z2 z1 ) + 2 (1000 ) 1000
u2 u1 = Cv , avg (T2 T1 )
u = internal energy [kJ/kg] = V/m specific volume [m3/kg] P = pressure [kPa] Cp,avg = specific heat at constant pressure, averaged for the two temperatures [kJ/(kgC)] T = absolute temperature [K] (C + 273.15) R = gas constant (287 for air) [J/(kgK)]
q = heat transfer per unit mass [kJ/kg] w = work done per unit mass [kJ/kg]
see also BERNOULI EQUATION next.
METHALPY [kJ/kg]
Methalphy means "beyond enthalpy". The factor of 1000 is used to convert m2/s2 to kJ/kg.
BERNOULI EQUATION
For the steady flow of liquid through a device that involves no work interactions (such as a nozzle or pipe section), the work term is zero and we have the expression known as the Bernouli equation.
= h + ke + pe = h +
V2 + gz 2 1000
0 = ( P2 P 1) +
g ( z2 z1 ) V2 V1 + 2 (1000 ) 1000
2 2
&= m
1 V1 A1
= V/m specific volume [m3/kg] P = pressure [kPa] V = average flow velocity (note 1 kJ/kg = 1000 m2/s2) [m/s] g = acceleration of gravity 9.807 m/s2 z = elevation to some reference point [m]
= V/m specific volume [m3/kg] V = average flow velocity (note 1 kJ/kg = 1000 m2/s2) [m/s] A = cross-sectional area [m2]
H ENTHALPY [kJ]
The sum of the internal energy and the volumepressure product. If a body is heated without changing its volume or pressure, then the change in enthalpy will equal the heat transfer. We see this more often in its per unit mass form (see next) called specific enthalpy but still referred to as enthalpy.
H = U + PV
U = internal energy [kJ] P = pressure [kPa] V = volume [m3]
Tom Penick
Page 6 of 6
COPRefrig. =
COPRefrig. =
COPH.P. =
COPH.P. =
QL Q H QL
QH Q H QL
1 1 TL / TH
COPRefrig. =
C p = Cv + R
u2 u1 = Cv (T2 T1 ) h2 h1 = C p (T2 T1 )
1 TH / TL 1
COPH.P. =
R = gas constant (287 for air) [J/(kgK)] u = internal energy [kJ/kg] h = enthalpy [kJ/kg]
Example: The Cp of water at room temperature is 4.18 kJ/(kgC), for iron it's 0.45 kJ/(kgC). Therefore it takes about nine times as much energy to heat water as it does to heat iron.
[kW]
The amount of power required to operate a heat pump/refrigerator.
th THERMAL EFFICIENCY
The efficiency of a heat engine. The fraction of the heat input that is converted to net work output.
th =
Wnet,out Qin
= 1
Wnet,out = QH - QL = net work output [kW] Qin = heat input [kJ] Qout = heat output [kJ]
Tom Penick
Page 7 of 7
QH TH QL TL
QH = magnitude of the heat transferred from a hightemperature source [kJ] QL = magnitude of the heat transferred to a lowtemperature source [kJ] TH = temperature of high-temperature source [K] TL = temperature of low-temperature source [K]
CLAUSIUS INEQUALITY
The cyclic integral of the change in heat transfer divided by the absolute temperature is always less than or equal to zero.
S1 = initial entropy [kJ/K] S2 = final entropy [kJ/K] Q = the change in heat transfer [kJ] T = absolute temperature at the inside surface of the system boundary [K]
Q 0 T
Q = the change in heat transfer [kJ] T = absolute temperature at the inside surface of the system boundary [K]
dSCV = d t {
SCV = entropy within the control volume [kJ/K] & i = inlet mass flow rate [kg/s] m
Q dS = T
Q = the change in heat transfer [kJ] T = absolute temperature at the inside surface of the system boundary [K]
&e m
& Q k
boundary temperature Tk [kJ/s] Tk = absolute temperature at the inside surface of the system boundary [K]
Tom Penick
Page 8 of 8
& S gen
[kW/K]
Most steady-state processes such as turbines, compressors, nozzles, diffusers, heat exchangers, pipes, and ducts, experience no change in their entropy. This gives the relation:
s2 = s1
Isentropic process
& S gen
s2 s1 = Cavg ln
T2 incompressible substances T1
ideal gas
s = Cv ,avg ln s = C p ,avg ln
T2 + R ln 2 T1 1 T2 P R ln 2 T1 P 1
& Q & =m & ( se si ) k S gen Tk & i = inlet mass flow rate [kg/s] m & e = exit mass flow rate [kg/s] m
si = inlet entropy [kJ/(kgK)] se = exit entropy [kJ/(kgK)]
ideal gas
& Q k
= V/m specific volume [m3/kg] R = gas constant (287 for air) [J/(kgK)] Cavg = the specific heat at average temperature [kJ/(kgK)] Cp = specific heat at constant pressure [kJ/(kgC)] Cv = specific heat at constant volume [kJ/(kgC)] T1, T2 = initial and final temperatures [K] P1, P2 = initial and final pressure [Pa]
Sisolated 0
System +
sgen = ( se si )
q T
E
+
si = inlet entropy [kJ/(kgK)] se = exit entropy [kJ/(kgK)] q = heat transfer per unit mass [kJ/kg] T = absolute temperature at the inside surface of the system boundary [K]
p THERMODYNAMIC PROBABILITY
Molecular randomness or uncertainty. The thermodynamic probability is the number of possible microscopic states for each state of macroscopic equilibrium of a system. It is related to the entropy (disorder) of the system by the Boltzmann relation:
S = k ln p
p = eS / k
Tom Penick
Page 9 of 9
CARNOT CYCLE
Introduced in 1824 by French engineer Sadi Carnot, the Carnot cycle is a combination of four reversible processes that are the basis for the theoretical Carnot heat engine. The cycle forms a rectangle on the T-s plot. Use Cv for specific heat.
The numbered corners represent the four states.
T
1
wnet qin
QH
1-2 Volume expansion Reversible isothermal process Heat is added from a high temperature area.
wrev = dP ke pe
1
2
2-3 Volume expansion Reversible adiabatic isentropic process PV k = a constant
wrev = ( P 1P 2 ) ke pe
= V/m specific volume [m3/kg]
Temperature TL
4-1 Volume compression Reversible adiabatic, isentropic process PV k = a constant
qout
3
3-4 Volume compression Reversible isothermal process Heat sinks to a low temperature area.
HEAT ENGINES
HEAT ENGINES
The conversion of heat to work requires the use of special devices; these are called heat engines and have the following characteristics:
They receive heat from a high-temperature source. They convert part of this heat to work. They reject the remaining waste heat to a lowtemperature sink such as the atmosphere or a body of water. They operate on a cycle. They usually involve a fluid used in the transfer of heat; this is called the working fluid.
QL
s1 Entropy
s2
P
constant T
constant s
qin
2
Pressure
4
qout
Volume
Thermal efficiency:
th,Carnot = 1
TL TH
qin = TH ( s2 s1 ) ,
qout = TL ( s2 s1 ) [kJ/kg]
QH = magnitude of the heat transferred from a hightemperature source [kJ] QL = magnitude of the heat transferred to a lowtemperature source [kJ] qin = magnitude per kilogram of the heat transferred from a high-temperature source [kJ/kg] qout = magnitude per kilogram of the heat transferred to a low-temperature source [kJ/kg]
Tom Penick
Page 10 of 10
T
The area enclosed is equal to the work.
3
The area enclosed is equal to the work.
T
TH qin
qin
2
4
Temperature
3-4 Isentropic expansion
Temperature
4
3-4 Isentropic expansion 4-1 Heat rejection w =0
2
1-2 Isentropic compression
qout
qout TL
1
s1 Entropy
1
s1 Entropy
qin
s3
s3
P
qin Pressure
Isentropic
P
P2
3
Isentropic Constant volume, so no work
2
Constant volume so no work
4
qout
Pressure
4
qout
1
1
Volume density
v
Volume density
The otto cycle is more efficient than the diesel for equal compression ratios, but the compression ratio is limited due to spontaneous ignition of the fuel at higher temperatures. Thermal efficiency:
th,Otto = 1
Although less efficient than the otto cycle at a given compression ratio, higher compression ratios are possible in the diesel engine, enabling greater thermal efficiency than in gasoline engines. Thermal efficiency:
r k 1
V1 1 = V2 2
r=
th,Diesel = 1
1 rck 1 r k 1 k ( rc 1)
r = compression ratio [no units] rc = cutoff ratio [no units] k = Cp/Cv = specific heat ratio
Tom Penick
Page 11 of 11
T
The area enclosed is equal to the work.
T
2-3 Isentropic compression in compressor
4
4-5 Isentropic expansion in turbine
qin
qin
Temperature
4 2
3-4 Isentropic expansion
3
Temperature
V2 0 1-2 Isentropic compression by diffuser
qout
1
s1 Entropy
qin
2 1
s1 Entropy
qout
s3
s6
P
2
3
Isentropic
1 2 0 = C p (T2 T1 ) +
wturb,out
0 V1 2 2000
2 3 rp =
1
2 Volume density 4
P3 P2
5 6 0 = C p (T6 T5 ) +
Propulsive efficiency:
where
Thermal efficiency:
rp
( k 1) / k
rp =
P2 P 1
& ( V6 V1 ) V1 ( V6 V1 ) V1 & =m W , wP = P 1000 1000 & & p (T4 T3 ) , qin = C p (T4 T3 ) Qin = mC &= m
Cp = specific heat at constant pressure (1.005 @ 300k) [kJ/(kgC)] q = heat transfer per unit mass [kJ/kg] w = work per unit mass [kJ/kg] rp = pressure ratio [no units] k = Cp/Cv = specific heat ratio
1 V1 A1
Cp = specific heat at constant pressure (1.005 @ 300k) [kJ/(kgC)] rp = pressure ratio [no units]
& W P & Q
= propulsive power [kW] = heat transfer rate to the working fluid [kW]
in
& = mass flow rate [kg/s] m T = temperature [K] P = pressure [kPa] V = air velocity [m/s]
Tom Penick
Page 12 of 12
rc CUTOFF RATIO
The ratio of cylinder volumes after and before the combustion process. Applies to the diesel cycle.
rc =
V3 3 = V2 2
T
2-3 Heat addition in boiler Constant pressure
ISENTROPIC RELATIONS
3
3-4 Isentropic expansion in turbine
Isentropic means that the entropy does not change. s2 = s1. The following relations apply to ideal gases:
2 4 1
qout s1
4-1 Heat rejection in condenser Constant pressure
P2 1 = 1 P 2 T2 1 = T1 2
T2 P2 = T1 P 1
P k = a constant T k 1 = a constant
TP (
1 k ) / k
k 1
Entropy
s4
1 ) = h2 h1 1 2 wpump,in = 1 ( P2 P where h1 = h f @ P 1 , 1 = f @ P 1
( k 1) / k
= a constant
2 3 qin = h3 h2 3 4 wturb,out = h3 h4
Read h3 and s3 from Superheated Water Table based on T3 and P3. So s3 = s4 and x4 = (s4-sf)/sfg. Then find h4 = hf+x4hfg.
= V/m specific volume [m3/kg] T1, T2 = initial and final temperatures [K] P1, P2 = initial and final pressure [Pa] k = Cp/Cv = specific heat ratio
4 1 qout = h4 h1
Thermal efficiency: where
POLYTROPIC PROCESS
A process in which the compression and expansion of real gases have the following pressure/volume relationship.
PV n = a constant W=
and
P n = another constant n 1
w = work per unit mass [kJ/kg] q = heat transfer per unit mass [kJ/kg] h = enthalpy [kJ/kg] = V/m specific volume [m3/kg] P = pressure [kPa]
mR (T2 T1 ) , 1 n
r COMPRESSION RATIO
r= Vmax max = Vmin min
Tom Penick
Page 13 of 13
HEAT TRANSFER
HEAT TRANSFER
Energy transport due to temperature difference.
o Conduction diffusion in a material. In liquids and gases, conduction is due to molecular collisions. In solids, it is due to 1) molecular vibration in the lattice and 2) energy transport by free electrons. o Convection by bulk motion of the fluid o Thermal radiation by electromagnetic waves; doesn't require a medium The three mechanisms for heat transfer cannot all operate simultaneously in a medium. Gases - are usually transparent to radiation, which can occur along with either conduction or convection but not both. In gases, radiation is usually significant compared to conduction, but negligible compared to convection. Solids - In opaque solids, heat transfer is only by conduction. In semitransparent solids, heat transfer is by conduction and radiation. Fluids - In a still fluid, heat transfer is by conduction; in a flowing fluid, heat transfer is by convection. Radiation may also occur in fluids, usually with a strong absorption factor. Vacuum - In a vacuum, heat transfer is by radiation only.
Wb = P dV
1
W=
mR (T2 T1 ) , 1 n
n 1
In order to include the boundary work in a closed system piston-cylinder operating under constant pressure, it may be necessary to use the open system equation since
H = U + Wb
V = volume [m ] m = mass [kg] n = a constant T1, T2 = initial and final temperatures [K] P = pressure [kPa] R = gas constant (0.287 kJ/(kgK) for air) [kJ/(kgK)] U = net change in the internal energy of the system [kJ]
3
MEP =
, where
RT P
Tom Penick
Page 14 of 14
Rt THERMAL RESISTANCE OF A
CYLINDRICAL SHAPE [C/W]
The thermal resistance per unit length of a cylindrical shape, e.g. pipe or pipe insulation.
The ratio of heat conducted to the heat stored per unit volume.
Rt cond.
Rt =
r2 r1 = 2lk ln
[C/W]
Across a boundary:
1 ( 2rl ) h
[C/W]
l = length [m] k = thermal conductivity [W/(mC)] h = convection heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2C)] r1 = inner radius [m] r2 = outer radius [m]
Rvalue =
L [(hft2F)/Btu] k
Rt cond. =
L kA
[C/W]
Convection resistance:
1 Rt conv. = hA
[C/W]
L = thickness of the material [m] k = thermal conductivity [W/(mC)] h = convection heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2C)] A = area [m2]
Free convection of gases Free convection of liquids Forced convection of gases Forced convection of liquids Boiling and condensation
Tom Penick
Page 15 of 15
r1 r2 r3
insulation
ambient temperature
Tsfc 1 hout 2 r3
k = thermal conductivity [W/(mC)] h = convection heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2C)] A = surface area normal to the direction of heat transfer [m2] T1, T2 = temperature [C or K] L = thickness of the material [m]
hin = convection heat transfer coefficient, inner wall [W/(m2C)] kp = thermal conductivity of the pipe material [W/(mC)] kins = thermal conductivity of the insulation [W/(mC)] hout = convection heat transfer coefficient of the insulation 2 surface [W/(m C)]
Tom Penick
Page 16 of 16
& q
& g
&= q &= q
T1 T2 L/K T1 T2 1/ h
Across a boundary:
Example: For a composite wall with convective effects h1 and h2 (wind) at the surfaces:
T1
h1 k1 L1
k2 L2
L2 k2
k3 L3
h2
T2
&0 gr 2h
[K]
[K]
1 h2
Note that for the thermal resistances using units of [(m C)/W], not [C/W]. The heat flux is:
2
and
we are
&= q
T1 T2 1 L1 L2 L3 1 + + + + h1 k1 k2 k3 h2
I = current [A] R = resistance [] r0 = outer radius of wire [m] L = length of wire [m] V = volume [m3] h = convection heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2C)] T = ambient temperature [K]
&= q
T1 Tsfc 1/ h1
k = thermal conductivity [W/(mC)] h = convection heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2C)] A = surface area [m2] Tsfc = surface temperature [C or K] T1, T2 = temperature [C or K] L = thickness of the material [m]
Lc =
V A
Cylinder: Sphere:
Lc = 1 2r Lc = 1 3r
Bi BIOT NUMBER
The ratio of the internal resistance of a body to heat conduction to its external resistance to heat convection. If the Biot number is very small, it means that the internal temperature is uniform so that it is possible to use lumped system analysis in determining thermal behavior.
rcr,cylinder =
k h
Bi =
V = volume [m3]
hLc k
k = thermal conductivity of the insulation [W/(mC)] h = external convection heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2C)]
h = external convection heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2C)] Lc = characteristic length of the body [m] k = thermal conductivity of the insulation [W/(mC)]
Tom Penick
Page 17 of 17
STEPHAN-BOLTZMANN LAW
The idealized surface that emits radiation at the maximum rate is called a blackbody. The maximum radiation that can be admitted from a body at temperature Ts is given by the Stephan-Boltzmann law.
& = Ts4 q
[W/m2] [W ]
& = AT 4 Q max s
b=
h C p Lc
= Boltzmann constant, 5.670510-8 W/(m2K4) A = surface area [m2] Ts = surface temperature [K]
h = external convection heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2C)] = volume density [kg/m3] Cp = specific heat at constant pressure (1.005 @ 300k) [kJ/(kgC)] Lc = characteristic length of the body [m]
& = Ts4 q
[W/m2] [W ]
& = AT 4 Q max s
Bi 0.1
When this condition is met, the temperature variation across the internal area of the body will be slight. The following relation may be used:
= emissivity 0 1 [no units] = Boltzmann constant, 5.670510-8 W/(m2K4) A = surface area [m2] Ts = surface temperature [K]
T ( t ) T = e bt . Ti T
where
b=
h C p Lc
To find the time at which the temperature change from Ti to T is 99% complete, set e-bt = 0.01.
T(t) = temperature at time t [C] T = temperature of the surroundings [C] Ti = initial temperature of the body [C] b = time constant (see previous) [s-1] t = time [s] h = external convection heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2C)] = volume density [kg/m3] Cp = specific heat at constant pressure (1.005 @ 300k) [kJ/(kgC)] Lc = characteristic length of the body [m]
Tom Penick
Page 18 of 18
GENERAL MATHEMATICAL
x + j y COMPLEX NUMBERS Im
y A
Re
Magnitude { x + jy} = A = x 2 + y 2
PHASOR NOTATION
y x
Magnitude { x + jy} = x + jy
The square of the magnitude of a complex number is the product of the complex number and its complex conjugate.
x + jy = ( x + jy )( x + jy ) * = ( x + jy )( x jy )
2
1+ x
1 1+ x
SERIES 1 1+ x , x 1 2
1 x 3 x 2 5 x 3 35 x 4 1 + + L, 1 2 < x < 2 2 8 16 128
GRAPHING TERMINOLOGY
With x being the horizontal axis and y the vertical, we have a graph of y versus x or y as a function of x. The x-axis represents the independent variable and the y-axis represents the dependent variable, so that when a graph is used to illustrate data, the data of regular interval (often this is time) is plotted on the x-axis and the corresponding data is dependent on those values and is plotted on the yaxis.
1 1 x2 1
(1 x )
1 1+ x 1 1 x
1 1 x + x2 x3 + L , 1 2 < x < 2
1 1 + x + x2 + x3 + L , 1 2 < x < 2
Tom Penick
Page 19 of 19
GLOSSARY
adiabatic Describes a process in which there is no heat transfer. This could either be a well-insulated system or a system that is at the same temperature as the surroundings. Adiabatic is not the same as isothermal because in an adiabatic process the temperature can change by other means such as work. chemical energy The internal energy associated with the atomic bonds in a molecule. critical point The pressure and temperature at which a substance will change state (between liquid and vapor) instantly without an intermediate state of saturated liquid/vapor mixture. The critical point for water is 22 MPa, 374C. enthalpy (H) The sum of the internal energy and the volumepressure product. If a body is heated without changing its volume or pressure, then the change in enthalpy will equal the heat transfer. Units of kJ. Enthalpy also refers to the more commonly used specific enthalpy or enthalpy per unit mass h, which has units of kJ/kg. entropy (s) The unavailable energy in a thermodynamic system, also considered a measure of the disorder of a system. Increasing heat energy increases entropy; increasing pressure yields an increase in energy but little or no increase in entropy. The entropy of a material will be highest in the gas phase and lowest in the solid phase. Units of kJ/(kgK). heat engine A heat engine operates on a cycle, receives heat from a high-temperature source, converts part of it to work, and rejects the waste heat to a low-temperature sink. internal energy (u) The sum of all microscopic forms of energy of a system. irreversible process A process that is not reversibleduh. There will be entropy generation in an irreversible process. Factors that can cause a process to be irreversible include friction, unrestrained expansion, mixing of two gases, heat transfer across a finite temperature difference, electric resistance, inelastic deformation of solids, and chemical reactions. isentropic Having constant entropy. An isentropic process is an internally reversible adiabatic process in which the entropy does not change. isothermal Describes a process in which temperature remains constant. latent energy The internal energy associated with the phase of a system. When sufficient energy is added to a liquid or solid the intermolecular forces are overcome, the molecules break away, forming a gas. Because of this, the gas is at a higher energy level than the solid or liquid. The internal energy associated with phase change is the latent energy. nuclear energy The rather large amount of internal energy of a system associated with the bonds within the nucleus of the atom itself. pascal A unit of pressure in the MKS system equal to one Newton per square meter. path function A process result whose magnitude depends on the path taken. Heat transfer and work are examples of path functions. Path functions have inexact differentials designated by the symbol . Tom Penick tom@tomzap.com www.teicontrols.com/notes AppliedThermodynamics.pdf 10/25/2004 www.EnggNotes.in Page 20 of 20 point function A property whose magnitude depends only upon the state and not on the path taken. Point functions have exact differentials designated by the symbol d. pure substance Composed of a single homogeneous chemical species, e.g. water (even with ice). Air is often considered a pure substance in its gaseous form. However, air in the form of a liquid/gas mixture is not a pure substance since the liquid and gas do not have the same chemical composition. This is because the various gases that comprise air liquefy at different temperatures. reversible process An idealized process that can be reversed without leaving any trace on the surroundings. That is, the net heat and work exchanged between the system and the surroundings is zero for the combined process and reverse process. There is zero entropy generation in a reversible process. sensible energy The portion of the internal energy of a system associated with the kinetic energies of the molecule. These kinetic energies are 1) translational kinetic energy, 2) rotational kinetic energy, and 3) vibrational kinetic energy. The degree of activity of the molecules is proportional to the heat of the gas. Higher temperatures mean greater kinetic energy and therefore higher internal energy.