137

Engineering the Zero-Point Field and Polarizable Vacuum for Interstellar Flight
1. ntroduction
The concept of "engineering the vacuum" found its
first expression in the mainstream physics Iitera-
ture when it was introduced by T. D. Lee in his
textbook Particle Physics and Introduction to Field Theory
[2]. There he stated: "The experimentaI method to
aIter the properties of the vacuum may be caIIed
vacuum engineering.... If indeed we are abIe to
aIter the vacuum, then we may encounter some
new phenomena, totaIIy unexpected." This Iegitimi-
zation of the vacuum engineering concept was
based on the recognition that the vacuum is char-
acterized by parameters and structure that Ieave
no doubt that it constitutes an energetic medium in
its own right. Foremost among these are its proper-
ties that (1) within the context of quantum theory
the vacuum is the seat of energetic particIe and
fieId fIuctuations, and (2) within the context of gen-
eraI reIativity the vacuum is the seat of a space-
time structure (metric) that encodes the distribu-
tion of matter and energy. Indeed, on the fIyIeaf of
a book of essays by Einstein and others on the
properties of the vacuum we find the statement
"The vacuum is fast emerging as the centraI struc-
ture of modern physics"

[3].
Given the known characteristics of the vacuum,
one might reasonabIy inquire as to why it is not
immediateIy obvious how to cataIyze robust inter-
actions of the type sought for space-fIight appIica-
tions. To begin, in the case of quantum fIuctuations
there are uncertainties that remain to be cIarified
regarding gIobaI thermodynamic and energy con-
straints. Furthermore, the energetic components
of potentiaI utiIity invoIve very smaII-waveIength,
high-frequency fieIds and thus resist faciIe engi-
neering soIutions. With regard to perturbation of
the space-time metric, the required energy densi-
ties exceed by many orders of magnitude vaIues
achievabIe with existing engineering techniques.
NonetheIess, we can examine the constraints, pos-
sibiIities and impIications under the expectation that
as technoIogy matures, feIicitous means may be
found that permit the expIoitation of the enormous,
as-yet-untapped potentiaI of so-caIIed "empty
space".
2. Propellantless Propulsion
2.1 Global Constraint
RegardIess of the mechanisms that might be enter-
tained with regard to "propeIIantIess" or "fieId" pro-
puIsion of a spaceship, there exist certain con-
straints that can be easiIy overIooked but must be
taken into consideration. A centraI one is that, be-
cause of the Iaw of conservation of momentum, the
center of mass-energy (CM) of an initiaIIy station-
ary isoIated system cannot change its position if
not acted upon by outside forces. This means that
propeIIantIess or fieId propuIsion, whatever form it
takes, is constrained to invoIve coupIing to the ex-
ternaI universe in such a way that the dispIacement
Engineering the Zero-Point Field and
Polarizable Vacuum for nterstellar Flight
H.E. PUTHOFF*, S.R. LITTLE AND M. IBISON
Institute for Advanced Studies at Austin, 4030 West Braker Lane, Suite 300, Austin, Texas 78759-5329, USA.
*Email: puthoff@earthtech.org
A theme that has come to the fore in advanced pIanning for Iong-range space expIoration is the concept of
"propeIIantIess propuIsion" or "fieId propuIsion". One version of this concept invoIves the projected possibiIity
that empty space itseIf (the quantum vacuum, or space-time metric) might be manipuIated so as to provide
energy/thrust for future space vehicIes [1]. AIthough far reaching, such a proposaI is soIidIy grounded in modern
theory that describes the vacuum as a poIarizabIe medium that sustains energetic quantum fIuctuations. Thus
the possibiIity that matter/vacuum interactions might be engineered for space-fIight appIications is not a priori
ruIed out, aIthough certain constraints need to be acknowIedged. The structure and impIications of such a far-
reaching hypothesis are considered herein.
Keywords: Zero-point energy, warp drive, propeIIantIess propuIsion, metric engineering, intersteIIar fIight
JBIS, Vol. 55, pp.137-144, 2002
138
H.E. Puthoff, S.R. Little and M. Ibison
of the CM of the spaceship is matched by a coun-
teracting effect in the universe to which it is cou-
pIed, so as not to vioIate the gIobaI CM constraint.
Therefore, before one Iaunches into a detaiIed in-
vestigation of a proposed propuIsion mechanism it
is instructive to appIy this principIe as an overaII
constraint to determine whether the principIe is vio-
Iated. Surprising subtIeties may be invoIved in such
an assessment, as iIIustrated in the foIIowing exam-
pIe.
2.2 An Example: ExH"
Electromagnetic Field Propulsion
A recurring theme in eIectromagnetic propuIsion
considerations is that one might empIoy crossed
eIectric and magnetic fieIds to generate propuIsive
force, what we might caII ExH propuIsion. The idea
is based on the fact that propagating eIectromag-
netic fieIds (photons) possess momentum carried
by the crossed (orthogonaI) E and H fieIds (Poynting
vector). This raises the issue as to whether static
(i.e., non-propagating) ExH fieIds aIso constitute mo-
mentum (as the mathematics wouId impIy), and in
particuIar whether changes in static fieIds couId
resuIt in the transfer of momentum to an attached
structure. As it turns out, the answer can be yes, as
iIIustrated in the exampIe of the Feynman disk para-
dox [4]. EIectric charge distributed around the rim
of a non-rotating disk generates a static eIectric
fieId that extends outward from the rim, and a cur-
rent-carrying coiI of wire mounted perpendicuIar to
the pIane of the disk generates a static dipoIe mag-
netic fieId. The two fieIds resuIt in a static ExH
distribution that encircIes the disk. Even though noth-
ing is apparentIy in motion, if we take the ExH mo-
mentum concept seriousIy it wouId appear that there
is anguIar momentum "circuIating" about the disk in
the static fieIds. That this is in fact the case is dem-
onstrated by the fact that when the current in the
coiI is interrupted, thereby extinguishing the mag-
netic fieId component of the ExH distribution, the
disk begins to rotate. This behaviour supports the
notion that, indeed, the static fieIds do contain an-
guIar momentum that is then transferred to the disk
(to conserve anguIar momentum) when the fieId
momentum is extinguished [5]. This Ieads one to
wonder if the same principIe couId be appIied to
generate Iinear thrust by changes in static ExH fieIds,
properIy arrayed.
Pursuit of the linear thrust possibiIity, however,
Ieads one to a rich Iiterature concerning so-caIIed
"hidden momentum" that, perhaps surprisingIy, de-
nies this possibiIity [6]. The "hidden momentum"
phrase refers to the fact that aIthough the Iinear
ExH fieIds do carry momentum as in the anguIar
case, the symmetry conditions for the Iinear case
are such that there exists a canceIIing mechanical
momentum contained in the structures even though
a structures CM itself is stationary (see Appendix A).
SpecificaIIy, it can be shown on very generaI grounds
that, contrary to the case for anguIar momentum
(e.g., the Feynman disk), the totaI Iinear momentum
of any stationary distribution of matter, charge and
their currents, and their associated fieIds, must van-
ish. In other words, barring a new discovery that
modifies the present Iaws of physics, any such dis-
tribution cannot generate a propuIsive force with-
out emitting some form of reaction mass or energy,
or otherwise imparting momentum to another sys-
tem

[7].
3. The Quantum Vacuum
3.1 Zero-Point Energy {ZPE} Background
Quantum theory teIIs us that so-caIIed "empty space"
is not truIy empty, but is the seat of myriad ener-
getic quantum processes. SpecificaIIy, quantum fieId
theory teIIs us that, even in empty space, fieIds
(e.g., the eIectromagnetic fieId) continuousIy fIuctu-
ate about their zero baseIine vaIues. The energy
associated with these fIuctuations is caIIed zero-
point energy (ZPE), refIecting the fact that such
activity remains even at a temperature of absoIute
zero. Such a concept is aImost certain to have pro-
found impIications for future space traveI, as we
wiII now discuss.
When a hypotheticaI ZPE-powered spaceship
strains against gravity and inertia, there are three
eIements of the equation that the ZPE technoIogy
couId in principIe address: (1) a decoupIing from
gravity, (2) a reduction of inertia, or (3) the genera-
tion of energy to overcome both.
3.2 Gravity
With regard to a ZPE basis for gravity, the Russian
physicist Andrei Sakharov was the first to propose
that in a certain sense gravitation is not a funda-
mentaI interaction at aII, but rather an induced ef-
fect brought about by changes in the quantum-fIuc-
tuation energy of the vacuum when matter is present
[8]. In this view, the attractive gravitationaI force is
more akin to the induced van der WaaIs and Casimir
forces, than to the fundamentaI CouIomb force. AI-
though quite specuIative when first introduced by
Sakharov in 1967, this hypothesis has Ied to a rich
Iiterature on quantum-fIuctuation-induced gravity.
(The Iatter incIudes an attempt by one of the au-
139
Engineering the Zero-Point Field and Polarizable Vacuum for Interstellar Flight
thors to fIesh out the detaiIs of the Sakharov pro-
posaI [9], though difficuIties remain [10]). Given the
possibiIity of a deep connection between gravity
and the zero-point fIuctuations of the vacuum, it
wouId therefore appear that a potentiaI route to
gravity decoupIing wouId be via controI of vacuum
fIuctuations.
3.3 nertia
CIoseIy reIated to the ZPE basis for gravity is the
possibiIity of a ZPE basis for inertia. This is not
surprising, given the empiricaI fact that gravitationaI
and inertiaI masses have the same vaIue, even
though the underIying phenomena are quite dispa-
rate; one is associated with the gravitationaI attrac-
tion between bodies, whiIe the other is a measure
of resistance to acceIeration, even far from a gravi-
tationaI fieId. Addressing this issue, the author and
his coIIeagues evoIved a ZPE modeI for inertia which
deveIoped the concept that aIthough a uniformIy
moving body does not experience a drag force from
the (Lorentz-invariant) vacuum fIuctuations, an ac-
celerated body meets a resistive force proportionaI
to the acceIeration [11], an approach that has had a
favourabIe reception in the scientific community
[12]. Again, as in the gravity case, it wouId therefore
appear that a potentiaI route to the reduction of
inertiaI mass wouId be via controI of vacuum fIuc-
tuations.
Investigation into this possibiIity by the U.S. Air
Force's Advanced Concepts Office at Edwards Air
Force Base resuIted in the generation of a report
entitIed Mass Modification Experiment Definition Study
that addressed just this issue [13]. IncIuded in its
recommendations was a caII for precision meas-
urement of what is caIIed the Casimir force. The
Casimir force is an attractive quantum force be-
tween cIoseIy spaced metaI or dieIectric pIates (or
other structures) that derives from partiaI shieIding
of the interior region from the background zero-
point fIuctuations of the vacuum eIectromagnetic
fieId, which resuIts in unbaIanced ZPE radiation
pressures [14]. Since issuance of the report, such
precision measurements have been made which
confirm the Casimir effect to high accuracy [15],
measurements which even attracted high-profiIe at-
tention in the media [16]. The reIevance of the
Casimir effect to our considerations is that it consti-
tutes experimentaI evidence that vacuum fluctuations
can be altered by technological means This suggests
the possibiIity that, given the modeIs discussed,
gravitational and inertial masses might also be amenable
to modification. The controI of vacuum fIuctuations
by the use of cavity structures has aIready found
practicaI appIication in the fieId of cavity quantum
eIectrodynamics, where the spontaneous emission
rates of atoms are subject to manipuIation [17].
Therefore, it is not unreasonabIe to contempIate the
possibiIity of such controI in the fieId of space pro-
puIsion.
3.4 Energy Extraction
With regard to the extraction of energy from the
vacuum fIuctuation energy reservoir, there are no
energetic or thermodynamic constraints prevent-
ing such reIease under certain conditions [18]. And,
in fact, there are anaIyses in the Iiterature that sug-
gest that such mechanisms are aIready operative in
Nature in the "powering up" of cosmic rays [19], or
as the source of energy reIease from supernovas
[20] and gamma-ray bursts [21].
For our purposes, the question is whether the
ZPE can be "mined" at a IeveI practicaI for use in
space propuIsion. Given that the ZPE energy den-
sity is conservativeIy estimated to be on the order
of nucIear energy densities or greater [22], it wouId
constitute a seemingIy ubiquitous energy suppIy, a
veritabIe "HoIy GraiI" energy source.
One of the first researchers to caII attention to
the principIe of the use of the Casimir effect as a
potentiaI energy source was Robert Forward at
Hughes Research Laboratories in MaIibu, CA [23].
Though providing "proof-of-principIe," unIike the
astrophysicaI impIications cited above the amount
of energy reIease for mechanicaI structures under
Iaboratory conditions is minuscuIe. (The coIIapse of
a pair of one-centimeter-square Casimir pIates from,
say, 2 microns to 1 micron in 1 microsecond, gener-
ates around 1/10 microwatt.) In addition, the con-
servative nature of the Casimir effect wouId appear
to prevent recycIing, though there have been some
suggestions for getting around this barrier [24]. AI-
ternatives invoIving non-recycIing behaviour, such
as pIasma pinches [25] or bubbIe coIIapse in
sonoIuminescence [26], have been investigated in
our Iaboratory and eIsewhere, but as yet without
reaI promise for energy appIications.
Vacuum energy extraction approaches by other
than the Casimir effect are aIso being considered.
One approach that emerged from the Air Force's
Mass Modification study [13] was the suggestion
that the ZPE-driven cosmic ray modeI be expIored
under Iaboratory conditions to determine whether
protons couId be acceIerated by the proposed cos-
mic ray mechanism in a cryogenicaIIy-cooIed, coIIi-
sion-free vacuum trap. Yet another proposaI (for
140
H.E. Puthoff, S.R. Little and M. Ibison
which a patent has been issued) is based on the
concept of beat-frequency downshifting of the more
energetic high-frequency components of the ZPE,
by use of sIightIy detuned dieIectric-sphere anten-
nas [27].
In our own Iaboratory we have considered an
approach based on perturbation of atomic or mo-
IecuIar ground states, hypothesized to be equiIib-
rium states invoIving dynamic radiation/absorption
exchange with the vacuum fIuctuations [28]. In this
modeI atoms or moIecuIes in a ZPE-Iimiting Casimir
cavity are expected to undergo energy shifts that
wouI d aI ter the spectroscopi c si gnatures of
excitations invoIving the ground state. We have initi-
ated experiments at a synchrotron faciIity to ex-
pIore this ZPE/ground-state reIationship, though so
far without success. In addition to carrying out ex-
periments based on our own ideas, our Iaboratory
aIso acts as a cIearing-house to evaIuate the ex-
perimentaI concepts and devices of others who are
working aIong simiIar Iines. DetaiIs can be found on
our website, www.earthtech.org.
Whether tapping the ZPE as an energy source or
manipuIating the ZPE for gravity/inertia controI are
but gIeams in a spaceship designer's eye, or a RoyaI
Road to practicaI space propuIsion, is yet to be
determined. OnIy by expIorations of the type de-
scribed here wiII the answer emerge. In the interim
a quote by the Russian science historian Roman
PodoIny wouId seem to appIy: "It wouId be just as
presumptuous to deny the feasibiIity of usefuI ap-
pIication as it wouId be irresponsibIe to guarantee
such appIication"

[29].
4. The 8pace-Time Metric
{Metric Engineering"
Approach}
Despite the apparentIy daunting energy require-
ments to perturb the space-time metric to a signifi-
cant degree, we examine the structure that such
perturbations wouId take under conditions usefuI
for space-fIight appIication, a "BIue Sky" approach,
as it were.
AIthough topics in generaI reIativity are routineIy
treated in terms of tensor formuIations in curved
space-time, we shaII find it convenient for our pur-
poses to utiIize one of the aIternative methodoIo-
gies for treating metric changes that has emerged
over the years in studies of gravitationaI theories.
The approach, known as the poIarizabIe vacuum
(PV) representation of generaI reIativity (GR), treats
the vacuum as a poIarizabIe medium [30]. The PV
approach treats metric changes in terms of the
permittivity and permeabiIity constants of the
vacuum,
o
and
o
, essentiaIIy aIong the Iines of the
"TH" methodoIogy used in comparative studies of
gravitationaI theories [31]. Such an approach, reIy-
ing as it does on parameters famiIiar to engineers,
can be considered a "metric engineering" approach.
In brief, MaxweII's equations in curved space are
treated in the isomorphism of a poIarizabIe medium
of variabIe refractive index in fIat space [32]; the
bending of a Iight ray near a massive body is mod-
eIIed as due to an induced spatiaI variation in the
refractive index of the vacuum near the body; the
reduction in the veIocity of Iight in a gravitationaI
potentiaI is represented by an effective increase in
the refractive index of the vacuum, and so forth. As
eIaborated in Ref. 30 and the references therein,
though differing in some aspects from GR, PV mod-
eIIing can be carried out for cases of interest in a
seIf-consistent way so as to reproduce to appropri-
ate order both the equations of GR, and the match
to the cIassicaI experimentaI tests of those equa-
tions.
SpecificaIIy, the PV approach treats such meas-
ures as the veIocity of Iight, the Iength of ruIers
(atomic bond Iengths), the frequency of cIocks, par-
ticIe masses, and so forth, in terms of a variabIe
vacuum dieIectric constant in which vacuum per-
mittivity
o
transforms to
o
K
o
, vacuum perme-
abiIity to
o
K
o
. In a pIanetary or soIar gravita-
tionaI potentiaI 1 / 2 1
2
> + rc GM K and the resuIts
are as shown in TabIe 1. Thus, the veIocity of Iight is
reduced, Iight emitted from an atom is redshifted as
compared with an atom at infinity (K = 1), ruIers
shrink, etc.
As one exampIe of the significance of the tabu-
Iated vaIues, the dependence of fundamentaI Iength
measures (ruIer shrinkage) on the variabIe K indi-
cates that the dimensions of materiaI objects adjust
in accordance with IocaI changes in vacuum
poIarizabiIity - thus there is no such thing as a per-
fectIy rigid rod. From the standpoint of the PV ap-
proach this is the genesis of the variabIe metric that
is of such significance in GR studies. It aIso permits
us to define, from the viewpoint of the PV approach,
just what preciseIy is meant by the IabeI "curved
space." In the vicinity of, say, a pIanet or star, where
K>1, if one were to take a ruIer and measure aIong
a radius vector R to some circuIar orbit, and then
measure the circumference C of that orbit, one
wouId obtain C<2R (as for a concave curved sur-
face). This is a consequence of the ruIer being
reIativeIy shorter during the radiaI measuring proc-
141
Engineering the Zero-Point Field and Polarizable Vacuum for Interstellar Flight
TABLE 1: Typical Metric Effects in the Polarizable Vacuum (PV) Representation of GR.
(For reference frame at infinity, K = 1.)
Variable Determining Equation K 1 (typical mass distribution, M)
velocity of light v
L
(K) v
L
= c/K velocity of light < c
mass m(K) m = m
o
K
3/2
effective mass increases
frequency (K) =
o
/
K
redshift toward lower frequencies
time interval t(K) t = t
o
K
clocks run slower
energy E(K) E = E
o
/
K
lower energy states
length dim. L(K) L = L
o
/
K
objects shrink
TABLE 2: Engineered Metric Effects in the Polarizable Vacuum (PV) Representation of
GR. (For reference frame at infinity, K = 1.)
Variable Determining Equation K 1 (engineered metric)
velocity of light v
L
(K) v
L
= c/K velocity of light > c
mass m(K) m = m
o
K
3/2
effective mass decreases
frequency () =
o
/
K
blueshift toward higher frequencies
time interval t(K) t = t
o
K
clocks run faster
energy E(K) E = E
o
/
K
higher energy states
length dim. L(K) L = L
o
/
K
objects expand
ess when cIoser to the body where
K is reIativeIy greater, as compared
to its Iength during the circumfer-
entiaI measuring process when fur-
ther from the body. Such an infIu-
ence on the measuring process due
to induced poIarizabiIity changes in
the vacuum near the body Ieads to
the GR concept that the presence
of the body "infIuences the metric,"
and correctIy so.
We are now in a position to con-
sider appIication of this "metric en-
gineering" formaIism to the type of
questions reIevant to space propuI-
sion. As we show in Appendix B,
under certain conditions the metric
can in principIe be modified to re-
duce the vaIue of the vacuum di-
eIectric constant K to beIow unity.
Returning to TabIe 1, we see that a
K 1 soIution permits the addition
of another coIumn for which the
descriptors are reversed, as shown
in TabIe 2.
Under such conditions of extreme space-time
perturbation, the local velocity of light (as seen from a
reference frame at infinity) is increased, mass de-
creases, energy bond strengths increase, etc., features
presumabIy attractive for intersteIIar traveI.
As an exampIe, one specific approach that has
generated considerabIe commentary in the techni-
caI Iiterature is the so-caIIed Alcubierre Warp Drive,
named after its creator, generaI reIativity theorist
MigueI AIcubierre [33, 34]. AIcubierre showed that
by distorting the IocaI space-time metric in the re-
gion of a spaceship in a certain prescribed way, it
wouId be possibIe in principIe to achieve motion
faster than the speed of Iight as judged by observ-
ers outside the disturbed region, without vioIating
the IocaI veIocity-of-Iight constraint within the re-
gion. Furthermore, the AIcubierre soIution showed
that the proper (experienced) acceIeration aIong
the spaceship's path wouId be zero, and that the
spaceship wouId suffer no time diIation, highIy de-
sirabIe features for intersteIIar traveI.
When it comes to engineering the AIcubierre
soI uti on, however, seemi ngI y i nsurmountabI e
obstacIes emerge. For a 100 m warp bubbIe the
bubbIe waII thickness approaches a PIanck Iength
(~10
-35
m) and the (negative) energy required is
roughIy 10 orders of magnitude greater than the
totaI mass of the universe!

[35] Further theoreticaI
effort has resuIted in a reduction of the energy
requirement to somewhat beIow a soIar mass, an
impressive advance but stiII quite impracticaI [36].
AnaIysis of reIated aIternatives such as the Krasnikov
Tube [37] and traversabIe wormhoIes have fared no
better [38]. Thus, if success is to be achieved, it
must rest on some as yet unforeseen breakthrough
about which we can onIy specuIate, such as a tech-
noIogy to cohere otherwise random vacuum fIuc-
tuation energy.
CIearIy then, caIcuIations for the proposed
geometries are by no means directIy appIicabIe to
the design of a space propuIsion drive. However,
these sampIe caIcuIations indicate the direction of
potentiaIIy usefuI trends derivabIe on the basis of
the appIication of GR principIes as embodied in a
metric engineering approach, with the resuIts con-
strained onIy by what is achievabIe practicaIIy in an
engineering sense. The Iatter is, however, a daunt-
ing constraint.
5. Conclusions
In this paper we have touched briefIy on innovative
forms of space propuIsion, especiaIIy those that
might expIoit properties of the quantum vacuum or
the space-time metric in a fundamentaI way. At this
point in the deveIopment of such nascent concepts
142
H.E. Puthoff, S.R. Little and M. Ibison
it is premature to even guess at an optimum strat-
egy, Iet aIone attempt to forge a criticaI path; in fact,
it remains to be determined whether such expIoita-
tion is even feasibIe. NonetheIess, onIy by inquiring
into such concepts in a rigorous way can we hope
to arrive at a proper assessment of the possibiIities
and thereby determine the best course of action to
pursue in our steps first to expIore our soIar system
environment, and then one day to reach the stars.
Appendix A - Hidden Momentum
Consider a stationary current Ioop which consists
of an incompressibIe fIuid of positive charge den-
sity circuIating at veIocity v cIockwise around a
Ioop of non-conductive piping of cross sectionaI
area a. The Ioop is immersed in a constant uniform
eIectric fieId E.
where the sense is from Ieft to right. From this it is
concIuded that there is a steady net linear momen-
tum stored in the eIectromagnetic fieIds. We wiII
now show there is another momentum, equaI and
opposite to this eIectromagnetic fieId momentum.
Since the current fIowing in the Ioop is given
by I = av, the veIocity of the fIuid is everywhere
v = I/a. MeanwhiIe, the externaI eIectric fieId E cre-
ates a pressure difference between the bottom and
the top of the fIuid given by P = Eh. Moving to the
left, therefore, is a net energy fIux S (energy per unit
area per unit time) given by
( ) ( )
a
IEh
a I Eh Pv S / x
(A4)
But since energy has mass, Eq. (A4) may be con-
verted to an expression for momentum. This is
mostIy easiIy accompIished by writing the Einstein
reIation E = mc
2
in fIux density form as S = gc
2
, where
g is the momentum per unit voIume. It now foIIows
that, due to the different pressures at the top and
bottom of the Ioop, there must be a net overaII
momentum - directed to the left - given by
2 2
mech
c
IEhw
c
Saw
gaw p
)#
where the subscript 'mech' draws attention to the
apparentIy entireIy mechanicaI origin of this mo-
mentum.
Eqs. (A5) and (A3) demonstrate that the eIec-
tromagnetic momentum is baIanced by an equaI
and opposite mechanicaI momentum. Because of
its rather obscure nature, this momentum has been
referred to in the Iiterature as "hidden momen-
tum". This is a particuIar exampIe of the generaI
resuIt that a net static Iinear fieId momentum wiII
aIways be baIanced by an equaI and opposite
hidden mechanicaI momentum. In practicaI terms,
this means that the creation of Iinear fieId mo-
mentum cannot give rise to motion because the
fieId momentum is automaticaIIy neutraIized by a
mechanicaI momentum hidden within the struc-
ture, so that the whoIe system remains stationary.
This inabiIity to utiIize Iinear fieId momentum for
propuIsion is guaranteed by the Iaw of momen-
tum conservation.
Appendix B - Metric Engineering
8olutions
In the poIarizabIe vacuum (PV) approach the equa-
The magnetic fieId created by the current Ioop com-
bines with the eIectric fieId to produce an eIectro-
magnetic fieId momentum given by

dV
c
H E p x
1
2
EM (A1)
However, in steady state situations, this is equaI to
(Ref. 6)

dV
c
J p
2
EM
1
)
With reference to the above figure, the onIy non-
zero component of momentum surviving this inte-
gration is directed horizontaIIy across the page.
Using the expression Eq.(A2), this computes to
( )
2
bottom top
2
EM
c
IEhw
c
Iw
p
)!
a
E
h
v
w
143
Engineering the Zero-Point Field and Polarizable Vacuum for Interstellar Flight
tion that pIays the roIe of the Einstein equation
(curvature driven by the mass-energy stress ten-
sor) for a singIe massive particIe at the origin is
(Ref. 30)
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
(B1)

1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

+ +
1
1
1
1
]
1

'

2
2
2
2
2
o
o
2
3
2
2 2
o
2
2
2
2
/
1
2
1

1
1
2
4
/
1
2
1
t
K
K c
K
K
E K
K
B
w
w
K
c m K
t
K
K c
K

r
where
( ) K c v w / /
In this PV formuIation of GR, changes in the vacuum
dieIectric constant K are driven by mass density
(first term), EM energy density (second term), and
the vacuum poIarization energy density itseIf (third
term). (The constant , G c 32 /
4
where G is the
gravitationaI constant.)
In space surrounding an uncharged sphericaI
mass distribution (e.g., a pIanet) the static soIution
( ) 0 / t K to the above is found by soIving
2
2
2
1 2

,
_

+
dr
K d
K
dr
K d
r
dr
K d
*
The soIution that satisfies the Newtonian Iimit is
given by
( ) ... 2 1
2
/ 2
2 2
+
,
_

+
rc
GM
e K K
rc GM
*!
which can be shown to reproduce to appropriate
order the standard GR SchwarzschiId metric prop-
erties as they appIy to the weak-fieId conditions
prevaiIing in the soIar system.
For the case of a mass M with charge Q, the eIec-
tric fieId appropriate to a charged mass imbedded in
a variabIe-dieIectric-constant medium is given by
D.da = K
o
E4r
2
= Q *"
which Ieads to (for sphericaI symmetry, with
b
2
= Q
2
G/4
o
c
4
)
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
4
2
2
2
2
1 2
r
b
dr
K d
K
dr
K d
r dr
K d
*#
which shouId be compared with Eq. (B2). The soIu-
tion here as a function of charge (represented by b)
and mass (represented by a = GM/c
2
) is given by

,
_

,
_

r
b a
b a
a
r
b a
K
2 2
2 2
2 2
sinh cosh
for
2 2
b a >
*$
For the weak-fieId case the above reproduces the
famiIiar Reissner-Nordstrm metric [39]. For b
2
> a
2
,
however, the hyperboIic soIutions turn trigonomet-
ric, and K can take on vaIues K < 1.
References
1. H.E. Puthoff, "Can the vacuum be engineered for
spacefIight appIications? Overview of theory and
experiments", Jour. Sci. Exploration, 12, p.295, 1998. See
aIso H.E. Puthoff, "Space propuIsion: Can empty space
itseIf provide a soIution?", Ad Astra, 9 (NationaI Space
Society), p.42, Jan/Feb 1997.
2. T.D. Lee, Particle Physics and Introduction to Field Theory,
Harwood Academic Press, London, 1988.
3. S. Saunders and H. R. Brown, The Philosophy of Vacuum,
Eds., CIarendon Press, Oxford, 1991.
4. R.P. Feynman, R.B. Leighton and M. Sands, The Feynman
Lectures on Physics, Addison-WesIey, Reading, MA, VoI.
II, p.17-5, 1964.
5. For experimentaI confirmation see, for exampIe, G.M.
Graham and D.G. Lahoz, "Observation of static
eIectromagnetic anguIar momentum in vacuo", Nature
285, p.154, 1980.
6. V. Hnizdo, "Hidden momentum of a reIativistic fIuid
carrying current in an externaI eIectric fieId", Am. J.
Phys., 65, p.92, 1997.
7. ProposaIs to push directIy against the space-time
metric or quantum vacuum, i.e., use the rest of the
Universe as a springboard by means presentIy
unknown, faII into the Iatter category.
8. A.D. Sakharov, "Vacuum quantum fIuctuations in curved
space and the theory of gravitation", Dokl. Akad. Nauk
SSSR, [Sov. Phys. - DokI. 12, p.1040, 1968]. See aIso C.
W. Misner, K. S. Thorne and J. A. WheeIer, Gravitation,
Freeman, San Francisco, pp.426-428,1973.
9. H.E. Puthoff, "Gravity as a zero-point-fIuctuation force",
Phys. Rev. A, 39, p.2333, 1989.
10. H.E. Puthoff, "RepIy to 'Comment on "Gravity as a zero-
144
H.E. Puthoff, S.R. Little and M. Ibison
point-fIuctuation force", Phys. Rev. A, 47, p.3454, 1993.
11. B. Haisch, A. Rueda and H.E. Puthoff, "Inertia as a
zero-point fieId Lorentz force", Phys. Rev. A, 49, p.678,
1994; A. Rueda and B. Haisch, "Inertia as reaction of
the vacuum to acceIerated motion", Phys. Lett. A, 240,
p.115, 1998.
12. M. Jammer, Concepts of Mass in Contemporary Physics
and Philosophy, Princeton University Press, Princeton,
pp.163-167, 2000.
13. R.L. Forward, "Mass modification experiment definition
study," PhiIIips Laboratory Report PL-TR-96-3004, Air
Force MaterieI Command, Edwards AFB, CA 93524-
5000 (Feb 1996). Reprinted in Jour. Sci. Exploration, 10,
p.325, 1996.
14. P.W. MiIonni, R.J. Cook and M.E. Goggin, "Radiation
pressure from the vacuum: PhysicaI interpretation of
the Casimir force", Phys. Rev. A, 38, p.1621, 1988.
15. S.K. Lamoreaux, "Demonstration of the Casimir force
in the 0.6 to 6 m range", Phys. Rev. Lett., 78, p.5, 1997;
U. Mohideen and A. Roy, "Precision measurement of
the Casimir force from 0.1 to 0.9 m", Phys. Rev. Lett.,
81, p.4549, 1998.
16. M.W. Browne, "Physicists confirm power of nothing,
measuring force of quantum foam", New York Times,
p.C1, 21 January 1997.
17. See, e.g., S. Haroche and J.-M. Raimond, "Cavity
quantum eIectrodynamics", Sci. Am., p.54, ApriI 1993.
18. D.C. CoIe and H.E. Puthoff, "Extracting energy and heat
from the vacuum", Phys. Rev. E., 48, p.1562, 1993.
19. A. Rueda, B. Haisch and D.C. CoIe, "Vacuum zero-point
fieId pressure instabiIity in astrophysicaI pIasmas and
the formation of cosmic voids", Astrophys. J., 445, p.7,
1995.
20. I.Tu. SokoIov, "The Casimir effect as a possibIe source
of cosmic energy", Phys. Lett. A, 223, p.163, 1996.
21. C.E. CarIson, T. GoIdman and J. Peres-Mercader,
"Gamma-ray bursts, neutron star quakes, and the
Casimir effect", Europhys. Lett., 36, p.637, 1996.
22. R.P. Feynman and A.R. Hibbs, Quantum Mechanics and
Path Integrals, McGraw-HiII, New York, 1965.
23. R.L. Forward, "Extracting eIectricaI energy from the
vacuum by cohesion of charged foIiated conductors",
Phys. Rev. B, 30, p.1700, 1984.
24. F. Pinto, "Engine cycIe of an opticaIIy controIIed vacuum
energy transducer", Phys. Rev. B, 60, p.14740, 1999.
25. H.E. Puthoff, "The energetic vacuum: impIications for
energy research", Spec. in Sci. and Tech., 13, p.247,
1990; K.R. ShouIders, "Method and apparatus for
production and manipuIation of high density charge",
U.S. Patent No. 5,054,046, 1991.
26. J. Schwinger, "Casimir Iight: the source", Proc. Natl
Acad. Sci ., 90, p.2105, 1993; C. EberI ei n,
"SonoIuminescence as quantum vacuum radiation",
Phys. Rev. Lett., 76, p.3842, 1996.
27. F.B. Mead and J. Nachamkin, "System for converting
eIectromagnetic radiation energy to eIectricaI energy",
U.S. Patent No. 5,590,031, 1996.
28. H.E. Puthoff, "Ground state of hydrogen as a zero-point-
fIuctuation-determined state", Phys. Rev. D, 35, p.3266,
1987.
29. R. PodoIny, Something Called Nothing - Physical Vacuum:
What is It?, Mir PubIishers, Moscow, 1986.
30. H.E. Puthoff, "PoIarizabIe-vacuum approach to generaI
reIativity," in Gravitation and Cosmology: From the Hubble
Radius to the Planck Scale, Eds. R. L. Amoroso, G. Hunter,
M. Kafatos, and J.-P. Vigier, KIuwer Academic Press,
Dordrecht, the NetherIands, in press, 2001. See aIso
H.E. Puthoff, "PoIarizabIe-vacuum (PV) representation
of generaI reIativity," http://xxx.IanI.gov/abs/gr-qc/
9909037.
31. A.P. Lightman and D.L. Lee, "Restricted proof that the
weak equivaIence principIe impIies the Einstein
equivaIence principIe", Phys. Rev. D, 8, p.364, 1973.
32. A.M. VoIkov, A.A. Izmest'ev and G.V. Skrotskii, "The
propagation of eIectromagnetic waves in a Riemannian
space", Sov. Phys. JETP, 32, p.686, 1971.
33. M. AIcubierre, "The warp drive: Hyper-fast traveI within
generaI reIativity", Class. Quant. Grav., 11, L73, 1994.
34. H.E. Puthoff, "SETI, the veIocity-of-Iight Iimitation, and
the AIcubierre warp drive: An integrating overview",
Phys. Essays, 9, p.156, 1996.
35. M.J. Pfenning and L.H. Ford, "The unphysicaI nature of
warp drive", Class. Quant. Grav., 14, p.1743, 1997.
36. C. Van Den Broeck, "A 'warp drive' with more
reasonabIe totaI energy requirements", Class. Quant.
Grav., 16, p.3973, 1999.
37. A.E. Everett and T.A. Roman, "A superIuminaI subway:
The Krasnikov Tube", Phys. Rev. D, 56, p.2100, 1997.
38. M. Visser, Lorentzian Wormholes: From Einstein to
Hawking, AIP Press, Woodbury, New York, 1996.
39. C.W. Misner, K.S. Thorne, and J.A. WheeIer, Gravitation,
Freeman, San Francisco, 1973, p. 841.
(Received 2 August 2001)
* * *