Livestock Production Science 80 (2003) 1731 www.elsevier.

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Contribution of organic farming to increase sustainability of Mediterranean small ruminants livestock systems
B. Ronchi*, A. Nardone
Department of Animal Production, University of Viterbo, Via S. Camillo De Lellis snc, 01100 Viterbo, Italy

Abstract The aim of the paper is to evaluate the feasibility and constraints of organic farming to increase the sustainability of Mediterranean small ruminant livestock systems. The paper analyzes the factors affecting sustainability of small ruminant livestock systems in the Mediterranean basin, such as seasonal forage availability or suboptimal pasture utilisation due to overgrazing but also the factor of undergrazing. The paper considers how the application of practices of organic farming may contribute to promoting sustainable land use and improving environment conservation, animal welfare, and product quality. Also the prospects of new information-based technologies, like geographic information systems and global positioning systems, to improve sustainability are presented. A model of pasture-based dairy sheep production system is proposed, with special emphasis on the organisation of a farm forage system to meet animal nutritional requirement. Some options for an integrated strategy for the control of parasitic disease in small ruminant production systems are discussed. These are based on a combination of general prevention methods (i.e. risk control and identication), grazing management (i.e. multifunctional grassland management), nonchemical treatments (i.e. homeopathic herbal preparations) and novel approaches (i.e. biological control and bioactive forages). Comparative effects of phytotherapy and conventional treatment on dairy sheep helminthic disease and on metabolic status and animal welfare are presented. The prospects of organic farming are of particular interest for the less favoured Mediterranean areas, where it may contribute to the safeguard of agricultural functions, like care and preservation of landscape, and safeguarding of rural villages with positive effects on the quality of life in rural communities. Some activities would be particularly appropriate in natural parks, where small ruminants and other domestic animals interact with wildlife and where biodiversity must be preserved. For positive results a new collaborative decision-making process is required between rural and urban communities, businesses and government. In addition, strong supports from scientic research and the extension services are needed to correct and fully utilize new information technologies to exploit the magnitude and potential of organic farming for enhancement of sustainable small ruminant production systems in the Mediterranean region. 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Small ruminants; geographic information systems; Helminths; Bioactive forages; Phytotherapy; Sustainable land use; Organic production

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 1 39-761-357-444; fax: 1 39-761-357-434. E-mail address: ronchi@unitus.it (B. Ronchi). 0301-6226 / 02 / $ see front matter 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016 / S0301-6226(02)00316-0

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1. Introduction Small ruminants livestock systems represent one of the most important agricultural activity in various parts of the world playing a fundamental role, other than economic, in areas such as ecological, environmental and cultural (Zervas et al., 1996). Small ruminant production is typical of Mediterranean regions with the prevailing tendency towards milk production. The Mediterranean countries in total produce two-thirds of the worlds sheep milk and more than one-quarter of goat milk. The contribution of sheep and goat to meat consumption is signicant in the south part of the basin. In Mediterranean areas, small ruminant farming systems have some specic characteristics: utilisation of marginal lands, prevalence of pastoral system, availability of commonage, production of typical cheeses, which are fundamental components of the Mediterranean diet, and a low level of mechanization (Boyazoglu and Flamant, 1990). Goat and sheep farming systems of the Mediterranean area have traditionally been associated with marginal lands (Sanchez-Rodriguez et al., 1996). Their decline has been due to the decrease in rural populations, land use legislation, and socioeconomical factors (El Aich et al., 1996). In particular, in the last 30 years, a progressive decline of the traditional pastoral system based on transhumance (or migratory herding) has been noticed (Manrique et al., 1996). Concurrently, a slow evolution towards more intensive systems has been highlighted for milk production, especially in more favourable areas, where

small ruminant farming is integrated in croplivestock mixed farms with the use of more specialized breeds and of concentrate-feeding systems (Chassany and Flamant, 1996). Despite its large diffusion, small ruminant livestock systems in Mediterranean areas are far removed from an acceptable level of sustainability, considering animal health, environmental impact, quality of products, and protability (Table 1). There is an increasing demand for a new model of livestock production within the context of satisfying multiple objectives, such as productive efciency, animal welfare, correct use of the environment and nonrenewable resources, animal product quality and safety (Gibon et al., 1999). The introduction of EEC regulation for organic livestock farming (EEC Regulation 1804 / 1999 supplementing Regulation EEC No. 2092 / 91 on Organic Production of Agricultural Products) represents a new perspective for small ruminant production. The potential contribution of organic farming toward sustainability is largely based on a methodological approach to analyse the components of the system (ecological, biological, economic and social) and to dene the appropriate model at a regional and local level. Characterisation analysis should take into account the following aspects (Thornton and Herrero, 2001): biophysical scales, management and interaction intensity, farm household objectives, and temporal scales. Organic livestock farming, such as dened by the basic guidelines (Sundrum, 2001), involves a radical change in thinking about the production process of

Table 1 Emerging indicators of unsustainability of small ruminants farming system in the Mediterranean area Landscape degradation Degradation of communal pastures (also due to mixed grazing with other herbivores) Abandonment of marginal lands Low level of integration between agriculture and livestock Land fragmentation Great dependence of farmers on purchased feedstuffs Reduced diversity and increased specialisation in monocropping Numerical reduction of local breeds and populations Large incidence of parasite disease and necessity of preventive and curative chemical treatments High incidence of clinical and subclinical mastitis High incidence of other disease High variability of milk quality

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animal husbandry, with more attention to animal health and welfare, to environmental conservation, and to food quality and safety. The EEC regulation on organic livestock production, although not containing very specic rules, includes specications for housing conditions, animal nutrition and animal breeding, stocking rate, disease prevention, and veterinary treatment. The effectiveness of an organic livestock system in offering better results compared to conventional systems, in terms of animal welfare, environment protection and food quality and safety, are open to debate. The conversion of small ruminant production from conventional to organic seems less complicated in terms of management procedures than in other livestock species. Among the major impacts to be highlighted are: grazing management parasitic disease control and prevention organic feed production and provision Up to now few studies exist which refer to small ruminant organic production. The objective of this paper is to give an overview of small ruminant organic production in Mediterranean area, with particular emphasis on the situation on the Italian peninsula, and to delineate the possible contribution of organic farming to improving the sustainability of sheep and goat farming. The paper considers how the application of organic farming may promote sustainable land use, improve environmental conservation, animal health and welfare, and product quality. For some aspects, research by other authors is included. There is a variety of denitions of organic farming and sustainable agriculture (Rigby and Caceres, 2001). In this paper, organic farming and sustainability are not considered synonymous; organic farming is considered to be a practice contributing to improved sustainability of agricultural productive systems.

2. Animal feeding and nutrition

Mediterranean area. In many areas pasture growth is limited by the irregular distribution of rainfall during the year and between years, coupled with high temperatures during summer and with high potential rates of evapotranspiration (Nardone, 2000). The problem of seasonality of pasture production is responsible for nutritional constraints on extensive small ruminant livestock systems and obviously in all grazing herbivores. In Sardinia, dairy ewes are commonly exposed to undernutrition during pregnancyearly lactation (autumnwinter) and during late lactation (end of spring) (Molle et al., 1994). Besides the variability of climatic conditions, other inuencing factors should be considered: the increasing utilisation of marginal lands for crop production both in EU and non-EU countries (Hamed et al., 2001). This is mainly a consequence of subsidies, the reduction of nomadic systems, the abandonment of agricultural activities, and the expansion of wilderness and protected areas (GomezLimon and de Lucio Fernandez, 1999; Bertoni et al., 2000). Due to the variability of climatic, geological, and topographic conditions in Mediterranean areas, there is a wide variety of forage resources. These can vary from natural pasture of rangelands (marginal areas) to cultivated forages in more favourable regions like Central Italy, where the ock feeding is largely based on grazing on cultivated pastures, especially annual legume forages (Fig. 1). The choice of an appropriate forage system, based on knowledge of climatic, soil, and land topography, is fundamental for the management of small ruminant organic farming. Considering the vulnerability of Mediterranean areas and general principles of organic farming, appropriate forage systems must be based on low energetic inputs and environmental impact. The overall aim is to guarantee sustainability of the animal production system (Roggero et al., 1996), which in turn should involve prudent management of resources and not their abuse (Chiche, 1996). According to Etienne (1996) and to Orskov (1989), the improvement of extensive grazing system in Mediterranean areas should be based on: nutritional evaluation of feed resources; improvement of botanical composition; improvement of grazing systems (optimal stock-

2.1. Grazing resources and management

Feed availability is identied as one of the major constraints for small ruminant systems in the

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Fig. 1. Forage sources for dairy sheep farming in the province of Viterbo (Central Italy) [Ronchi et al., unpublished].

ing rate, good ratio between grazing pressure and rest period); optimum integration between rangeland, forestry and agricultural resources. An optimal grazing system may stimulate diversity of pasture species, whose effects are variable depending upon grazing intensity, the evolutionary history of the site, and climatic regimes (Milchunas et al., 1988). Community diversity has positive implications, not only towards landscape quality and improved ecological complexity, but also because of the reduction in seasonal and annual vulnerability of forage species to uctuation in weather conditions (McNaughton, 1977). In many grazing areas of the Mediterranean woody plants represent a common component. Traditionally, trees and, particularly, shrubs are considered negatively, since they are viewed as a disturbance to livestock manipulation and a reduction of herbaceous production. However, very often the presence of woody species in grazing areas results from irrational grazing management. Many shrubs constitute a nutritional requirement of small ruminants and reduce

supplemental feed requirements during periods of vegetation scarcity and also play a key role in soil stabilising and in preventing landscape degradation.

2.2. Mixed farming: from specialised to integrated systems

Organic farming requires agroecosystem complexity and cropping diversity, a transition from monoculture to mosaic, and an optimal spatial and temporal integration of components. The choice for mixed farming represents a novel managerial approach for small ruminant enterprises, traditionally oriented towards an high degree of specialisation especially in the extensive pastoral system. Mixed farming presents some advantages (e.g. in terms risks reduction, resources reutilising) for the farmer, but implies the capability to organise and manage several activities, leading to reduced economics of scale. In mixing farming, crop and animals are considered not as diversied but as integrated components, in a system where integration is fundamental for increasing sustainability. Mixed farming implies also a precise choice towards multi-

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ple cropping, where crop rotations over and within years and intercropping are practised. The incorporation of legumes into farming systems provides many benecial effects and plays a key role in the management and sustainability of small ruminant organic livestock systems (Table 2). From studies carried out in Central Italy (Caporali and Campiglia, 2001) it has been demonstrated that alternative cropping systems based on the use of
Table 2 Importance of legumes into small ruminants organic farming system (adapted from Howieson et al., 2000) Specic legume value a Pasture N 2 xation Increased soil fertility and stability Capacity for nutrient recycling Control of weed species Break disease and pest life cycles High protein animal feed Cash crop Biodiversity and landscape quality Operational exibility
a

Grain *

Legumes ** ** ** *** *** ***

*** *** * ** ** *** * *** **

* ***

Increasing,*, **, *** applicable value.

self-reseeding annual legumes (Trifolium and Medicago spp.) can be benecial in low input and organic farming systems. Leguminous plants act in crop rotation as living mulches, cover crops, and green manures, preventing soil degradation. Despite good prospects, however, the application of innovative cropping systems may meet some difculties due to the lack of technical information about correct management and genotypes to adopt in Mediterranean environments. The practice of sheep grazing during winter or spring on wheat (and other cereals cultivated mainly for grain) is common in many areas of the world, especially in mixed farms, and can provide a valuable forage biomass in a period of shortage (Dunphy et al., 1982). This practice is positively associated with grain yield and resistance to lodging and may be useful in reducing the infection loci of disease and weed infestation; a result of particular interest in organic farming systems where chemical fungicides and herbicides are forbidden (Gooding et al., 1998). Fig. 2 shows a schematic of a model for forage system management of a mixed organic farming of Central Italy. In the model dairy sheep are integrated with agriculture activities and forages for sheep

Fig. 2. Schematic representation of a forage systems for organic dairy sheep farming in Central Italy [Ronchi et al., 2002, unpublished].

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feeding come from a mosaic of sources (Ronchi et al., 2002, unpublished).

3. Prevention and control of endoparasitic disease The control of helminth disease is considered one of the major animal health and welfare issues in organic small ruminants farming (Roderick et al., 1999). A crucial aspect in control is represented by how parasitic disease is diagnosed and risk evaluated. In small ruminants farming systems, chemoprophylaxis has been widely used as the main strategy to control parasitic diseases. Frequent use of suppressive or therapeutic anthelminthic drugs is no longer considered sustainable. There is increasing evidence of nematode resistance (McKenna, 1994) and awareness of potential drug residues in edible products, and possible ecotoxicological effects of drug excretion on the environment (Coop and Kyriazakis, 2001). Few of the anthelminthics and endectocides currently utilised are considered to be completely metabolizable into inactive molecules (McKellar, 1997). Chemical residues with biological activity are excreted in the urine or faeces of treated animals, with the potential for affecting nontarget organisms. Also, chemical treatments against parasites, although benecial in reducing parasite-associated losses, may have a deleterious activity on animal health. Alternatives to the anthelminthic control of parasites need to be adopted by small ruminant farmers to improve the economic efciency of the farming system, considering the cost of treatments. To be considered sustainable, a parasite control scheme needs to be based on the principles of integrated pest management (Waller, 1993). This means other nonchemotherapeutic control options should be incorporated. These should include rational grazing management, use of plant extracts, homeopathic treatment, special forage crops and improved pasture species (Cabaret, 1996), the development of vaccines against parasites (Meeusen, 1996), diet composition (Coop and Kyriazakis, 2001), the breeding of animals for parasite resistance (Woolaston and Baker, 1996), and the biological control of parasites by applying natural enemies against nematode parasites (Waller and Faedo, 1996). These approaches are not to be

considered as mutually exclusive but could be used in various combinations (Niezen et al., 1996). Animal nutrition can affect the development of parasitism and pathological consequences in different ways: by increasing the ability of the host to manage with the negative effects of parasitism (resilience); by improving the ability of the host to overcome the parasitism (resistance);or by limiting the development of parasite population through the intake of antiparasitic compounds (Coop and Kyriazakis, 2001). The use of selected bioactive forages may have a positive inuence on parasite disease control as well as on the quality and avour of animal products. Consumption of forages high in condensed tannins, such as polyphenolic proanthocyanidins, has been demonstrated to be useful in reducing the level of parasitism in young ruminants, resulted in reduction of their fecal egg count and total worm burden (Niezen et al., 1996). The mechanism by which proanthocyanidin-containing forages can counteract the effects of internal parasites in small ruminants is not well understood, although it seems to be related either to a direct effect on the parasites or to an indirect effect on protein nutrition. In fact it has been demonstrated that proanthocyanidins at low concentration are also effective in reducing microbial degradation of feed protein in the rumen (Waghorn et al., 1987). Proanthocyanidins occur in the leaves and stems of a various forage plants, such as Hedysarum coronarium, Lotus cornicolatus. Pastures represent the link between the free-living and the parasitic phases of nematode parasites of grazing animals (Waller, 1993). Grazing utilisation may lessen or intensify the rate of infection and the effects of parasitism, depending on state of herbal vegetation, type of pasture species, climatic conditions, time of day. Grazing management procedures against helminth infections are classied as preventive, evasive or diluting (Barger, 1997). The preventive system implies the introduction of uninfected animals into a parasite-free grazing area. The evasive system consists of moving a ock already infected into a parasite-free area. As an example of dilution strategy, alternative grazing between small ruminants and cattle may be a very effective system of parasite control, particularly in temperate regions of the

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world, where it may can contribute to reduce anthelminthic treatment (Donald et al., 1987). The biological control of parasites results from the action of enemies, which contribute to maintain a host population at low levels. Two broad categories of biological control exist: natural and applied biological control. The rst is effected by native (or coevolved) enemies, which are naturally present in the environment. Their impact in farming systems and effectiveness in controlling the parasite population is considered quite low. Better results may be obtained by using applied biological control, which consists on the introduction of exotic natural enemies (classical) or on the enhancement of natural enemies already in place (augmentative). The outlook derived from the utilisation of some species of nematode-destroying fungi (e.g. Duddingtonia agrans) appears promising (Waller and Faedo, 1996). The introduction of exotic enemies is open to discussion due to the high risk of perturbation in the ecosystem. Organic farming practices can create the conditions for a natural biological control of parasite, especially in the external or free-living environment, due to the large range of organisms that are capable of egg and larval destruction. There is evidence that organic farming increases the abundance and variety of coprophilic microorganisms, among them nematophagus species, compared with conventional farming systems where animals are intensively treated with anthelminthics (Niezen et al., 1991). The effectiveness of herbs or plant extracts against helminths or external parasite is traditionally known and many products are available on the market. Results from a eld trial on dairy ewes in an organic farm located in Central Italy [Ronchi et al., unpublished data] indicate a double positive effect of herbal extract treatment. The rst is the reduced incidence of toxic effects on animal due to chemical anthelminthics, and the second is a reduction of parasite nematode infection similar to conventional treatment (Fig. 3). There is some evidence of genetic variation in resistance to nematode infections within breeds (Gray et al., 1987) and between breeds (Barger, 1989). Little is known about genetic variation in the local indigenous breeds (Baker, 1995). Good prospects exist also for the application of

Fig. 3. Faecal egg count (eggs / g faeces) in animals treated with herbal extract (*) (phyto), with oral Avermectine (aver), not treated (control) (*) Herbal extracts: Cardus, Eucaliptus, Gentiana, Urtica, Mallotus, Dryopteris.

genetically modied organisms with enhanced properties of attacking either adult forms of the parasite or the free-living stage. However, this approach cannot be considered in organic farming because the current legislation does not contemplate the use of genetically modied organisms. In spite of the promising new approaches and options for preventing parasitic disease, a large number of problems need to be considered for largescale application, not least because of physical and climatic variability of farms. Pertinent and qualied information is needed by the extension services to support farmers especially in the phase of converting from a conventional to an organic livestock system.

4. Environment and landscape preservation and development In the last few decades, agricultural production systems have evolved towards a high degree of specialisation, with narrow crop rotations, high input of chemical fertilisers, large utilisation of biocide and, consequently, high environmental impact especially on soil and water resources (Zalidis et al., 2002). In regions where there is a strong prevalence of intensive and highly mechanised monoculture, the landscape has become large and monotonous, biodiversity tends to decrease and employment has been reduced (Oomen et al., 1998). Due to the effect of intensive agriculture in many countries, a signi-

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cant reduction in diversity of oral and faunal elements, as well as of biotopes, has been reported (Van Mansvelt et al., 1998). Although this model of development has several positive economic effects on farming protability and product availability, it is not considered acceptable, not only for environment-related reasons, but also for its negative global economic and social effects.

4.1. Land degradation in the Mediterranean area

Many agricultural and animal husbandry practices are responsible of degradation of soil and water resources in the Mediterranean area, where the natural environment presents a wide complexity due to climate, topography, soil characteristics, and peculiarities of agriculture (Nardone, 2000; Zalidis et al., 2002). Emerging problems in many regions of the Mediterranean basin are connected with land desertication, and soil and water salinisation (CEC, 1994). The main problem of land degradation in Mediterranean agrosilvopastoral systems is associated with overgrazing and improper grazing management. Natural vegetations in some areas of Egypt are deteriorating in productivity due to several factors, such as irrational range management of small ruminants, increasing livestock number, and natural drought (El Shaer, 1996). In the extensive sedentary system of Albania, characterized by moving of sheep in search of their feed for short distances, state pastures are overstocked by sheep with subsequent gradual degradation (Nanaj and Scapeta, 1996). In the mountainous highland of Korinthos (Greece), where sheep and goat production is the major economic activity of the area, most of the natural pastures are grazed all through the year and suffer from gradual degradation as a result of overgrazing (Zervas et al., 1996). The Syrian semiarid and arid steppe is intensively grazed by sheep and goats and suffers from severe overgrazing with subsequent soil degradation over wide areas (Kattash et al., 1996). In some areas of the Sicilian semi-arid hill country (Italy), as a result of a prolonged irrational utilisation of grazing resources, a high level of soil degradation and physical marginality exists (Stringi et al., 1996). Sardinia (Italy) represents one of the regions in

Mediterranean area where the high pressure of agro pastoral activities produce the most severe consequences on the environment. Together with overgrazing, the destructive use of re to improve pasture productivity is responsible (Enne et al., 2000). The main environmental constraints of small ruminant farming in various region of Mediterranean area are also related to local socioeconomic and political factors, since in some cases there is no simple solution for modifying management practices (Taferrant et al., 1995). Overgrazing and improper grazing management in Mediterranean areas are very often associated with public land use, where native citizens exerts their rights of grazing. In the absence of specic regulations or in the difculties of law application, grazing lands are abused by overgrazing or by improper practices, such as re against woody plants. In many cases in Italy, public lands, also known by the terms agrarian universities or agrarian communities, correspond to mountain or hill areas of rich ecological values and attractive for recreational and sociocultural activities. Similarly, in areas of natural parks, the presence of grazing animals should be looked upon as a concept of multiple use of natural resources, without compromising other uses. The phenomena of land degradation are also connected with undergrazing or, even more, by cessation of grazing. Such phenomena are increasing in mountain areas, where there is a tendency to concentrate farm activities in the most easily workable parts of the territory and the subsequent degradation of grazing resources (Flamant et al., 1999). The extensication of land resource utilisation should be carefully considered when regarding grazing areas, because there is a high risk of land degradation due to insufcient animal and human pressure. In grazing management, in addition to the concept of maximum grazing pressure (or maximum stocking rate) we should also introduce the concept of minimum grazing pressure necessary to ensure the optimal conservation of natural resources and diversity (structured landscape mosaic).

4.2. Organic farming and landscape quality

Organic farming may play a positive role in preserving and improving landscape quality. Criteria for the development of sustainable landscape include

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(Stobbelaar and Van Mansvelt, 1997): (1) quality of the biotic and abiotic environment (resource conditions; biological relationships); (2) quality of the social environment (ows of nances and services; participation procedures); and (3) quality of the cultural environment (subjective regional landscape appreciation; objective regional landscape identity). Organic farming management systems may contribute to preserving or recreating the landscape identity, especially in hill and mountain areas of Mediterranean regions; preserving the complex interaction between the components of the rural landscape. Potential positive effects of small ruminant organic farming on quality of the landscape in Mediterranean areas may be: an aid in maintaining a clean environment (soil conservation, clean water, wildre control, carrying capacity, good inputoutput balance of resource efciency) an aid in maintaining and improving ecological values (conservation of domesticated and wild species with minimal population, conservation of biotopes with minimal area, conservation of ecosystem complexity and functionality) an aid in maintaining and improving aesthetic and recreational values (sensorial information diversity, animation). A project on landscape quality may be of fundamental importance in agrosystem multifunctionality in Mediterranean countries, where agricultural and livestock activities are strictly linked with tourist, cultural, and recreational utilisation. In many countries of Europe, a farm unit is very often not continuous, due to high land fragmentation as result of land inheritance and political actions. Such conditions represent a problem for the implementation of local landscape identity. For this purpose it has been proposed (Stobbelaar et al., 2000) to create an ecological network on regional and local level, as a guide for organic farmers to contribute to landscape quality. To a large extent the results at farm level will depend on the organisation and management of the forage system, with special emphasis on diversity of annual and perennial vegetation and on grazing management.

Small ruminant organic farming could contribute to the maintenance of environmental quality and services in protected Mediterranean mountain areas, where agriculture and other productive activities must be compatible with recreational, cultural, or scientic purposes.

4.3. Application of information-based technologies in land use planning

The application of new information-based technologies may prove very useful for appropriate management of natural resources and in improving the economic efciency and sustainability of animal production systems. In the last few years, computerized geographical information systems (GISs) and global positioning systems (GPSs) have rapidly become operational tools in nature resource management, providing methods for assessing natural resources qualityquantity, determining forage land utilisation, and identifying / assessing environmental risks (Ferrer et al., 1995). Spatial information technologies have recently been applied to identify risk points and the vulnerability of forage system management for dairy sheep in Central Italy (Ronchi et al., 2002). They analysed six factors: stocking rate, percentage of annual land rented, percentage of seasonal land rented, annual hay availability, number of farm fragments and distance of fragments from farm centre (Fig. 4). Analysis results and observations suggest some critical points on the structural characteristic of dairy sheep farming in the study area. The factor most correlated with vulnerability was the stocking rate (r 5 0.84, P , 0.001). As a consequence of small farm size, a large proportion of the total farm land is rented, either for seasonal or for annual uses. The fragmentation of grazing areas is commonly associated with long distances between parcels and related problems for ock management (feed supplementation, water supply, milking operations). From a comprehensive analysis of structural characteristics of small ruminant livestock systems in the Mediterranean area, some principal points can be highlighted: small size of farm land, high incidence of rent land, and farm fragmentation. These structural elements represent a great limiting factor for the

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Fig. 4. Vulnerability of grazing lands for dairy sheep farming in the province of Viterbo, Central Italy (Ronchi et al., 2002; unpublished).

development of organic farming, and more importantly, for the economic sustainability of the sector.

5. Reproduction biotechnologies and biodiversity The biotechnologies associated with reproduction (e.g. in vitro fertilisation, in vitro embryo growth and transfer) are considered highly promising for the future of the small ruminant sector. Some of these new techniques may be very useful in the manage-

ment of local populations at risk of extinction, and permit shortening both the breeding cycles and the duration of selection programs, improving the efciency of selection. Genetic engineering is also promising for the production of sheep and goats resistant to pathologies, like infectious or parasitic diseases, and consequently for the reduction of chemical treatments (curative or preventive) and the improvement of productive efciency (Morand-Fehr and Boyazoglu, 1999). Despite their potential interest for small ruminant

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Table 3 Potential technical solutions in small ruminant organic livestock to improve reproductive efciency according to main production systems Technical solution Choice of hyperprolic breeds Choice of nonseasonal breeds Selection of nonseasonal animals Plane of nutrition Flushing Control of diseases Ram effect Photoperiod manipulations Echographic controls Extensive systems 6 6 6 Intermediate 6 6 6 6 1 6 Intensive systems 1 1 6 1 1 1 1 6 6

livestock systems, these biotechnologies are not allowed by current European regulations on organic farming. It is also the case for technologies commonly applied for the management and the improvement of reproduction (e.g. heat syncronisation, and induction of ovulation) and for genetic improvement (articial insemination in sheep and goats) that requires hormonal treatments. Considering the importance of control of reproduction in small ruminant livestock, other technical solutions should be considered in organic farming, resulting from the combination of selection and good management practices (Table 3). The large number of sheep and goat breeds raised in the Mediterranean area represents a great contribution to the world genetic variability for these two species. In fact, Mediterranean sheep breeds represent more than 35% at world level, and the goat breeds over 27% (Nardone, 2000). The great variability of small ruminants in the Mediterranean basin is mainly related to the corresponding variability of climatic (inuencing nutritional uctuations), topographic, and socioeconomic conditions (Alifakiotis, 1990). Organic farming may contribute to the maintenance and improvement of such great variability of small ruminant breeds in Mediterranean areas.

6. Quality and safety of food Sheep and goat husbandry represents one of the most traditional activity of Mediterranean rural societies, contributing to typical products of animal

origin (Boyazoglu and Morand-Fehr, 2001). The cheeses produced from sheep and goat milk are an expression of the regional cultural tradition and vary widely, depending on breed, feeding systems (pasture in particular) (Pirisi et al., 1999), inherited traditional processing, and recipes (Santucci, 1995). Although it is commonly accepted that organic livestock farming systems should be associated with improved food quality, few data are available at present. An additional difculty in comparing organic food quality and safety comes from the differences between countries in terms of specic legislation (e.g. rules for standard, certication), and in some cases also in the same country because of the presence of independent organizations. The basic standards for organic production and the system of certication adopted in some Mediterranean countries seems to be inadequate to ensure high standard of quality (nutritional, hygienic, sensorial and technological). According to current legislation (EEC Regulation 1804 / 1999 supplementing Regulation EEC No. 2092 / 91 on Organic production of agricultural products), organic products from small ruminant livestock system are expected to be less contaminated by chemotherapeutic agents and by other chemical treatments. However, since many crucial points for quality of animal products exist both in conventional and in organic livestock (e.g. mycotoxins contamination) and considering that product quality is primarily dependent on farm management, epidemiological and on-farm studies are needed to evaluate risk factors and to support farmer decisions. Since small ruminant farming systems in the

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Mediterranean area are largely dependent on pasture utilisation, and since pastures reect the state of the global environment, for the future, quality assurance programs for organic products should consider the quality of the environment (water, soil, air). Environmental certication could contribute to the qualication of agricultural products and to add value for a specic premium market. The organic system should be oriented towards a high quality food market, with some potential benets to increase farmers protability and reducing government aid. The quality food market deriving from organic production requires the adoption of the specic procedures of traceability and validation. The validation of products deriving from sheep and goat farming in the form of high quality products may help to maintain traditional low intensity farming in harmony with the needs of landscapes and habitat conservation, and in counteracting the tendency towards mass production of standardised products (Boyazoglu and Morand-Fehr, 2001). Direct processing and sales may be particularly useful for traditional low intensity sheep and goat farming (organic system) to reduce economic marginality and with a signicant implication on conservation policy. Direct selling may offer good opportunities also for traceability and valorisation, being part of the process of farm diversication or pluriactivity.

7. Protability of organic small ruminants farm The protability of organic production is largely dependent on national and regional policy regarding the development of production, processing, and labelling of organically produced food. The nancial viability of the organic farming system is especially critical during the conversion phase, when products cannot be certied as organic. For this reason, conversion subsidies play a fundamental rule in the process of conversion from conventional towards organic farming systems or towards a more sustainable agriculture (Cobb et al., 1999). Financial pressures of the conversion from conventional to organic are linked to a possible increase of xed costs (labour, infrastructure, specic machinery). Other factors inuencing protability of organic

production and differences between countries and inside countries may be found in the quality of the existing extension services and in market development. With the aim of evaluating the economics of small ruminant organic farming in comparison with other forms of agriculture, a preliminary study has been carried out on an organic dairy sheep farm in the Lazio region of Central Italy [Dono and Ronchi, 2002, unpublished]. Three possible options have been considered: (a) adhesion to measure F.1 Integrated production system; (b) adhesion to measure F.2 Organic farming, subjecting only the land; (c) adhesion to measure F.2 Organic farming, subjecting the land and the herd. The objective was to evaluate the effectiveness of funding as an economic incentive to adopt low impact farming systems. An appreciable management protability performance was stated as the capability of these systems to pay the farm resources, labor and capital, more than other comparable uses are able to do. The results indicate that, in the studied typology, the economic incentives that the Lazio Region applies to low-impact management systems make the organic breeding model especially viable. This is true also with milk price levels 1015% below the current value and makes this management choice interesting for new farms. However, some aspects need additional studies to dene all the possible impacts and problems related to the entry of new farms in the areas milk sheep organic breeding. 1. Farms potentially interested in organic breeding could have too high herd:forage land ratios according to the Rural Development Plan parameters. This would force them to rent additional land, which could push up the rents, thereby reducing the general farm protability of this management system. 2. Farms potentially interested in organic breeding, even if eligible to PSR funding, may not have adequate structures according to EU regulations for organic breeding. Various kinds of public aid for investment exist, which can be utilized to improve the breeding structures. Unfortunately, using this money often requires a specic knowl-

B. Ronchi, A. Nardone / Livestock Production Science 80 (2003) 1731

29

edge of the public funding system. Furthermore, specic measures to speed the administrative procedures have to be realized to cope with the distribution and timing of the various payment sources. 3. The high cost levels for organic seeds and feed could discourage farms potentially interested in organic breeding: 5060% more than conventional products. These price factors should decline when the market expands in the future. At present, partial repeals exist to the organic seeds and feed use constraint. Unfortunately, turning to them requires coping with complicated administrative and technical constraints, which are not easy for most of the areas sheep-breeding farms. In short, adequately structured farms, that hire well-prepared administrative and technical consultants, will be able to utilize the partial repeals and the additional funding opportunities that permit the development of economically viable organic sheepbreeding units.

required, taking into consideration natural, economic, and social dimensions. Organic livestock systems may have the potential to make a positive contribution towards a better quality and sustainability of the agro-landscape, and particularly soil and water quality conservation. The value of environment integrity must be taken into consideration when planning subsidies and other forms of intervention for agriculture. The basic standards for organic production and the system of certication should be improved to ensure higher product quality. To better support the evolution of organic farming, further research is needed regarding: the assessment of process qualities, the evaluation of risk factors, the prevention of animal diseases, and the organisation of on-farm forage and crop systems integrated with small ruminants.

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8. Conclusions The future development of small ruminant farming systems in Mediterranean areas in term of global sustainability will largely depend on the application of modern management strategies, especially for planning and monitoring functions. This is particularly needed for organic farming systems, since their durability and efciency will be more and more based on the application of rational models with the auxiliary contribution of modern technologies. Assessing risk factors must have a high priority in organic livestock systems, especially their impact on food quality and animal health. Organic farming cannot always be considered the best solution for the evolution and development of small ruminant livestock. On the basis of current production systems in Mediterranean areas, only a limited percentage of farms have the optimal requirements for a transition from conventional to organic and for a durable economic viability. For the survival and the development of small organic ruminant livestock systems, a good balance in sustainability is

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