TEXTUAL EQUIVALENCE The expressive potential of lexical items and grammatical structure is onl reali!

ed in communicative events" that is" in text# Text has features of organi!ation $hich distinguish it from non%text" that is to sa from a simple collection of sentences and paragraphs" features that are al$a s language and culture%specific# Ever communit has preferred $a s of organi!ing its various t pes of discourse# The final aim of a translator is to achieve as much as possi&le e'uivalence at text level" rather than at $ord or phrase level# Textual e'uivalence refers to the e'uivalence &et$een a (L text and a TL text in terms of information and cohesion# Texture is a ver important feature in translation since it provides useful guidelines for the comprehension and anal sis of the (T $hich can help the translator in his or her attempt to produce a cohesive and coherent text for the target audience in a specific context# It is up to the translator to decide $hether or not to maintain the cohesive ties as $ell as the coherence of the (L text# )is or her decision $ill &e guided & three main factors" that is" the target audience" the purpose of the translation and the text t pe# *ut perhaps $e should start & sa ing $hat $e can define as text# +e identif a stretch of language as a text &ecause $e perceive a series of connections $ithin and among its sentences# ,irst" there are connections $hich are esta&lished through the arrangement of information $ithin each sentence and the $a it relates to the preceding and follo$ing ones# These connections contri&ute to topic development through thematic and information structures# Then" there are surface connections $hich esta&lish relationships &et$een persons and events and create cohesion. ,inall " there are underl ing semantic connections $hich allo$ us to see the text as a unit of meaning and include coherence and implicature# A note on SFL ( stemic%,unctional Linguistics -(,L. is a theor of language introduced & the linguist /ichael )allida and centred around language function# +hile it still accounts for its s ntactic structure" (,L places the function of language as central -$hat language does" and ho$ it does it." in preference to more structural approaches" $hich focus on the elements of language and their com&inations# 0ne of its central notions is stratification. Language is anal !ed in terms of four strata1 Context" (emantics" Lexico%2rammar and 3honolog %2rapholog # Another central notion is that of register" $hich is important &ecause it is seen as the linguistic conse'uence of three interacting aspects of context" $hich )allida calls field, tenor, and mode Field refers to the topics and actions $hich language is used to express# -+hat. Tenor denotes the language users" their relationships to each other" and their purposes# -+ho" +h . Mode refers to the channel through $hich communication is carried out# -+hen" +here. * understanding the semiotic properties of a situation -i#e#" the values for field" tenor" and mode." language users can predict the meanings that are li4el to &e exchanged and the language li4el to &e used# ( stemic semantics includes also $hat is usuall called 3ragmatics and it is divided into three components1 Ideational (emantics -corresponding to field or content.

Interpersonal (emantics -concerned $ith speech%function" exchange structure" expression of attitude" etc#" corresponding to tenor. Textual (emantics -ho$ the text is structured as a message" e#g#" theme%structure" given5ne$" rhetorical structure etc#" corresponding to mode. The unit of anal sis for (, linguists is the text &ecause the functional meaning potential of language is reali!ed in units no smaller than texts# 0f course" the stud of texts is t picall performed & examining elements of the lexicogrammar and phonolog " &ut these smaller units must &e vie$ed from the perspective of their contri&ution to the meanings expressed & the total text in context# Thematic structure ,or )allida " the theme is the starting point chosen & the spea4er5$riter for an communication" $hile the rheme is the remaining part" $hich develops the theme and represents the information that the spea4er5$riter $ants to conve # In English clauses" the theme%rheme structure is conve ed & $ord order# The part of the communication chosen & the spea4er as the theme opens the sentence as the first constituent# Each sentence in a paragraph has its o$n theme and rheme $hich usuall is hierarchicall su&ordinate to the larger theme%rheme of the $hole text# Theme in declarative sentences Unmar4ed -Theme 6 (u&7ect.1 Nic4 and his mother $ent shopping# I $ill have some photographs ta4en# Oh, youre a great man# There $as no need of that# /ar4ed -Theme 8 (u&7ect.1 Across the bay, the found the other &oat# In February 1979, he $as a$arded the 2eorge Cross# When you get down there, ou $ill see# Inside him, $as rising an urge to do something# That I don9t 4no$# What she had elt he never 4ne$# Theme in interrogative sentences 3olarit -yes/no. 'uestions1 Are you interested in that: Would you li4e a cup of tea:

Oh, so is that our plan: !ut don"t any o them 4no$: !y the way, were you serious a&out moving to ;apan: Wh%'uestions1 What are ou doing here: Where are $e going: Then, why does she &other: Theme in im#erative sentences Wa$e me up &efore seven# %ont disturb me $hile I9m ta4ing a nap# &ets have a loo4 at this recipe# Oh, #lease sto# it# Theme in im#erative sentences Wa$e me up &efore seven# %ont disturb me $hile I9m ta4ing a nap# &ets have a loo4 at this recipe# Oh, #lease sto# it# &ong thematic constituents The question of who we are and what kind of creature is a human being has &een $ith us for a long time# Only a person who knew that he was going to be here at this time could have 4illed him# The fact that the role of the parents and the elders does not appear to be relevant to the younger generation is an important factor in the intergenerational gap and the alienation of the outh# 2enerall spea4ing" the distinction &et$een theme and rheme is ver similar to the traditional grammatical distinction &et$een sub ect and predicate. *ut the real function of this opposition is not onl to explain the structure of individual sentences# In text" theme has t$o functions1 <. to connect &ac4 to previous stretches of discourse maintaining a coherent point of vie$" =. to connect for$ard and contri&ute to the development of the text# Theme and rheme are not grammatical notions# The can &e used to account for the accepta&ilit " rather than the grammaticalit " of a se'uence in a given context#

Example1 +e had lunch in a nice restaurant# It $as the car that &ro4e do$n# Although these are t$o perfectl grammatical sentences" the change of theme renders the se'uence incoherent# In context" grammaticalit does not necessaril guarantee coherence# *esides complementing grammaticalit $ith accepta&ilit and naturalness" the theme%rheme distinction can &e useful to explain the organi!ation and development of different t pes of text# In this area" emphasis is traditionall placed on theme rather than on rheme" &ecause its organi!ational role is more important# The selection of the theme for an individual clause is not so important in itself" &ut the overall choice and ordering of themes pla s a crucial role in organi!ing a text# ,or instance" the choice of a recurring theme in a text can provide a point of orientation" and should &e maintained in a translation# At this level" translators generall face t$o main possi&ilities1 <. If the elements placed in theme position in the (T can &e easil placed in theme position in the TT" the development of the t$o texts $ill &e more or less the same# =. If the thematic patterning of the original cannot &e preserved" the cannot ignore the cumulative effect of thematic choices and the must find another $a to maintain a sense of continuit or to provide a point of orientation# Imagine" for example that an English $riter decided to place a date in the theme position of a se'uence of sentences# An Italian translation could easil preserve this pattern# *ut if" as a st listic choice" he5she decided to place a pronoun in the theme position" $hich is 'uite natural in English &ecause the pronoun is al$a s expressed" in Italian it $ould sound 'uite unnatural# (o the translator $ould have to find another unif ing element# Another area in $hich the notions of theme and rheme can &e useful relates to mar4ed and unmar4ed structures# The main elements in a clause are sub ect, predicator, ob ect, complement and ad unct# In linguistics" an ad'unct is a sentence element that esta&lishes the circumstances in $hich the action or state expressed & the ver& ta4e place# ,or example" time and place1 Yesterday !ane sa" the dog in the garden. An ad7unct is an adver&ial sentence element and it is al$a s extranuclear" i#e# it can &e removed and a grammaticall $ell%formed sentence remains# Thematic choice involves selecting one of these elements as theme & placing it at the &eginning of the clause# This choice is al$a s important &ecause it esta&lishes the point of vie$ of the spea4er5$riter# *ut some choices are more mar4ed than others# The decision to put an element at the &eginning of a clause $hen it could occur in an other position reveals the intention of the spea4er5$riter to highlight it# Another important aspect is the expectedness or unexpectedness of a choice# The less expected a choice is" the more meaning it carries# 3lacing a certain element in theme position does not necessaril constitute a mar4ed thematic choice# The degree of mar4edness $ill depend on the fre'uenc $ith $hich that element generall occurs in theme position and on ho$ mo&ile it is in the clause# As $e said" in English" a su&7ect in the initial position is not mar4ed" &ecause that is its natural place" $hile a su&7ect pronoun expressed in Italian in the same position $ould &e much more meaningful#

In mar4ed thematic structures" theme position is associated $ith local prominence % to emphasi!e a certain element $ithin a clause# >heme position" on the other hand" is prominent at an overall discourse level" &ecause rheme is $hat the spea4er5$riter has to sa a&out the theme# +hat is then the function of mar4ed theme: Let us examine it in English# Linguists distinguish three t pes of mar4ed theme1 fronted theme, predicated theme and identifying theme. -<. ,ronted theme (tarting from an unmar4ed structure such as My sister played the piano at the party, $e shall suggest a num&er of possi&le thematic structures# a. ,ronting of time or place ad7unct At the party my sister played the piano.

This is not a highl mar4ed structure" &ecause locative and temporal ad7uncts are rather mo&ile in English and also an Italian translation $ould not pose an pro&lem# &. ,ronting of o&7ect or complement The piano #is "hat$ she played at the party

This structure is more mar4ed &ecause usuall " &oth in English and in Italian" the position of o&7ects and complements is fairl restricted# (o in &oth languages it $ould suggest a possi&le contrast -e#g# not the violin. c. ,ronting of predicator She promised she "ould play the piano, and play she did This is a much more mar4ed and unusual structure and in a translation it $ould re'uire a rearranging of the sentence and perhaps an addition1 A%e%a promesso di suonare il piano, e in effetti lo ha suonato. -=. 3redicated theme 3redicating a theme involves the use of a cleft structure -introduced & &t. to place an element at the &eginning of a clause# &t "as my sister "ho played the piano at the party

Li4e all mar4ed themes" predicated themes often impl a contrast# (tarting the sentence $ith &t "as my sister suggests that it $as not someone else $ho pla ed the piano# This 4ind of shift does not usuall create an pro&lem in the Italian translation#

-?. Identif ing theme Identif ing themes are similar to predicated themes# *ut instead of using a cleft structure introduced & &t" place an element in the theme position & turning it into a nominali!ation introduced & a "h'structure -$hat.# What my sister did "as play the piano. Also this t pe of shift implies a contrast 1 She played the piano, she did not sing. A translator should &e a$are of the level of mar4edness of a given structure in the source and in the target language and decide accordingl if s5he can shift a theme $ithout misinterpreting the intentions of the original# &nformation structure( gi%en and ne" In contrast to Thematic structure" Information structure is not directl a feature of the clause" &ut of the information unit" and it is hearer%oriented# Information units are signalled in the spo4en language & the tone group# Each tone group has some section $hich is presented as Ne$ information# The tonic foot -the location of the so%called sentence accent. indicates @the culmination of $hat is Ne$@# 55 ;ohn 5 lost 5 his $allet 55 55 ;ohn 5 lost his $allet 55 In addition to information $hich is presented as Ne$" information units ma contain information $hich is presented as 2iven" &ut the do not necessaril do so# Ne$ information is information $hich is presented as @ne$s$orth @%%as $orth of the listener@s attention" $hile 2iven information is presented as information $hich is recovera&le in some $a # Three points are important here# ,irst" 2iven and Ne$ are features of the context rather than of the language s stem as such# 0ne can onl decide $hat part of a message is ne$ and $hat part is given $ithin a linguistic or situational context# (econd" it is not true that all information $hich happens to &e ne$ -unfamiliar. to a listener is presented as Ne$" nor is it true that all information $hich is presented as Ne$ is in fact ne$ -unfamiliar. information for the listener -even ta4ing into account issues concerning differences in the 4no$ledge and &eliefs of the spea4er and listener.# Third" the functions of Ne$ and 2iven are overtl signalled onl in the spo4en language# Clearl " $ritten language must present some information as Ne$ too# 0ne means & $hich this tas4 is achieved is through the correlation of the tone group $ith clause structure# A num&er of linguists have found a tendenc to place Ne$ information to$ard the end of the information unit# This tendenc is referred to $ith the term @end focus#@ In translation" pro&lems might arise $hen a principle such as Aend focusB clashes $ith more &asic grammatical principles in the target language# ,or example" one of the &asic grammatical principles in English involves placing the su&7ect &efore the predicate# In translating from Italian" $hich allo$s the fronting of ver&s" a translator might &e tempted to ignore Aend focusB to preserve the natural structure of English#

) poi arri%* Luigi. And then Luigi arri%ed. /an of the devices used to signal information status are common to &oth spo4en and $ritten language# ,or example" in &oth spo4en and $ritten English -and Italian." definiteness is generall associated $ith given information and indefiniteness $ith ne$ information# For example, The girl "al+ed into the room suggests that the identit of the girl has alread &een esta&lished# +hile A girl "al+ed into the room suggests that a ne$ element is &eing introduced# In most languages" some items are inherentl given &ecause of their meaning# ,or instance" pronouns" $hose givenness is determined & the context# (ince in $ritten language $e cannot use stress" $e need to use s ntactic devices to perform a similar function# ,or example" one of the most important functions of cleft structures is to signal information status# In cleft structures" the item in theme position is presented as ne$ and the item in rheme position as given# &t "as my sister #ne"$ "ho played the piano #gi%en$ This 4ind of device must &e maintained in translation# Although stress is not availa&le in $ritten language" it is often implicit in some structures that involve emphasis# +e generall assume that stress $ill fall on Co $hen it is used for emphasis" as in I do li4e it. The same applies to the repetition of an auxiliar " especiall if it could &e replaced & a contracted form# It9s time ou $ent home# I am going# In $ritten language" also punctuation can &e used as a device for signalling information structure# ,or example to distinguish &et$een a defining relative clause and a non%defining one#

The man $ho called esterda left no address# The man" $ho called esterda " left no address# In the first example" "ho called yesterday identifies the man and therefore does not add ne$ information# In the second" the commas are used to signal that "ho called yesterday is ne$ information# Cifferent languages have different devices for signalling information structure and translators must develop a sensitivit to the various signalling s stems# Another area that can pose pro&lems in translation is the a&ilit to determine $hen a certain item of information can &e treated as given# Usuall a given element is an element $hich is recovera&le &ecause it has &een mentioned &efore# *ut information ma &e treated & the spea4er5$riter as given for other reasons# *ecause it is predicta&le" or contextuall o&vious# An important 'uestion related to translation is ho$ long an element can &e assumed to remain in the hearer5reader consciousness" and conse'uentl can &e elided -a&ridging. or repeated -expanding.#

0ne possi&le criterion is the num&er of sentences in $hich the item $as not mentioned# Another could &e a change of scene# Another point to 4eep in mind is that givenness is assigned & the spea4er5$riter and as such does not necessaril correlate $ith the realit of the situation# A spea4er5$riter ma decide to present an element as given even $hen there is no sufficient reason for doing so# This is usuall done for rhetoric reasons and is ver common in political propaganda# 3resenting a piece of information as given suggests that it is alread esta&lished and non%negotia&le# 0n the other hand" an element $hich has alread &een mentioned ma &e presented as ne$ &ecause the spea4er5 $riter $ants to present it in a different light# /ar4ed and unmar4ed information structure Unli4e thematic structure" information structure is not reali!ed & the se'uencing of elements# As $e said" in spo4en language it is signalled & tonicit #

;ohn -ne$. $as appointed chairman -given.# .# ;ohn -given. $as appointed chairman -ne$.# In $ritten language" mar4ed information is often signalled & means of t pographical or punctuation devices#