2010 IASSym Comp

Power System CalculationsPart Calculations Part II
Kurt B. Ederhoff, Ph.D., P.E.

2010 Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting - Houston, TX October 3-7, 2010
I Introduction d i
Topics Per Unit Basis Symmetrical S t i lC Components t Component Modelling Faults l & Sequence Networks k
POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II
IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE
P Unit Per U i C Conversion i

Per Unit Definition
A quantity a (voltage, current, power, impedance, admittance, , etc.) ) in per p unit is defined as the ratio of that quantity to a selected base quantity of the same nature (i.e. voltage, current, power, i impedance, d admittance, d itt etc.) t )
a[per unit]
[units] a[actual units] a = [actual units] a[pu] = [units] ab ab
P Unit Per U i
Example: If V = 120 [ [V] ] and we select Vb = 80 [ [V], ], then
V
[pu]
120 [V] = = 1.5 [pu] 80 [V]
P Unit Per U i
Percent Definition
If the per unit value is multiplied by 100, the quantity q y is expressed p in p percent with respect p to the base quantity. For the F th previous i example, l we say the th voltage lt i is 150% (1.5 x 100) of the base voltage of 80 [V].
P Unit Per U i
Per unit conversion requires us to select a base quantity How do we make the selection?
Answer: Select two quantities as the base from the following: voltage, current, power, impedance, admittance
Which do we choose?
Answer: A Generally G ll choose h voltage lt and d power.
P Unit Per U i
Why Voltage and Power?
Voltage. For each voltage level in our system, we know the rated voltage of equipment, and even if loading changes, changes the voltage does not deviate too much from the rated value. Power. The range of power flowing in a section of the system is quadratically related with the voltage voltage. As such, the range of expected power flow is known for an area. Note, for transmission level analysis, it is c sto a to select a base power customary o e of 100 MVA MVA. Note: The base power is usually selected to be the same for the entire network.
C Conventions i
Unless specifically stated, stated the following quantities are always complex numbers: V, , I, , Z, , Y, , S, ,t All other quantities are real numbers, such as R, X, G, B, L, C, P, Q
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T Terminology i l
V I Z Y S t R X G B Voltage Current Impedance Admittance Complex Power Turn Ratio Resistance Reactance Conductance Susceptance L C P Q |S| Inductance Capacitance Active Power Reactive Power Apparent Power
Pet Peeve #1: There is no real power" anywhere here
11
P Unit Per U i
Selecting Quantities
Vb = Vf -f Sb = S3f
Voltage y selected as the nominal p phase-to-phase p voltage g at each Usually voltage level Power y selected in the range g of 3 3-phase p p power flowing g in the Usually network (i.e. whatever network is being analyzed) For transmission level analysis, it is customary to select a base power of 100 MVA. The base power is usually selected to be the same for the entire network.
POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE
12
P Unit Per U i F Formulas l

[A] If - n b = [VA] S3 f b
3V
[V] f -f b
Vf[V] - n b =
Vf[V] -f b 3
[W ] b
(V
2 [V] f -f b
[VA] 3f b
[Siemens] b
1 = [W] Zb
13
P Unit Per U i f for E Equipment i

Per unit quantities for equipment is defined at the equipment level
Ex: 25 5 MVA, , 110-33 0 33 kV transformer a so e Z = 8.3% 4 kV, k 1500 hp, h 0.88 PF, 93.5% eff ff Xd = 0.155 pu
Ex:
Smotor
1500 [hp] 0.746 [hp/kW] = Sb = 0.88 PF 0.935 eff = 1360 [kVA]

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Equipment ratings vary Selection of base quantities vary Analysis requires use of a common base
A[pu.old base]
[units] A[units] A = [units] ; A[pu.new base] = [units] Ab.old Ab.new
[units] [pu.new base] [units] A[pu.old base] Ab.old = A Ab b ld b.new [units] Ab.old b old [units] Ab.new
A[pu.new base] = A[pu.old base]

15

Particularly for impedances Remember: [V] 2 (Vb ) [W ] Zb = Sb[VA] [W ] [pu.new base] [pu.old base] Z b.old Z = Z [W ] Z
[V] V b.old = Z [pu.old base] [V] V
b.new
2 [VA] Sb.new [VA] S b.old
b.new
16
Ad Advantages Of P Per Unit U i

Equipment Parameters. For a given type of equipment, and disregarding the size and voltage, the parameters in per unit are within a narrow, known range j networks of different Eliminate Turn Ratio. For two adjacent voltage levels, if the selected base power is the same throughout and the selected base voltages match the turn ratio of the transformer between the networks, then all quantities in per unit have the same value regardless of which voltage level they are defined. In essence, the transformer is eliminated. Eliminate Coefficients. For almost all equations with quantities defined in per unit, the numerical coefficients are eliminated. Voltage. In per unit, the line-to-neutral voltage equals the phase-tophase voltage, and during normal operation both quantities are close l to unity. i
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History Hi
Charles LeGeyt Fortescue
1876 Born in York Factory, Manitoba 1898 First engineer to graduate from Queens University at Kingston in Ontario Joined Westinghouse after graduation and spent his entire career there 1913 Co-authored h d paper on measurement of f hi high h voltage using sphere gap, a method still used to this day (97 years later) Obtained 185 patents in his career in design transformers, insulators, and DC and AC power circuits
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History Hi
Charles LeGeyt Fortescue (cont (contd) d)
1921 Elected AIEE Fellow 1930 Paper in Electric Journal that outlined direct stroke theory, which is said to have completely revolutionized the approach to the li h i problem. lightning bl L Led d to adoption d i of f overhead h d static lines. 1936 Died in December at age 60
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History Hi
Charles LeGeyt Fortescue (cont (contd) d)
1918 - Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE) included the classic paper f Symmetrical y Co-Ordinates Applied pp to the Method of Solution of Polyphase Networks
88 pages long 24 additional pages of discussion 303 numbered b d equations i bewildering exhibit of subscripts to be found in it is something that will, well, make one pause Vladimir Karapetoff suggested that the term symmetrical components was a more correct and descriptive expression
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S Symmetrical i l C Co-Ordinates O di
What are Symmetrical Components?
Any set of N unbalanced phasors that is, any such polyphase signal can be expressed as the sum of N symmetrical sets of balanced phasors. phasors Only a single frequency component is represented by the phasors. This is overcome by using techniques such as Fourier or LaPlace transforms. transforms Absolutely general and rigorous and can be applied to both steady state and transient problems. It is thoroughly h hl established bl h d as preeminently l the h only l effective method of analyzing general polyphase network problems
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Th Three-Phase Ph S Sequence N Networks k

Three Three-Phase Phase Systems
Three sets of symmetrical components, where each set is referred to as a sequence. phasors, , called the p positive sequence q , has First set of p the same phase sequence as the system under study (say ABC) The second set, the negative sequence, has the reverse phase h sequence ( (BAC) AC) The third set, the zero sequence, phasors A, B and C are in phase with each other. Method M th d converts t any set t of f th three phasors h i t th into three sets of symmetrical phasors, which makes asymmetric analysis more tractable.
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S Symmetrical i lC Components
Set of three phasors, phasors say Xa, Xb and Xc can be represented as a sum of the three sequence sets X a = X a 0 + X a1 + X a 2 X b = X b 0 + X b1 + X b 2 X c = X c 0 + X c1 + X c 2 where X a 0 , X b 0 , X c 0 is the zero sequence q set X a1 , X b1 , X c1 is the positive sequence set X a 2 , X b 2 , X c 2 is the negative sequence set
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Only three of the sequence values are unique, unique X a , X a1 , X a 2 , we define a The others can be determined. First, complex operator a. a e j120 = 1120 a 2 = e j 240 = 1240 3 j 360 a = e = 1360 = 1 1 + a + a2 = 0
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Then, we relate phases within a sequence to the reference, which is a-phase in this example X a0 : X b0 = X a0 , X c0 = X a0 X a1 : X b1 = a 2 X a1 X c 1 = aX a1 X a 2 : X b 2 = aX a 2 X c2 = a2 X a2
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Rearrange the equations X a = X a 0 + X a1 + X a 2 2 X b = X a 0 + a X a1 + aX a 2 X c = X a 0 + aX a1 + a 2 X a 2 which in matrix form looks like this: 1 1 1 X a 0 Xa 2 a X a1 X b = 1 a X 2 1 a a X a 2 c
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Using simple notation, we can convert from symmetrical component reference to the phase reference as follows: X phase = TX sym where h 1 1 1 2 T 1 a a 2 1 a a Of course, course the following equation can convert from the phase reference to the symmetrical component reference: X sym = T -1 X phase h
29
The inverse of the transformation matrix is 1 1 1 1 -1 2 T = 1 a a 3 2 1 a a which in detail, results in the following equations: 1 1 1 X a X a0 1 2 X a1 = 1 a a X b X 3 2 1 a a X c a 2
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S Sym. Components C Example E l 1

Let I a 100 I = I b = 10 I 10 c I s = T -1 I 1 1 1 = 1 a 3 1 a 2
Then
1 100 2 a 10 = 100 a 10 0
31

If 100 I = 10 10 0 Is = 0 100
Then
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If Va Vb Vc V0 V1 V2 8.00 = 6.0 6 0 - 90 16.0 143.1 2.0143.1 = 9.8 9 818 18.4 4 4.3 86.2
Then
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34
35
36
O Way One W to Vi Visualize li

Positive Sequence
Can be thought of as a source that rotates a machine in a p particular direction
Negative Sequence
This source rotates a machine in a direction opposite of that of the positive sequence
Zero Sequence
C Causes no rotational t ti lf force, but b t instead i t df forms an oscillating (not rotating) field in the machine
37
C Comments on S Sym. C Components

The transformations apply only for linear systems, that is, systems with constant parameters (impedance, admittance) independent of voltages and currents The quantities used for X can be phase-to-neutral or phase-to-phase voltages, or line or line-to-line currents. For some connections, the zero sequence component is always zero
Line currents for an ungrounded wye connection Line currents for a delta connection Line-to-line voltages for a delta connection
38
M More C Comments
Symmetrical components is a important tool for analyzing unbalanced states
Three-phase unsymmetrical network and state is converted to three symmetrical networks and states Symmetrical networks can be solved using single phase techniques With Wi h symmetrical i l components we solve l three h interconnected symmetrical networks using single phase analysis, which is easy. Once solved, we use transformation equations to obtain phase quantities
39
M More C Comments
Equipment Parameters
Symmetrical components has advantage that parameters in system p y components p are easier to define Because each sequence is a symmetrical threephase h case, the h parameters can b be d defined fi d using i typical three-phase tests.
40
Complex Power with Symmetrical Components
For wye connections S = V I + V I +V I + Vn ( I a + I b + I c )

* an a * bn b * n a * b b * cn c *
= (Van + V ) I + (Vbn + Vn ) I b* + (Vcn + Vn ) I c* = Va I a* + V I + Vc I c*

41
For delta connections * * * S = Vab I ab + Vbc I bc +Vca I ca * * * = (Va - Vb ) I ab + (Vb - Vc ) I bc + (Vc - Va ) I ca = Va ( I ab - I ca ) + Vb ( I bc - I ab ) + Vc ( I ca - I bc ) = Va I a* + Vb I b* + Vc I c*

42

In matrix form I a T S = Va Vb Vc I b = Vphase I* phase Ic We have the following transforms Vphase = TVsym I phase = TI sym Then the complex power becomes T T * * S = Vsy T T I sy sym sym
43

1 0 0 T * T T = 3I identity = 3 0 1 0 0 0 1 Then the complex power becomes T * S = 3 Vsym I sym = 3(Va 0 I a*0 + Va1 I a*1 + Va 2 I a*2 ) If the voltages and current are defined in per unit, p , the "3" disappears pp
The product
44
U of Use fS Symmetrical i lC Components

Consider the following wye connected load I n = I a + Ib + I c Va = ZY I a + Z n I n Va = ( ZY + Z n )I a + Z n I b + Z n I c Vb = Z n I a + ( ZY + Z n )I b + Z n I c Vc = Z n I a + Z n I b + ( ZY + Z n )I c
Va ZY + Z n Vb = Z n V Z c n
Zn ZY + Z n Zn
I a Zn Zn Ib ZY + Z n I c
45

Va ZY + Z n ZY Vb = Z n V Z c n V = ZI V = TVsym I = TI sym TVsym = ZTI sym Vsym = T -1ZTI sym Z y + 3Z n -1 T ZT = 0 0
Zn + Zn Zn
I a Zn Zn Ib ZY + Z n I c
0 Zy 0
0 0 Z y
46

V0 ZY + 3 Z n 0 V1 = 0 ZY 0 0 V2 Systems are decoupled V0 = ( Z Y + 3 Z n ) I 0 V1 = ZY I1 V2 = Z Y I 2 0 I 0 0 I1 ZY I 2
52
Generators
Fault Behavior
Sudden change in voltage and current, such as those in faults, , produces p transients Armature current divided into two components
Symmetrical AC component whose associated component in i the h fi field ld is i a DC current DC component whose associated component in the field is an AC current
53
Generators
Symmetrical Component Modelling
Principle concern is with symmetrical component and its associated constants DC component often eliminated from studies
Usually not necessary to apply or set protective relays If necessary (e.g. circuit breaker applications), various factors are available from standards, , manufacturers, , or other sources
For synchronous machines, symmetrical AC component can be resolved into three distinct components
Subtransient component the double prime () values Transient component the single prime () values The steady-state component
54
Generators
Subtransient Component
Occurs during onset of fault ) approaches armature Subtransient reactance (Xd) leakage reactance but is higher as a result of damper windings, and so on. Subtransient time constant (Td) is very low (because damper windings have relatively high resistance) typically around 0 resistance), 0.01 010 0.05 05 seconds
55
Generators
Transient Component
Armature current demagnetizes the field and decrease flux linkages with the field winding ) includes effect of both Transient reactance (Xd) armature and field leakages and is higher than armature leakage reactance, and thus higher than the subtransient reactance Transient i time i constant (Td) varies i typically i ll f from 0.35 to 3.3 seconds Transient i eventually ll d decays For faults, eventually becomes unsaturated direct axis reactance (Xd)
Steady-State Component
56
Generators
57
Generators
Negative Sequence
Subtransient reactance can be measured by blocking the rotor with the field winding shorted and applying single phase voltage across any two terminals As position of rotor is changed, measured reactance varies considerably if machine has salient poles without dampers (and very little damper winding exists) or if the machine has a round rotor For negative sequence, similar phenomenon exists except t rotor t i is at t 2f with ith relation l ti t to fi field ld set t up b by applied voltage Good approximation: X 2 = 1 2 Xd + Xq
58
Generators
Zero Sequence
Varies quite a lot Depends largely on pitch and breadth factors of armature winding Generally, X0 is much smaller than X1 and X2 values
59
Generators
60
G Generators &N Network kE Equivalents i l

Strong Strong Remote Systems
Assume X1 = X2 Calculate X1 from 3phase fault duty Calculate C l l t X0 from f SLG fault duty
I d i M Induction Machines hi
Positive Sequence Changes from stalled to running ~0.15 5p pu stalled (Xd) ) 0.91.0 pu running Negative Sequence Remains e a se effectively ect e y co constant sta t ~0.15 pu (Xd) Zero Sequence 0.0 if wye ungrounded or delta connected
62
T Transformers f
Modelling
Usually modelled as a series impedance Shunt parameters can be calculated by review of transformer tests. Shunt parameters dont generally impact analysis Transformer winding configuration determines sequence networks Three winding transformers have interesting sequence networks, but close inspections shows them to be intuitive
T Transformer f Sequence S Networks N k
64
3 Winding Wi di T Transformer f I Impedance d

3 Winding Transformer Impedance
Usually given as a winding-to-winding (delta) impedances in per cent q wye y impedances p for sequence q Convert to equivalent network analysis Often times, the base power is different for various impedances Ex: 100 MVA auto with 35 MVA tertiary May show ZHM on 100 MVA base May show ZHL and ZML on 35 MVA base Must convert delta impedance to common base before converting to equivalent wye network
65
3 Winding Wi di T Transformer f I Impedance d

Delta-Wye Delta Wye Conversion Formula
ZH = 1 2 ( Z HM + Z HL - Z ML ) ZM = 1 2 ( Z HM + Z ML - Z HL ) ZL = 1 2 ( Z HL + Z ML - Z HM )
66
Zi Z Transformer Zig-Zag T f
67
T Transmission i i Lines Li
Positive and Negative Sequence Impedance
Passive component Assume line transpositions
m0 Dm L1 = L2 = ln [H/m] 2p Ds X = w L = 2p fL Dm -7 X 1 = X 2 = 4p 10 ln [W/m] Ds R1 = R2 = conductor AC resistance (tables)
68
69
Zero Sequence Impedance
More involved Assumptions
Zero sequence current divides equally between conductors Conductors C d are parallel ll l to ground d Earth is a solid with a plane surface, infinite in extent, , and of uniform conductivity y
None of the assumptions are true We get acceptable error with these assumptions Line design affects calculation techniques
70
T Transmission i i Li Line Z Zero S Sequence
71
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73
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75
Wh We What W Wont W C Cover

What We Wont Won t Cover
Capacitive Reactance of Transmission Lines Mutual Impedance of Transmission Lines Cable C bl Modelling M d lli (look (l k up i in t table bl or contact t t manufacturer)
So Whats the General Idea?

Produce a positive, negative, and zero sequence model for your components. Simple model for equipment is a series impedance Connect the models according to system topology Analyze imbalances by connecting systems
77
F l Faults
Definition
A fault is any condition in a system considered abnormal yp Basic Types
Short-Circuit Faults Open-Circuit Faults Combined Faults
Shunt Faults

Three-Phase (3Ph) Phase-To-Phase (LL) ( ) Phase-To-Phase-To-Ground (LLG) Single-Line-To-Ground (SLG)
78
F l Faults
Series Faults
Open phase Open neutral Two open phases Impedance in a phase
Combination Faults
See connection diagrams
79
Sequence Connections Shunt Faults
80
Sequence Connections Shunt Faults
81
Sequence Connections Series Faults
82
Sequence Connections Series Faults
83
Sequence Connections Combination Faults
84
E Example l 1 System S Parameters P
85
86
87
Example 2 Delta Wye Transformer 3-Ph Fault
88
Example 2 Delta Wye Transformer 3-Ph Fault
89
Example 3 Delta Wye Transformer SLG Fault
90
Example 3 Delta Wye Transformer SLG Fault
91
Example 4 Delta Wye Transformer LL Fault
92
Example 4 Delta Wye Transformer LL Fault
93
D l W Summary Delta-Wye S
3 3-Phase Fault LL Fault
Behaves as expected, same current both sides Must coordinate full fault current on primary with 0.866 factor on secondary (i.e. coordination interval) For solidly grounded system, shift damage curve y 0.577 577 to p protect against g by full fault current on secondary
SLG Fault F lt
94
E Example l 5 Resistor R i Eff Effect
95
E Example l 6 Open O Ph Phase F Fault l
96
E Example l 6 Open O Ph Phase F Fault l

2010 IASSym Comp

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Power System CalculationsPart Calculations Part II

Kurt B. Ederhoff, Ph.D., P.E.

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

P Unit Per U i C Conversion i

[units] a[actual units] a = [actual units] a[pu] = [units] ab ab

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

120 [V] = = 1.5 [pu] 80 [V]

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

Pet Peeve #1: There is no real power" anywhere here

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

P Unit Per U i F Formulas l

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

P Unit Per U i f for E Equipment i

1500 [hp] 0.746 [hp/kW] = Sb = 0.88 PF 0.935 eff = 1360 [kVA]

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

P Unit Per U i C Conversion i

A[pu.new base] = A[pu.old base]

P Unit Per U i C Conversion i

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

Ad Advantages Of P Per Unit U i

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

Th Three-Phase Ph S Sequence N Networks k

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

S Sym. Components C Example E l 1

S Sym. Components C Example E l 2

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

S Sym. Components C Example E l 3

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II

IEEE IAS 2010 - Copyright: IEEE

POWER SYSTEM CALCULATIONSPART II